1.

The flow chart summarises the response of lymphocytes in- the blood to a bacterial infection.
B a c te riu m e n te rs b lo o d stre a m

B a c te riu m d e te c te d b y ly m p h o c y te s

C lo th in g o f ly m p h o c y te s b y m ito s is

P la s m a c e lls
s e c r e te a n tib o d y

(a)

M e m o ry c e lls
re m a in in ly m p h n o d e s

Explain what is meant by the term antibody.

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(1)

(b)

Suggest why the cloning of lymphocytes by mitosis is important in the production

of an antibody.
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(2)

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(c)

The process shown in the flow chart would lead to active immunity Explain how
active immunity differs from passive immunity.
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(3)
(Total 6 marks)

2.

Children are vaccinated against a number of diseases. A vaccine contains diseasecausing organisms which have been made harmless but which act as antigens. In
order to achieve full protection, it is often necessary to give two injections of a vaccine.
The graph below shows the change in the level of antibodies in the body following two
injections of a vaccine against a disease.

A n tib o d y le v e l
/ a rb itra ry u n its

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5
4
3
2
1
0

F irs t
in je c tio n

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T im e / w e e k s

Second
in je c tio n

(a)

(i)

Compare the changes in the level of antibodies in the body following the
first and second injections of the vaccine.
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(ii)

Explain how vaccination can bring about an increase in the level of

antibodies.
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(b)

Explain how passive immunity differs from active immunity.

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(c)

Antibodies are just one of the many types of protein found in blood plasma. The
table below shows the protein content of lymph, tissue fluid and blood plasma.
Protein content/g dm

Lymph

26

Tissue fluid

19

Blood plasma

69

Compare the protein content of lymph with that of tissue fluid and blood plasma
and suggest a reason for the differences.
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(2)
(Total 11 marks)

3.

Dangerous blood clots in arteries, such as coronary arteries, can be dissolved by

injecting streptokinase into the bloodstream. Streptokinase is an enzyme that rapidly

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digests blood clots. It is produced by bacteria and can be used as a treatment for
patients with blocked arteries. The first treatment with streptokinase is much more
effective than a second treatment. The graph below shows the concentration of antistreptokinase antibodies in the blood following the first injection of streptokinase, and
when streptokinase is injected again ten weeks later.
14
12
10
A n ti-s tre p to k in a s e
a n tib o d ie s / a rb itra ry u n its
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S e c o n d in je c tio n
6
4
F irs t in je c tio n

1
2
3
4
5
T im e s in c e in je c tio n / w e e k s

(a)

Streptokinase acts as an antigen when injected into the blood. Explain what is
meant by an antigen.
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(b)

(i)

With reference to the graph, compare the effects of the first and second
injections on the concentration of antibodies in the blood over the first four
weeks after injection.
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(ii)

Explain the differences in the immune responses to the first and the second
injections.
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(c)

Suggest why the manufacturers of streptokinase recommend that it should not be

used to treat a second blood clot in the same patient soon after the first
treatment.
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(d)

State why the injection of a different enzyme would not be affected by the
response to streptokinase.
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(1)
(Total 12 marks)

4.

(a)

Distinguish between the terms active immunity and passive immunity.

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(b)

Describe the causes of pneumoconiosis.

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(Total 6 marks)

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5.

Mycobacterium bovis is a bacterium which can be injected into the body to stimulate
active immunity against tuberculosis (TB). This is known as the BCG vaccine. TB is
caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium that is closely related to M. bovis.
(a)

Explain what is meant by active immunity.

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(b)

Describe the role of B cells in active immunity.

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Another common bacterium, Mycobacterium fortuitum is harmless and often found in

soil. In a study to compare the effects of different Mycobacterium species, mice were
infected with Mycobacterium as shown in the diagram opposite. Enough time was
allowed between injections for an immune response to develop.
B a c te riu m s p e c ie s
in je c te d

T re a tm e n t A

T re a tm e n t B

T re a tm e n t C

M o u s e d ie s o f T B

M o u s e s u rv iv e s

M o u s e d ie s o f T B

M . fo r tu itu m

M . b o v is

M . tu b e rc u lo s is

(c)

Explain why the mouse died of TB after treatment A, but the mouse used for
treatment B did not die of TB.
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(d)

The BCG vaccine needs the M. bovis cells to grow and divide in order to provide
protection. Suggest reasons why the BCG vaccine in treatment C failed to protect
the mouse against TB.
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(e)

M. fortuitum often infects wounds in young children. Suggest one possible

consequence of this in later life.
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(1)
(Total 12 marks)

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6.

