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5. Metacognition
The meta-cognitive activity is a self-reection activity that accompanies cognitive activity
with the purpose of making it more aware, monitoring and evaluating it in order to ensure
more effective learning. The first phase of a meta-cognitive activity consists of understanding the nature of the task to be carried out. This phase leads to meta-understanding. If
understanding is an indicator for knowing what to do, the meta-understanding is an activity consisting of a conscious assessment of the level of understanding of the task. The next
step to understanding (and meta-understanding) of the task to be carried out is choosing a
strategy. When one talks about choice of strategy, one means the study of meta-memory
or the ability to learn about the memory. In particular it must be taken into account that during the performance of a task, in the implementation a strategy, it is also necessary to use
the memory, recalling data memorised before the task or that is memorised during the task
among the various skills available.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 3
6. Constructivism
Constructivism hypothesises a series of psychic structures that allow one to build a personal
way of interpreting reality. Each individual, through his/her personal vision of reality, can decode it and give it a meaning, learning, therefore, how to interact with the environment. This
interaction takes place through a continuous exchange of information that allow the individual
to sort reality in a manner that he/she deems most functional.
There are different types of constructivism:
> the limited realism (or critical realism), according to which there is an objective external reality that can be known directly;
> the epistemological constructivism, of which paradigm is the existence of an external reality independent of the observer, which is not known by the latter, except through a process
of construction;
> the hermeneutic constructivism. In this case, one does not believe in the existence of an
independent and objective reality, external to the individual. Knowledge is the result of the
mediation in language and interaction between different observers.
The three approaches differ on the ontological level, related to the existence of reality, and on
an epistemological level, related to the possibility of knowing reality through science.
3. Jerome Bruner
For Bruner, the cognitive development can be defined using the representation concept, by
which he means a method of processing information received by the subject from the external
environment, a coding system. There are three methods of representation: executive, iconic
and symbolic. Each of them manifests itself in a given period in the evolution of the child/
adolescent., which nevertheless persists and evolves, without being completely replaced by the
others. The executive representations are the first to emerge and develop in the first year of life.
4. Sigmund Freud
Freud distinguishes three essential elements of the individuals personality called conscious,
unconscious and preconscious. The unconscious part of the psyche represents everything that
the individual is conscious of. It includes perceptions, feelings, thinking processes and the willingness that we feel and are aware and conscious of. All that belongs to the unconscious mind
and migrates easily from a state of unconsciousness to a state of consciousness (and vice versa)
is part of the pre-conscious, which is a communication line, a border between the conscious
and the unconscious part of the mind. However, there are other mental processes or contents
of our mind that are very dicult to bring to consciousness and which form the unconscious,
strictly speaking. Mostly, they include experiences that happened during childhood, which were
often unpleasant and surrounded by guilt. Sometimes, these experiences are very painful and
intolerable to the subject, who cancels them through a mechanism that Freud calls removal.
To better define the relationship between the conscious and unconscious mental processes
and the mechanisms that allow the transfer of content from one area to another of the psyche,
Freud identifies three elements that perform different functions in the human psyche: the Id,
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 5
which is the most inaccessible part of the personality and includes our instincts and impulses;
the Ego, which has the task of observing the outside world and preserving a true image of it
in the memory through perceptions; the Superego, which consists in the internalisation of the
childs psyche of rules, prohibitions, precepts and laws that are imposed by parents, teachers
and, more generally, by the members of the society to which he/she belongs.
Starting from his studies on the psyche, Freud developed a staged theory of the childs development.
5. Erik H. Erikson
Starting from the stage of Freuds psychosexual development, Erikson elaborates a pattern
consisting of different stages of psychosocial development that characterise the life of every
individual, from birth to old age. Each phase is characterised by the following principles:
> in each stage, the subject under development is confronted with two opposing forces that
form an antinomian pair marked by a positive and a negative quality, which identifies the
conict to be overcome in that particular period of life;
> each stage is characterised by a basic virtue;
> each stage has two underlying conditions, which are determined if the identity crisis of the
stage is not resolved in a positive way.
7. Lawrence Kohlberg
Kohlberg has formulated a theory of the moral development of the individual through successive stages. For Kohlberg, the moral development of a person cannot be simply represented
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by an increase in the knowledge of the values of a given culture, because this leads to an ethic
that is solely related to that culture. The moral development of a person is represented by the
transformations that occur in the persons way of thinking: an individual evolves morally when
his/ her thinking structure changes. Therefore, studying how a person interacts with the social
environment and how he/she solves social issues should be done in the light of the development of moral judgement structures that are universal and that develop in the same way across
all cultures. Kohlberg identifies three levels of moral development:
> Pre-conventional level (from about 4 years to about 10 years);
> Conventional level (adolescents and adults);
> Post-conventional level (or autonomous or principle level).
8. Robert L. Selman
Selman tried to describe the abilities of children to place themselves in the perspective of others in order to understand their different points of view. His studies have been mainly applied
in education, with the intention of establishing a school curriculum that by leveraging the social
skills of the students, could also include specific activities of peer learning.
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4. Lev S. Vygotskij
Research on the degree of cognitive maturation of children is always directed towards the observation of what they are able to do individually and independently (current development).
However, this does not provide an indication of their learning skills in the short or long term.
Therefore, Vygotskij focuses on the area of proximal development, which corresponds to the
level of potential development of the child, determined by the ability to solve a problem with
the help of a more competent adult or a peer. In primary school, an education that is directed
towards making the children work in their proximal development area is needed.
As part of the cognitive development, Vygotskij distinguishes two types of concepts: scientic
and spontaneous. The former are formal concepts, often detached from the personal experience of the child, where usually, it is not possible to make spontaneous and empirical use of
them and are acquired by children at school. The spontaneous (or daily) concepts are instead
generated by everyday experience and are not organised into a coherent knowledge system;
they do not have punctual and strict relationships that connect them. They are easily attributable to an empirical use.
The connection between spontaneous and scientific concepts is identified by the proximal development area. When the level of maturation of a spontaneous concept is in the proximal
development area, then the pupil should have an activity suggested, guided by the teacher, who
can lead the concept back to an organic arrangement, towards a profound understanding and
awareness, towards a more scientific based concept.
5. Jerome Bruner
Bruner identifies one aspect which is common to all disciplines, consisting in a structure, by
which is meant a core of key ideas, fundamental knowledge, underpinning the understanding
the many aspects of the discipline. The researcher says that the fundamental aspects of each
discipline can be taught to anyone, of any age, provided they are presented in a certain form.
Starting from this assumption, one can define a spiral curriculum, so-called as it initially presents the key ideas in a simple and intuitive manner, but periodically returns to such ideas,
considering them in a different form, more elaborate and relying on more formal and symbolic
modes of representation.