A new technique for vaccinating people involves injecting them with DNA.
Viruses have proteins on their coats that are coded for by their DNA. The genes for
producing viral proteins can be isolated and inserted into loops of DNA (plasmids).
Plasmids can enter human cells which will then produce the viral proteins. The proteins
will become part of the surface membrane of the human cell.
The immune system will recognise these proteins as foreign and respond by producing
antibodies and T killer cells.
The process is summarised for one protein in the following diagram.
P la s m id in c lu d in g
g e n e fro m v ira l D N A

P ro te in s y n th e s is

V ira l p ro te in
p re s e n t o n c e ll
su rfa c e m e m b ra n e

C e ll in h u m a n
body
N u c le u s

P ro d u c tio n o f
a n tib o d ie s a n d
T k ille r c e lls b y
im m u n e s y s te m

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(a)

Explain why the response of the immune system to the viral proteins is an
example of active immunity.
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(2)

(b)

Explain how active immunity provides immunity against future infections by the
virus.
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(c)

The table below compares the production and distribution of vaccines made
using traditional methods with those made using DNA.
DNA vaccine

Traditional vaccine

Time to develop vaccine

against new strain of virus

23 weeks

46 months

Time to produce enough

doses for effective
protection of population

23 months

23 years

Treatment during
distribution

No special treatment

Constant refrigeration

Use the information in the table to suggest why the DNA vaccine is likely to be
more effective at preventing the spread of a new strain of virus.
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(d)

A traditional vaccine involves the injection of viral protein into the body. This
usually stimulates the production of antibodies but not T killer cells. Suggest how
the use of viral DNA might be more effective than viral protein in producing
immunity to a virus.
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(Total 11 marks)

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7.

Vaccines are widely used to protect individuals from developing the symptoms of a
range of bacterial and viral infections. The vaccine contains one or more of the
antigens found on the pathogen. One such example is a vaccine for influenza (flu) that
contains a cocktail of antigens from viruses that cause this disease.

C o n c e n tr a tio n o f a n tib o d ie s in b lo o d p la s m a / d m

The graph below shows the changes in concentration of antibody in the blood plasma
following vaccination of an individual.

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

10

15

20

25

30

T im e a fte r v a c c in a tio n / d a y s
v a c c in a tio n

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(a)

Describe and explain the changes that occur in the concentration of antibodies in
the blood plasma following vaccination.
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(b)

Mutations frequently occur in the flu virus resulting in a change in the antigens
present on its surface.
(i)

Explain the meaning of the term mutation.

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(ii)

Suggest why the vaccine contains a cocktail of antigens.

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(2)
(Total 10 marks)

8.

The scientific document you have studied is adapted from articles on disease and
epidemics in New Scientist, Biological Sciences Review and the website of AVERT, an
international HIV and AIDS charity. Use the information from the document and your
own knowledge to answer the following questions.
(a)

Describe, using specific examples, evidence that the Black Death was caused by
a virus.
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(3)

(b)

Suggest reasons why it is likely that a vaccine for bird flu can be produced fairly
easily, whereas no effective vaccine for malaria has yet been produced.
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(c)

Explain how small samples of DNA from a burial site can be amplified and how
such samples might be used to find the identity of an unknown virus.
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(d)

Describe the risks of using genetically modified organisms.

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(e)

A hybrid virus with a mixture of genes from the H5N1 flu virus and the human flu
virus could be produced in cells infected with both. Explain how a hybrid virus
could be
(i)

particularly dangerous to humans

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(ii)

useful in producing a vaccine.

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(f)

Explain what is meant by a breathtaking selection pressure, and how this might have
led to very high frequency of the mutant form of CCR5.
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(g)

The South African government decided not to allow the use of ARV drugs for the
treatment of HIV infected people. Suggest possible reasons for their decision.
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(5)

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(h)

Use information from the two studies of HIV infection in South Africa to describe
the current pattern of infection. You should include reference to changes in
infection rates between 2000 and 2005 and the effect of gender. Suggest reasons
for the trends you observe, including reasons for the different findings of the two
studies for infection of women with HIV in 2005.
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(7)
(Total 30 marks)

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