The researcher distinguishes between the theory of education, of prescriptive type, with the aim
of reaching the objectives in an optimal way, and the learning theory, of descriptive type, which
describes and interprets what is going on when learning takes place or what happened when it
was finished.
Bruner incorporates the concept of problem solving and links it to the scaolding concept. The
scaffolding is a process that allows a student to solve a problem or reach an objective that would
go beyond his/her capabilities, if not assisted.
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6. Von Glasersfeld
Knowledge is not acquired passively. When the student has an encounter with a new experience, he perceives it as a disturbance compared to what was expected from his/her cognitive
structures. Actively, this new experience must be assimilated or accommodated in the existing
structures in order to create new knowledge. Only in this way the individual returns to a balance
with the external environment. For this reason, it is necessary to put the student in front of elements that could disturb his cognitive structures. This takes place especially in comparison
and interaction with other students. Under this paradigm, the teacher often favours the creation of learning groups or study groups.
7. Von Foerster
The student analyses the education system focusing on the usual specific teaching practices
and highlighting the trivialisation issue of the teaching-learning process. The education system welcomes children who are, in some ways, unpredictable. If we ask them a question, they
will respond from the perspective of the child, in a way that we do not expect and that sometimes surprises us. The education system gradually tends to dumb down students, making them
provide predictable and expected responses to questions. The same evaluation tests are meant
to ask questions for which the answers are known and the correct answer is expected. When a
student gets an excellent grade to a test, his trivialisation process is completed, as he is totally
under control and provides the answers expected by his interlocutors.
Another important difference is between legitimate and illegitimate questions. The education system is based on illegitimate questions, i.e. questions for which the answer is known and
add nothing to the overall knowledge of humanity, but simply pass on the knowledge to the
future. The focus of attention should be on the legitimate questions, i.e. on those that deserve
to be asked, because the answer is yet unknown or, even better, no one knows if there is a possible answer.
8. Edgar Morin
The pedagogical beliefs of Morin are closely related to his global view of the current reality, the
complexity of the problems and relationships established between the environment, culture
and education. Therefore, the challenge of modern knowledge is focused on the effort of being able to clarify, define and interpret the complexity. Educational systems base their training action on the knowledge and explanation of clear and articulate content. One can learn
what is clear and reliable. For Morin, the first critical point is the fragmentation and isolation
of knowledge. This phenomenon leads to the subdivision of knowledge into disciplines and the
concept of culture (i.e. the total of knowledge) as traditionally divided in humanistic and scientific cultures. On the contrary, these two cultures are complementary and must reconnect. The
complexity theory helps forming a global vision of reality. A greater global perspective helps in
recognising the interconnection of cultures and the interconnection of the destinies of different
communities. Therefore, it encourages greater responsibility and greater solidarity.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 9
2. Peer learning
This takes place mainly among students who support each other in mutual learning. Peer learning is divided into two large categories:
> Cooperative learning, based on a positive interdependence that is established in a group of
students working together to achieve a common goal;
> Peer tutoring, based on a specific division of roles by students: one plays the role of tutor
(the helper, i.e. the one who helps the peer in learning, the one who teaches) and the other
the role of tutee (the one who is helped, i.e. the one who is helped to learn, the learner).
In cooperative learning, teachers must:
1. clearly set out the objectives of the lesson;
2. make decisions about putting the students in groups, before the class begins;
3. clearly explain to students the tasks to be performed, the targets to be obtained and the
learning activities;
4. monitor the effectiveness of cooperative learning in groups and take action to help solve the
tasks or to improve the skills of the students and the groups;
5. evaluate the results achieved by the students and help them discuss the progress of the
group work.
Below, the most common types of peer tutoring:
> Peer learning of different ages;
> Peer learning of similar age;
> Mutual peer learning;
> Peer learning spread throughout the class;
> Learning strategies with the assistance of peers.
3. Inductive teaching
The teaching of science subjects is typically deductive. The teacher explains principles and general ideas and then presents practical exercises that concern the theoretical principles just introduced. An inductive path, however, starts from practical application, from the real problem,
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from the analysis and interpretation of certain data, from the study of a specific case in order
to reach general and abstract concepts. In this way, students are more motivated to face the
necessary formalisation of the concepts and gain a better understanding of abstract general
principles, without which no one could handle the problem presented. A practical application of
the theoretical paradigm of inductive teaching is a teaching method called inductive learning
based on inquiry (Inquiry-based Learning). In particular, we distinguish the following methodologies:
> Discovery Learning;
> Problem-based Learning;
> Project-based Learning;
> Case-based Teaching;
> Just-in-time Teaching;
> Flipped classroom.
4. Reciprocal teaching
Reciprocal teaching began as a reading activity that was performed in groups. Reciprocal teaching activates meta-cognitive processes highlighted by carrying out the four activities listed below:
1. Summarising;
2. Asking questions;
3. Clarifying;
4. Predicting.
The basic procedure involves the interaction between a teacher and a pupil. Initially the
teacher shows the part to be read. Before starting to read, the teacher communicates which
of the two, the teacher or the student, will be the teacher. Then, they both start to read in
silence. After reading, the chosen teacher has to ask a possible question on the text read in order to check for comprehension; summarise the text; clarify certain aspects that he/she thinks
may be dicult for the students; predict a possible continuation of what occurs in the text
read. When the next part for the text is read, the roles are exchanged. Several versions of this
method have been suggested, which made it more like a cooperative learning activity. Students are divided into groups within which one student reads a text; each member has one of
the 4 tasks to carry out (summarising, asking questions, clarifying and predicting). In this way, a
community of learners is created.
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Competence = a requirement that allows performing a task or a request that is rather articulate
and complex, thanks to having the disposition, motivation, emotions, social relationships, behaviours and attitudes that are necessary in performing the task.
2. School autonomy
School autonomy, introduced by Presidential Decree 275/1999 is the medium that schools have
in order to ensure the educational success of students. This term refers to the full development of the students potential and to the maturation of skills they will use in the real world.
The autonomy of individual schools is embodied in a document called the Three-Year Program
of Studies (TYPS), which outlines the schools planning of the curriculum.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 13
> it uses, for the presentation of content and maturation of skills, all communication channels
that the technologies provide;
> it presents reticular and not sequential learning paths, in which each student follows a target
and builds his own knowledge;
> it is organised so that the student actively participates in lessons, interacting with other students and with the teacher, creating meaning, stimulating curiosity, being able to be motivated, and producing materials.
3. Learning Object
The Learning Object has the following characteristics:
> it is a self-consistent, coherent and complete learning unit, consisting of essential contents,
small follow-ups and tests. It often allows tracking the activity of the student and is focused
on a quite specific concept;
> it is a closed and rigidly structured object that is not meant to be enriched or fed with other
content.
It is conceived for self-study, in an e-learning and distance learning context, rather than an object underpinning collaborative learning.
4. Digital Asset
Digital Assets can be understood as fragments of digital content, as basic units of information
that can be individually modified and subsequently assembled at will. Their purpose is to give
shape, from time to time, to a learning unit (Learning Object), so it becomes customised and the
result of research and knowledge-building.
5. 2.0 Classes
The Digital School Programme promoted by the Ministry of Education plans to create classrooms
that are learning environments that combine dierent technological devices (fixed, such as
MIWB, printers, and scanners, and mobile devices, such as notebooks, netbooks, tablets, and smartphones), which are normally used to create a new teaching approach and new learning processes.
These classrooms are called 2.0 Classes. In these classrooms, the strong integration between the
information and communication technology (ICT) and the school environment opens the door to
the socio-constructivist pedagogical approach in which learning is favoured mainly by experience,
the know-how, the comparison with others, and the personalisation of educational interventions.
In a 2.0 Class, each student works on his device, but he can share the work with the classmates
and the teacher via the network. As a result, each individual can provide help, make correction
observations and help improve the work of others.
6. Learning environment
The Learning Environment concept is widely used with the constructivist approaches. In its minimum configuration, a learning environment includes: a learner and a space in which he works,
uses tools and devices, collects and interprets messages and information, and interacts with
other individuals.
Learning environments can be divided in the three following categories:
> classroom learning environments, which mostly include physical environments;
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> Virtual Learning Environments (VLE), on-line platforms to which web users can subscribe;
> immersive environments, a category of a virtual learning environments, such as Serious
Games and immersive games within which each user with an alter ego makes experiences
and carries out activities on his own or interacting with other users.
2. Communication style
The communication style of an individual is the way in which he/she interacts with others, using
verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal communication. It is defined by means of a core of variables,
each of which is linked to a characteristic of the person. In particular, Norton identifies the
following variables: dominant, friendly, attentive, relaxed, argumentative, dramatic, animated,
open, striking and precise. For this purpose, Norton uses a questionnaire that he calls Communicator Style Measure and identifies the three following styles:
> the human teacher, characterised by the simultaneous presence of the open, attentive and
friendly attributes. It is considered a rather positive style by the students;
> the actor teacher, characterised by the presence of the striking, dramatic and animated
attributes;
> the authoritarian teacher, having the dominant, precise and argumentative attributes.
This style is not appreciated by students.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 15
5. Aggressive behaviour
By observing the behaviour of pupils and their interaction with the classmates, the teachers can
decide if a particular person is suffering from a conduct disorder. In this case, it is important to
report the situation to the school manager, contact the family and direct the student towards
specialists in the health or social services (psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers).
The conduct disorders of particular interest to the school environment are those identified in
the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) developed by WHO, such as conduct disorder
with reduced socialisation, conduct disorder with normal socialisation and oppositional
deant disorder.
The conduct disorder may be associated with the bullying phenomenon, of which clinical features can mix with social and cultural causes. There are two types of bullying:
> direct, which can be physical or verbal;
> indirect, in which the bully does not directly address the victims, but tends to isolate them
or put them in dicult situations, through premeditated and studied behaviour (slander and
gossip).
Each school must have a policy that is aimed at preventing and timely detecting bullying phenomena. Therefore, the head teacher must promote the Code of Conduct Rules that are effective and shared by the entire school community (teachers, parents and pupils) usually described
in the School Regulations.
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6. Co-teaching
Co-teaching is defined as the action of two or more professionals engaged in educating a heterogeneous or mixed group of students, in one place. This definition identifies four key components that characterise co-teaching:
1. the presence of two teachers;
2. teaching of significant concepts;
3. the presence of groups of students with different educational needs;
4. a set of common teaching approaches.
There are four major areas in which the co-teaching practises can be used:
> to provide education jointly with a heterogeneous group of students, including those with
disabilities or other special needs;
> to provide education to a group of foreign students;
> to provide education to a group of gifted or talented students;
> as an alternative and experimental teaching approach for students in order to promote customised learning.
8. Communities of practice
Wenger defines the community of practice as a group of people who share a commitment or a
passion for something they are dealing with actively. It has three fundamental aspects:
> the community of practice shares a domain of interest;
> it consists of people who interact by carrying out activities in common, discussing and exchanging ideas, learning from comparison;
> it consists of practitioners, i.e. people who try to put into practice what they learn in the
community.
The three dimensions of the practice associated with the community are:
> mutual engagement, i.e. the possibility of interaction between the members;
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 17
> the joint venture, the ultimate goal that the community wants to reach, the task it wants to
perform;
> the shared catalogue, a set of aspects and knowledge that act as link in the community.
Predominant skills
Characteristics of students
Divergent
Assimilating
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Predominant skills
Characteristics of students
Convergent
Accommodating
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 19
the ICF model does not classify the health condition of an individual, but the health condition
of an individual that is part of a context. In 2008, based on the new criteria set by the ICF,
the documents for the integration of the disabled were revised in the school context, so that
they would mirror the basic planning. These documents are the Functional Diagnosis (FD), the
Functional Dynamic Profile (FDP) and the Individualised Education Plan (IEP).
2. SLD
The specific learning disabilities (SLD) are developmental disorders, which aect skills involved in school activities, such as reading, writing and calculating. Law 170/2010 identifies:
> dyslexia, specific disorder that manifests as a diculty in learning how to read, especially
in deciphering linguistic signs, or in the correctness and uency of reading (Article 1, par. 2);
> dysgraphia, specific writing disorder that manifests as the inability to write (Article 1, par.
3). Therefore, this disorder affects the writing (and not the spelling) and is connected to the
motor-executive moment of performance;
> dysorthography, specific writing disorder that manifests as the inability to transcode linguistic processes (Article 1, par. 4). It is a disorder that concerns the correctness of writing
according to the rules of the linguistic code (spelling rules) and not according to the graphic
aspect of writing;
> dyscalculia, specific disorder that manifests as the inability to calculate and process numbers (Article 1, par. 5). The Guidelines for the integration of students with disabilities in schools
outline two components of the calculation ability that are affected by dyscalculia: the organisation of numerical cognition and the executive and calculation procedures.
For pupils with SLD, Law 170/2010 demands schools to adopt a customised and individualised
teaching approach with compensatory tools and dispensatory measures. These elements
and the teaching methods implemented for the student must be explained in the Customised
Teaching Program.
3. SEN
The Directive of 27 December 2012 identifies the categories of students who have special educational needs (SEN), claiming that there is an area of educational disadvantage. Therefore, the
following categories of students with SEN have been identified, which include:
> students with disabilities;
> students with SLD;
> students with other specific developmental disorders that are not SLD or students with other
disorders (non developmental and/or not specific);
> students with socio-economic, linguistic and cultural disadvantages.
The students with disabilities are those who can access aid provided for by Law 104/1992,
including the assignment of a specialist teacher (support teacher) that supports the learning
activities of the student.
Students with specic learning disorders benefit from the provisions of Law 170/2010.
Students with other specic developmental disorders have:
> language disorders;
> motor abilities disorders;
> hyperkinetic disorders;
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4. Foreign students
For foreign students, acceptance in school and learning Italian in the first stages of school life
is important. Initial learning is first aimed at the acquisition of useful language in order to socialise and interact within the context. Afterwards, it is important to improve the language so it
becomes a means for learning. A specific topic related to foreign students is interculturalism
which promotes dialogue and exchange between the cultures. The idea is to recognise the differences in order to accept one another.
2. Orientation
The orientation is defined as a series of activities that enable citizens of any age and in any moment of their lives to identify their capacities, competencies and interests, to make decisions
regarding education, training and vocation and to manage their individual life paths in the training activities, in the professional world and in any other environment in which such skills and
competencies are acquired and/or used.
The guidance skills allow the person to accompany their own orientation process throughout
life and to make a personal plan for which he/she can make more specific progressive choices.
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3. Blooms taxonomy
For Bloom, the taxonomy of educational objectives in the cognitive field is a support tool for
teachers, educators and scholars. The basic level skills are also called Lower Order Thinking Skills
and are indicated by the acronym LOTS. The more complex skills are instead called Higher Order Thinking Skills and are indicated by the acronym HOTS. The teacher has to identify, on the
taxonomic scale of these competencies, the starting level of the student, pre-setting a goal to
be achieved, in terms of more complex competence. Then, an adequate educational program
need to be set that leads the learner from the proper initial condition to the goal set for him/
her by the teacher.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 23
> Teacher training school, structured into lower and upper courses;
> Complementary school, of technical, commercial and agricultural specialisation, later called
vocational schools, for a period of three years.
After the Agreement of 1929, the Catholic religion became a school subject taught in all nonuniversity schools. Those who did not intend to follow this subject could be exonerated upon
request.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 25
2. Primary school
The primary school is the first step of the first cycle of education. The condition to enrol in the
primary school is to come to the age of 6 years.
Upon registration, parents or tutors express their options regarding the weekly timetable,
which includes four models:
> 24 hours per week, introduced by Law 169/2008;
> 27 hours per week, introduced by Legislative Decree 59/2004 (Article 7);
> 30 hours per week. To the 27 hours option another 3 hours of optional activities are added,
at parents choice and based on the availability of the personnel (models 2 and 3 are derived
from Law 53/2003, the so-called Moratti reform);
> 40 hours per week (full-time), with 8 hours per day for 5 days a week, including a lunch break,
the duration of which (one to two hours) is decided by the Board of the Institute at the proposal of the Board of teachers.
The classes of primary schools have, usually, a number of children that is not less than 15 and
not higher than 26.
Teaching English language was compulsory as a result of the Law 53/2003. The weekly timetable is different depending on the year group: one hour in the first grade, two in the second, and
three in the following grades.
The National Guidelines for primary school are included in the National Guidelines for nursery
schools and first cycle, issued in 2012.
The periodic and annual evaluation of the pupils academic performance, as well as the related certification, is expressed in grades with tenths. The evaluation of the behaviour is instead expressed via a judgement, delivered in the manner approved by the Board of teachers.
Even for the Catholic religion, the assessment is made through synthetic judgement.
Support teachers assigned to classes in which pupils with certified disabilities are included,
participate in the evaluation of all pupils.
Teachers may unanimously decide not to admit a pupil to the next grade, only in exceptional
and duly motivated cases.
The frequency criterion of at least three quarters of the customised annual timetable does not
involve primary school. It follows that the evaluation of the impact of absences on the scholastic performance is left to be decided by the team of teachers.
5. Periodic and nal evaluation. The nal state exam in the rst cycle of education
In secondary school (lower and upper), the school year is valid when the pupil has attended at
least three quarters of the customised annual timetable.
The class council is responsible for the periodic and nal evaluation, chaired by the head
teacher or a delegate. Pupils must be assessed for each discipline and behaviour with grades
expressed in tenths. Teaching Catholic religion is evaluated using synthetic judgement.
To be eligible for the next year or for the State exam, pupils must acquire sucient knowledge
in all disciplines, including the grade for behaviour. In case of deciencies in one or more disciplines, the class council may approve admission by majority. In this case, it makes a specific note
in the evaluation document to call for the responsibility of the family and the student to catch up.
The State exam is the sum of the activity performed by the pupil during the three years and a
final verification of achieving the objectives identified by the Profile of competencies at the end
of the first cycle of education, included in the National Guidelines.
Admission to exam takes place after the final meeting in the third grade and consists in assigning the eligibility grade, expressed in tenths, based on the following rules:
> Preliminary checks on the frequency of attendance, in order to ascertain the validity of the
year (frequency of at least three quarters of the annual customised timetable);
> A grade not lower than six tenths for each discipline;
> A grade for behaviour of not less than six tenths;
> Verification of the guiding council expressed prior to the deadline for entries to the pathways
of the second cycle or EPT (education and professional training).
The examination board will consist of all teachers of the third grades of the school, including
support teachers. The chairman is appointed by the Regional School Oce.
The State exam consists in five written tests (four of the Institute and a national one) and an
oral exam.
The written tests of the Institute are: Italian, mathematics and science, English, and second
Community language. A national written test is then added with texts chosen by the Ministry
among those prepared annually by INVALSI. It consists of two tests, one for Italian and one for
mathematics, to be taken consecutively during one morning determined on national scale.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 27
The oral test consists in a multidisciplinary interview, taken in the presence of the entire examining subcommittee.
The nal mark is made up of the arithmetic average of the following grades in tenths:
> The admission grade to exam;
> The five grades obtained in the written tests;
> The grade obtained in the oral examination.
The final grade is rounded up to a higher unit by fraction equal to or greater than 0.5.
Candidates who obtain a score of ten tenths will receive honours from the commission and the
decision will be taken unanimously.
Graduate candidates shall be given the certicate of competencies: from 2015/2016 the model
is provided by the Ministry. The certificate includes the confirmation or revision of the guiding
council released during the examinations.
3. Class structure
The classes of the first year of study of institutes and schools of secondary and upper secondary
education have, usually, no less than 27 students.
As a rule, the number of intermediate classes formed is equal to that of the classes from where
the students come from, provided that they have no less than 22 pupils. The number of terminal classes is equal to that of the corresponding penultimate classes in the previous school year,
provided that there are at least 10 pupils enrolled.
5. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the European
Language Portfolio
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is the system that qualifies the
skill level achieved by those who study a European language.
Developed by the Council of Europe between 1989 and 1996, it distinguishes three groups of
competence, mentioned below starting with the highest level:
> Level C - Mastery;
> Level B - Autonomy;
> Level A - Basic.
Each group is divided in turn in two levels, for a total of six levels.
The European Language Portfolio is the document that accompanies those who study a language in their learning path throughout their life. It consists in three different sections: the
Language passport, the Linguistic biography and the Dossier.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 29
7. Student evaluation
For the evaluation of pupils in the second cycle schools, the rules are set by Presidential Decree 122/2009. The periodic and final evaluation is made by the class council, chaired by the
head teacher or a delegate, with decision taken, where necessary, by the majority.
The support teachers, also responsible for the class and participate in the evaluation of all pupils. The evaluation of pupils behaviour is expressed in decimals and the numeric grade is also
written in letters in the evaluation document.
Even in the upper secondary school, the validity of the school year is subordinated to the frequency of at least three quarters of the customised annual timetable (the Board of teachers
may provide motivated and extraordinary exemptions for exceptional cases).
For admission to the next class, pupils must obtain the following grades in the final exam:
> The grade for behaviour of not less than six tenths;
> The grade for each discipline of not less than six tenths.
In the event of students who have not acquired sucient knowledge at one or more disciplines,
the class council suspends the judgement and prepares educational interventions to catch up,
setting them for no later than the start date of classes of the next school year. At the end of the
interventions, the class council shall verify the results obtained and shall give the final judgement which, in case of positive outcome, allows for the admission to the next class.
The object of the second test is one of the subjects specific to the course of study.
The third test is an expression of the school autonomy. Therefore, it is closely related to the
POF adopted by each of them. It is structured in order to allow the assessment of knowledge in
a foreign language.
The texts related to the first and second written tests are chosen by the Ministry. The text of the
third written test is prepared by the examination board.
The interview shall deal with multidisciplinary subjects related to educational programs and
work of the last year. It takes place at the presence of the entire commission.
A discussion on the written tests is expected to take place.
At end of the State examination, each candidate shall be given a nal grade expressed in cents,
the result of the sum of the scores given by the examination board for the written tests (max.
45 points) and for the interview (max. 30), as well as the points for the school credit (max. 25)
obtained by each candidate.
The minimum score to pass the exam is 60/100.
Notwithstanding the maximum score of 100, the examination board may, for worthy students,
raise the score up to a maximum of 5 points.
Those who obtain the maximum score of 100 points without getting the raise, subject to certain
conditions, may receive the honours.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 31
> Health and Social Services with the related branches: Health and Social Services, Dental Services and Optical Services;
> Services for food and wine and hotel services, with the following branches: Food and wine,
Room services and Sales, Tourism;
> Commercial services.
The educational and teaching program refers to the Guidelines issued in 2010 (for the first two
years) and in 2012 (for the next two years and the last year).
After passing the nal State examination, the graduates of vocational schools, besides the
work opportunities and college enrolment opportunities, have the following options:
> Short pathways of 800/1000 hours to obtain a higher technical specialisation (IFTS);
> Biennial pathways to obtain a higher technical diploma in the most advanced technology
areas at the Higher Technical Schools (HTS).
2. Technical schools
Technical schools provide basic technical and scientific training necessary to those who seek
to enter a qualified sector in the employment or freelance occupations market. The courses of
technical schools last for five years, divided into two two-year periods and one last year, after
which the students take the State examination and obtain the technical education diploma.
There are 1,056 annual hours corresponding to an average of 32 hours per week.
In the last year, a new technical and professional discipline is introduced, in a foreign language.
The economic sector is divided into two specialisations: Administration, finance and marketing; tourism.
The technology sector is divided into nine specialisations: Mechanics, mechatronics and
energy; Transport and logistics; Electronics and electrical engineering; IT and telecommunications; Graphics and communications; Chemistry, materials and biotechnology; Fashion system;
Agriculture, food processing and agro-industry; Construction, environment and territory.
In the last year of study, a foreign language is introduced in non-linguistic discipline (CLIL).
The educational and teaching program refers to the Guidelines issued in 2010 (for the first two
years) and in 2012 (for the next two years and the last year).
After passing the nal State examination, the graduates of vocational schools, besides the
work opportunities and college enrolment opportunities, have the possibility to obtain a higher
technical specialisation mentioned above for the vocational schools.
3. High schools
High schools provide students with cultural and methodological tools for a deeper understanding of reality, so that they are able, using a rational, creative, planning and critical attitude to
face situations, phenomena and problems, and acquire knowledge, skills and competencies consistent with the skills and personal choices appropriate to further follow higher studies, in order
to integrate in the social life and the work market.
The high school area includes six major branches, with additional internal branches:
> arts high school, with six specialisations;
> classical high school;
> language high school;
> music and dance high school, with the music and dance sections;
> science high school, with the option of applied sciences and the sports high school section;
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> humanities high school, with the economic and social option.
The high school lasts for five years and is divided into two two-year periods and a fifth year, after
which the students take the State examination.
The weekly timetable in the two-year period is of 27 hours, except for the arts high school (34
hours) and the music and dance high school (32 hours). In the following years, the hours increase based on the specialisation below.
In the last year of study, a foreign language is introduced in non-linguistic discipline (CLIL). The
educational and teaching program refers to the National Guidelines.
The educational and teaching program refers to the National Guidelines issued in 2010.
Chapter 15 European Union and the subsidiarity to the education systems of the
member countries
1. The construction of the common European home
World War II ended in the spring of 1945. After the horror of the genocide and destruction,
there was the determination to create the conditions for stable peace, passing from the Europe
of countries to the Europe of nations.
In 1950, the French minister Robert Schuman proposed to put together the coal and iron resources, with the goal of doubling the production of steel and to lower its costs. The proposal
consisted in abolishing the duty in the coal and steel sector.
In 1951 Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands signed the first
European Treaty, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
It gave excellent results, both economically and with the cooperation between Member States
in general. It was decided to pursue economic integration by implementing the customs union
between the Member States, with the aim of creating the European Common Market. Continuing on the line that led to ECSC, it was decided to put together the resources for the civil applications of nuclear energy.
On 25 March 1957, in Rome, the Treaties establishing two other Communities were signed:
> the European Economic Community (EEC);
> the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC), known as Euratom.
The signatories were the same countries that had joined ECSC.
In 1973, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark joined; between 1981 and 1986, Greece,
Spain and Portugal. The Member States became twelve.
The eighties ended with the crisis of the real socialism system. The symbol was the fall of
the Berlin Wall (November 9, 1989).
On October 3, 1990 the reunification of Germany was proclaimed. The era of the cold war
ended. The collapse of the system hinged on the URRS opened new spaces to the Community,
while the Eastern European nations returned to democracy and to market economy.
The Member States decided to establish other common policies, besides the economic policy.
The Treaty on European Union was signed in Maastricht (Netherlands) on 7 February 1992.
Its historic result was to set in motion the political integration process among the European
states. The choice of the name Union indicated a willingness to give the Member States proswww.edises.it
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 33
pects of action beyond the economic aspect, toward fields where national competencies had
been so far thoroughly guarded: those of the foreign policy, defence, and social policies.
The European citizenship was established: whoever is a national citizen of a Member State is,
therefore, a citizen of the Union. On 1 January 1995, with the entry of Austria, Finland and Sweden, the Union reached fteen states.
The next goal was the adoption of the single currency, following the completion of the European Common Market. For joining the monetary union, it was required to comply with the four
criteria, called the Maastricht criteria. The introduction of the Euro took place on 1 January
2002. Today the single currency is adopted by 19 of the 28 Member States.
Meanwhile, the countries that were freed from the iron curtain became candidates to the
EU, as well as two small Mediterranean countries (Cyprus and Malta). The enlargement of the
Union to the east and south raised economic and institutional problems:
economic problems: low-development areas were involved, which would require massive interventions for depressed areas;
institutional problems: the institutions of the Community needed to be reformed since they had
been created fifty years before when the Member States were only six.
The accession to the EU by Eastern and South European countries saw the following steps:
> in 2004: Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Cyprus and Malta;
> in 2007: Bulgaria and Romania;
> in 2013: Croatia.
Today, there are 28 EU Member States.
level. In other words, the criterion that decisions are taken as close as possible to the citizens
was determined. The subsidiarity principle was incorporated in the Italian Constitution with the
constitutional reform of 2001.
The principle of proportionality reiterates that the content and form of the Unions action
shall be limited to what is necessary to achieve the objectives of the Treaties.
3. Unions institutions
The framework of the EU institutions is the result of the history of the European Communities
and the complex relationship between the sovereignty of the Member States and the powers
delegated to Community bodies.
For example, in the democratic States, the Parliament has legislative power, is elected by the
citizens and is the choice of popular sovereignty. In the EU this is only partially valid, as the attribution of exclusive legislative powers to the Parliament would mean the loss of the equivalent
power (and, thus, of the sovereignty) by the Member States.
Therefore, the approval process of the EU legislation is based on the necessary collaboration
between the European Parliament and the Member States, the latter being represented in the
Councils Union (called Council of Ministers).
The EU institutional framework consists of seven institutions:
> European Commission;
> European Council;
> Council of the European Union;
> European Parliament;
> Court of Justice of the European Union;
> Court of Auditors;
> European Central Bank.
The European Commission is composed of European commissioners, each being chosen from
the leading figures of the Member State of aliation. The Commission is the governing body of
the EU, besides making the legislative proposals, it is independent from the States.
The European Council brings together the Heads of State or Government of the Member
States and the President of the Commission at least twice a year. The Council defines the general political directions and priorities of the Union.
The Council of the Union, known as the Council of Ministers, is composed of ministers or,
however, of members of the governmental structure of the Member States. It meets in different forms, depending on the issues on the agenda. The Council, together with the European
Parliament, has legislative and budgetary function; it coordinates the economic policies of the
Member States.
The European Parliament is the parliamentary assembly of the European Union, directly elected by EU citizens every five years. It takes part in the legislative process. Depending on the
procedure adopted, its role can be decisive in the adoption of the final act, or can simply express
an opinion.
The Court of Justice of the European Union is the interpreter of the EU law so that it is applied
equally in all Member States. Evaluates disputes between national governments and EU institutions.
The Court of Auditors is the controlling body of EU finances. Its role is to improve the financial
management of the EU and to report on the use of public funds.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 35
The European Central Bank is responsible for implementing the monetary policy of those
countries adopting the Euro.
> these interventions are appropriate to the different contexts, the demand of the families and
the characteristics of the pupils, in order to ensure their educational success.
3. School management
The school manager (according to Article 25 of Legislative Decree 165/2001):
> has autonomous powers of management, coordination and evaluation of human resources;
> ensures the execution in school of the rights constitutionally protected: freedom of education, freedom of educational choice of families, right of pupils to learn;
> can autonomously determine the supply teachers up to 10% of the personnel;
> is assisted by the director of general and administrative services (d.g.a.s.) who acts in the
framework of the received instructions;
> deals with the labour relations in the financial agreements of the institution;
> has direct responsibility as an employer related to safety at work;
> has the right to process personal data (privacy protection).
Everything takes place in compliance with the competencies of the governing boards.
The recent law 107/2015 has set itself the aim of relaunching school autonomy by the reinforcement of the leading role of school managers.
The following are some of the new powers given to the school manager:
> establish guidelines for school activities on the basis of which the Board of teachers lays the
TYPS (PTOF);
> identify the personnel to be assigned with three-year tasks in the autonomy personnel roles;
> give annually to deserving teachers, based on the criteria identified by the Evaluation Board,
the financial reward (bonus) coming from the appropriate Ministerial reserves.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 37
5. School networks
The autonomous schools, being independent legal entities, may be subject to network agreements between schools and/or institutions of various types, either private or public (universities, associations, training institutions), for a better implementation of educational, research
and development, training and updating projects.
The territorial networks formed under Law 107/2015 by regional school boards for the management of the teacher personnel have a different function. They arise not from the free associative
needs of the school but, first of all, from the need to:
> ensure the allocation of territorial headquarters to teachers newly placed and to those who,
already in place, lose their jobs and/or ask for mobility;
> prepare the environment where the proposals of the school managers of the territory and
the teachers incardinated in the environment can meet, in order to implement the school
program of studies through the enhanced personnel.
6. System monitoring
As a result of the constitutional reform of 2001, an exclusive legislative power was attributed to
the State for the following topics (Article 117):
> determination of the basic levels of performances concerning civil and social rights that
must be guaranteed throughout the national territory;
> general legislation on education.
In the education system, tasks and responsibilities that belong to different levels intersect. In
particular, if the State is responsible for the determination of the basic levels of performances
concerning civil and social rights that must be guaranteed throughout the national territory it must
also check that all citizens concretely benefit from these basic levels of performance.
Educational institutions are responsible for the rights of the students, primarily for their educational success, as part of the Specifications received and allocated resources, developing the
TYPS and collaborating with the Central Administration in verifying the eciency of the system.
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INVALSI is the research institute that performs the evaluation of the education system
based on the specific ministerial directives, operating as a body of the national evaluation system established by Presidential Decree 80/2013.
The evaluation of the learning levels of the students from each school is performed by testing,
at national level, the knowledge and skills acquired at specific times during the training: the second and fifth grade of primary school, third grade of lower secondary school, second and fifth
grade of upper secondary school.
The tests include the Italian language and mathematics, to be assessed in line with the learning objectives defined by the National Guidelines.
INVALSI also ensures Italys participation in international surveys, enabling a closer connection between their results and the results of national surveys.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 39
Council is the interlocutor of the Board of teachers: if the latter lays down the educational
and teaching program and the Three-Year Program of Studies, the Council decides upon the
proposals of the Board concerning the program of studies and the organisational and financial
support for its implementation.
Therefore, it has the power to decide in the following key areas:
> approval the Three-Year Program of Studies;
> organisation and planning of school activities;
> approval of the annual budget;
> adoption of regulations, with particular reference to the responsibilities arising from the obligations of supervision of minor pupils and to the regulation of discipline in the secondary
school;
> approval of the school diary.
The Board elects an Executive council among its members, with technical tasks such the preparation of documents for nancial management.
These documents are:
> the annual program, namely the budget, which is prepared by the school manager and presented for approval to the School board by the Executive council, with the regular accounting
advice of the auditors;
> the nal account, consisting in the financial account and the assets account. It is prepared by
the Director of general and administrative services, submitted by the school manager to the
auditors and approved by the School board.
3. Board of teachers
The Board of teachers is chaired by the school manager and composed by all members of the
teaching personnel on duty in the school. The manager appoints as secretary one of the supply
teachers.
The Board of teachers has the power to decide with regard to a series of subjects; it can propose
others; it is also an electorate body.
The areas for which it takes decisions are as follows:
> educational operation of the institute, in particular educational and teaching planning, as
well as pupil evaluation;
> periodic review of the overall teaching activity;
> adoption of textbooks;
> promotion of experimentation initiatives;
> promotion of updating initiatives for teachers;
> planning and implementation of initiatives to support students with disabilities or with learning diculties, the integration of foreign students, the follow up of pupils with learning difficulties.
It makes proposals to the school manager, taking into account the criteria approved by the
School board, for the following aspects:
> formation and composition of classes;
> assignment of teachers to each class;
> preparation of the timetable.
It is an electoral board when it elects two teachers in the Evaluation council and when it appoints the teachers responsible for the instrumental functions to TYPS.
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The activity of the Board of teachers intersects with that of the School board, which is distinguished by a different general competence.
A significant paradigm of cooperation between the two bodies is the construction of the
TYPS, developed by the Board of teachers and approved by the School board. The recent Law
107/2015 has assigned to the school manager the task to provide the Board in advance with the
specialisations for the schools activities and the management and administration choices.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 41
6. Special tasks
It is expected that the teacher will receive special assignments for the collaboration with the
school manager or for the coordination of the areas of activity in the TYPS:
> collaborators are selected by the school manager for organisation and teaching roles;
> the instrumental functions to the TYPS are identified by resolution of the Board of teachers.
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Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 43
> conclusion of the disciplinary procedure. If the employees excuses are accepted the procedure is dismissed. A penalty shall be imposed in other cases.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 45
> Dysgraphia: learning and writing diculty: in the latter case, it is usually defined as Dysorthography;
> Dyscalculia: diculty in performing seriation and computing operations.
The Law 170/2010 has set up specific pathways to support the right to education of the persons
with SLD. In 2011, the Guidelines for the right to education of pupils and students with SLD
were issued.
The diagnosis of the SLD is the responsibility of the specialists of the National Health Service.
To this end, the school makes preliminary observations and performs screening actions on all
pupils. The parents of the pupils who, over time, confirm having major diculties, will receive a
written communication (describing the diculties encountered) which contains an invitation to
address the CNP (child neuropsychiatry).
The programming tool for the student with SLD is called Customised Teaching Program (CTP).
It needs to be drawn, with the approval of the family, by the first quarter of the year and provides for the adoption of compensatory measures, dispensatory measures, as well as personalised methods of verification and evaluation.
4. Foreign students
Foreign students who live in Italy were granted the right and duty to education in the same way
as Italian citizens, regardless of their right to remain in the country (P.D. 394/1999).
The document of the Ministry on the pedagogy of integration was issued by M.C. 24 of 1 March
2006 on the accompanying Guidelines for acceptance and integration of foreign students.
It is prohibited to establish classes in which foreign students are dominant. The purpose of the
legislation is integration, and not separation: the M.C. no. 2 of 8 January 2010 specifies not to
exceed 30% of the foreigners enrolled in each class.
The evaluation of foreign students, in particular those newly arrived in Italy (NAI), poses several types of problems. If it is necessary to take into account the individual learning path and
give time to allow insertion in a totally different environment, it is also necessary to consider
that the Italian school system is founded on the legal value of qualifications. Therefore, a set of
skills, properly certified and useful to the individual for the continuation in the studies and for
employment corresponds to a diploma.
At the time of final evaluation for admission to the next class or to the State exams at the end of
the education courses, the legal criterion is provided by Presidential Decree 122/2009, of which
Article 1 (paragraph 9) states that they are evaluated in the same form and manner provided
for Italian citizens.
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While the identification of the students of the first two groups is the responsibility of the services for child neuropsychiatry (CNP) by certification of the disability or the SLD diagnosis, the
task of identifying the educational needs of the students of the third sub-category and building the customisation pathways (CP) is entrusted to the Class councils (in nursery schools and
primary school, to the team of teachers).
Pupils with SEN are identified based on the objective evidence (reports of social workers, traumatic events in their personal life or in the family) or appropriate pedagogical and didactic
considerations. The related CP are temporary.
Chapter 20 The State regulation. The Ministry of Education, University and Research
1. The Constitution
In the Constitution, which came into force on 1 January 1948, the Republic is mentioned as the
container of territorial institutions (Article 114: The Republic is made up of Municipalities,
Provinces, Metropolitan Cities, Regions and the State).
Social formations (Article 2) are recognised: associations (Article 18), religion (Article 19), family (Articles 29-31), school (Articles 33-34), trade unions (Article 39), and political parties (Article
49).
Therefore, the Republic is the framework of co-existence of the legal fundamentals to
which the Italian citizen is called upon to exercise its own rights and duties.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 47
The following exposition refers to the constitutional regulations provided by the Constitution
in force, pending the approval and entry into force of the constitutional reform (Bill C. 2613-D).
3. The Parliament
Parliament is the expression of popular sovereignty.
It is made up of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate of the Republic, elected for five
years. Both legislative assemblies have the same functions (perfect bicameralism).
Parliamentary committees are bodies of each Chamber, composed of deputies and senators
that represent, proportionally, the political forces. The most important function carried out is to
analyse the bills, which must be ready before their discussion by the whole-house.
There are three functions carried out by the Parliament: the legislative function, the control
function over the Government and the political function.
The Constitution provides, however, that the exercise of the legislative function may be delegated to the Government by determining the principles and the criteria, for a limited period
of time and for specific objects. When, in extraordinary cases of necessity and urgency, the
Government adopts, under its own responsibility provisional measures having the force of law,
it must present them the same day for conversion to the Chambers. The decrees lose effect
from their approval if they are not converted into law within sixty days from their publication.
4. The Government
The Government is a constitutional body made up of the Prime Minister and the ministers,
which together make up the Council of Ministers. The form of Government provided for in the
Constitution is parliamentary because the Government is issued by the Parliament. The Government objectifies its activities in the political leadership function of the State:
> With the tools of the government program, the draft legislation implementing the government program, the decree-laws and the decrees;
> Exercising the executive power, i.e. administrative functions by the Public Administration, in
compliance with the recognised autonomy.
5. The Ministry of Education, University and Research and its territorial branches
The Ministries are thirteen: one of them is the Ministry of Education, University and Research.
The central level of the Ministry of Education is organised in three Departments:
> The Department for the education and training system;
> The Department for higher education and research;
> The Department for programming and management of human, financial and instrumental
resources.
In each Regional capital there is a Regional School Oce (RSO). Their total number is eighteen,
as they are present in all Regions, with the exception of Valle dAosta and Trentino-Alto Adige.
The main task of the RSOs is the allocation of human and financial resources to the single autonomous schools, based on quotas determined by the Ministry.
Usually, the RSOs include:
> provincial branches (before school autonomy, these were called Education authorities);
> sub-provincial branches, intended to be the place of teachers named in function with the
new rules: such areas (of forthcoming establishment) have been established by law 107/2015.
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6. The Judiciary
After the Parliament and the Government, the Judiciary is third power, autonomous and
independent of the State.
The Judiciary represents all bodies of civil, criminal and administrative justice that exercise judicial power or judicial function. The purpose of the judicial function (from the Latin ius dicere)
is to declare the law to be applied in controversial situations and force the recipients to submit
to the decision.
The ordinary jurisdiction is divided into criminal and civil.
The Superior Council of Judiciary is the governing body of the judiciary order and is autonomous and independent from all other powers.
7. Special courts
They deal with special disputes in accordance with a specialisation criterion. Article 103 of the
Constitution identifies the following special jurisdictions:
> Administrative jurisdiction (Regional Administrative Courts; State Council on appeal);
> Accounting jurisdiction (Court of Auditors);
> Military jurisdiction (Military Courts).
2. The Regions
The Regions are autonomous bodies that make up the Republic. They are divided into:
1. Ordinary regions, uniformly disciplined by Section V of the Constitution;
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2. Special Statute Regions, governed by specific rules contained in the constitutional laws.
The 5 Regions with a Special Statute are Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily, Trentino-Alto
Adige/Sdtirol, and Valle dAosta/ Vallee dAoste.
5. Regional bodies
Regional bodies are:
> The President of the Region. Represents the Region, manages the policy of the Regional
Committee and is responsible for it, promulgates laws and issues regional regulations;
> The Regional Committee, the executive body of the Region;
> The Regional Council, elected every 5 years. It exercises legislative power.
6. The Provinces
The Province is a constitutive body of the Republic and is defined by Article 3, paragraph 3 of
Legislative Decree 267/2000 as an intermediate local authority between the Municipality and the
Region, represents the community, takes care of its interests, promotes and coordinates its development.
In the education system, the Provinces have the following key competencies:
> prepare the provincial plan of educational institutions on the territory;
> provide the buildings, furnishings and every organisational tool necessary for the operation
of the secondary schools;
> organize the school transport network.
After the reform of 2014 (Law 56), the Provincial Councils are no longer directly elected. The
draft Constitutional reform, currently in approval, provides for the abolition of the Provinces.
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7. The Municipalities
The Municipality, constitutive body of the Republic, is defined by Article 3, paragraph 2 of Legislative Decree 267/2000 as the local authority representing the community, it takes care of its
interests and promotes development. In the education system, the Municipalities have the following key competences:
> Define and manage the municipal plan of schools;
> Provide buildings, furniture and equipment to nursery schools and primary schools;
> Define the school assistance plan and the right to education, including bonuses for worthy,
capable, destitute and disabled students;
> Provide for the public transport network;
> Ensure compliance with the education obligation.
8. Metropolitan Cities
They are autonomous local authorities, reformed by Law 56/2014, whose territory coincides
with that of the homonymous Province. They have been created in the 10 largest cities on
the national territory: Turin, Milan, Venice, Genoa, Bologna, Florence, Bari, Naples and Reggio
Calabria, plus Rome, the Capital, with special regulations.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 51
3. Administrative measures
The administrative act consists of any manifestation of will, knowledge or judgement (or
mixed), put in place by the Public Administration in the exercise of its functions.
A particular category of administrative act is the administrative measure, the final act of an
administrative procedure and has authority, which consists in imposing unilateral changes to
the legal position of the recipient.
The essential elements of the administrative measure are:
> The emanating subject: competent administrative authority;
> The recipient subject: the public or private entity against which the effects of the measure
are produced;
> The form: generally written form, although in some legal procedures, the inertia of the public
administration (administrative silence) has a legal meaning;
> The object; the administrative act must relate to a specific object, consisting in a behaviour,
a fact, a good, a performance.
> The appointment of the person in charge of the procedure. There is an obligation to determine and communicate to whom is interested the organisational unit responsible for the
investigation and the name of the person in charge of the procedure;
> The right of access, in order to encourage participation and ensure impartiality and transparency.
Educational and psyco-pedagogical competences and basic knowledge of the education system 53
between the representative trade unions of workers and the different administrations divided
by areas of negotiation and represented by the Agency for Collective Labour Negotiations in
the public administrations.
2. Collective negotiation
Collective negotiation takes place on all matters relating to employment and labour relations
(Article 45, Legislative Decree 165/2001).
Collective negotiations, in line with Article 40 of Legislative Decree 165/2001, leads to the approval of the following documents:
> the national collective agreement framework (NCAF) lays down the rules of negotiation
valid throughout the public administration, setting the sections, contractual areas, the rights
and union prerogatives;
> the supplementary national collective agreement (SNCA) concerns the single Administrations detailing the delegated matters by the related national collective negotiation agreement;
In the school sector, the regional supplementary contract (RSC) regulates the matters expressly provided for in the national collective agreement at the level of a single USR, while the
integrative school agreement defines all other aspects.
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