1.

1 Connecting to the Internet

1.1.1 Requirements for Internet connection

This page will describe the physical and logical requirements for an Internet co
nnection.
The Internet is the largest data network on earth. The Internet consists of many
large and small networks that are interconnected. Individual computers are the
sources and destinations of information through the Internet. Connection to the
Internet can be broken down into the physical connection, the logical connection
, and applications.
A physical connection is made by connecting an adapter card, such as a modem or
a NIC, from a PC to a network. The physical connection is used to transfer signa
ls between PCs within the local-area network (LAN) and to remote devices on the
Internet.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal d
escription of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a networ
k communicate. Connections to the Internet may use multiple protocols. The Trans
mission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary set of
protocols used on the Internet. The TCP/IP suite works together to transmit and
receive data, or information.
The last part of the connection are the applications, or software programs, that
interpret and display data in an understandable form. Applications work with pr
otocols to send and receive data across the Internet. A Web browser displays HTM
L as a Web page. Examples of Web browsers include Internet Explorer and Netscape
. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to download files and programs from the I
nternet. Web browsers also use proprietary plug-in applications to display speci
al data types such as movies or flash animations.
This is an introductory view of the Internet, and it may seem to be a simplistic
process. As the topic is explored in greater depth, students will learn that da
ta transmission across the Internet is a complicated task.
1.1.2 PC basics

Computers are important building blocks in a network. Therefore, students must b

e able to identify the major components of a PC. Many networking devices are spe
cial purpose computers, with many of the same components as general purpose PCs.
A computer must work properly before it can be used to access information such a
s Web-based content. This will require students to troubleshoot basic hardware a
nd software problems. Therefore, students must be familiar with the following sm
all, discreet PC components:

Students should also be familiar with the following PC subsystems:

Device that amplifies a signal or opens and closes a circuit.
Transistor
Integrated circuit
Device made of semiconductor material that contains many tran

sistors and performs a specific task.

Resistor
An electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical
current in an electronic circuit.
Capacitor
Electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostati
c field that consists of two conducting metal plates separated by an insulating
material.
Connector The part of a cable that plugs into a port or interface.
Light emitting diode (LED) Semiconductor device that emits light when a current
passes through it.
Printed circuit board (PCB)
A circuit board which has conducting tracks superimp
osed, or printed, on one or both sides. It may also contain internal signal laye
rs and power and ground planes. Microprocessors, chips and integrated circuits a
nd other electronic components are mounted on the PCB.
CD-ROM drive A device that can read information from a CD-ROM.
Central processing unit (CPU)
The part of a computer that controls the operation
of all the other parts. It gets instructions from memory and decodes them. It p
erforms math and logic operations, and translates and executes instructions.
Floppy disk drive A computer drive that reads and writes data to a 3.5-inch, cir
cular piece of metal-coated plastic disk. A standard floppy disk can store appro
ximately 1 MB of information.
Hard disk drive A computer storage device that uses a set of rotating, magnetica
lly coated disks called platters to store data or programs. Hard drives come in
different storage capacity sizes.
Microprocessor A microprocessor is a processor which consists of a purpose-desig
ned silicon chip and is physically very small. The microprocessor utilizes Very
Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit technology to integrate computer memory,
logic, and control on a single chip. A microprocessor contains a CPU.
Motherboard
The main printed circuit board in a computer. The motherboard contai
ns the bus, the microprocessor, and integrated circuits used for controlling any
built-in peripherals such as the keyboard, text and graphics display, serial po
rts and parallel ports, joystick, and mouse interfaces.
Bus A collection of wires on the motherboard through which data and timing signa
ls are transmitted from one part of a computer to another.
Random-access memory (RAM)
Also known as read-write memory because new data can
be written to it and stored data can be read from it. RAM requires electrical po
wer to maintain data storage. If a computer is turned off or loses power all dat
a stored in RAM is lost.
Read-only memory (ROM) Computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. Once
data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read
.
System unit
The main part of a PC, which includes the chassis, microprocessor, m
ain memory, bus, and ports. The system unit does not include the keyboard, monit
or, or any external devices connected to the computer.
Expansion slot A socket on the motherboard where a circuit board can be inserted
to add new capabilities to the computer. Figure shows Peripheral Component Int
erconnect (PCI) and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) expansion slots. PCI is a fa
st connection for boards such as NICs, internal modems, and video cards. The AGP
port provides a high bandwidth connection between the graphics device and the s
ystem memory. AGP provides a fast connection for 3-D graphics on computer system
s.
Power supply The component that supplies power to a computer.

The following backplane components are also important:

Backplane
A backplane is an electronic circuit board containing circuitry and so
ckets into which additional electronic devices on other circuit boards or cards
can be plugged; in a computer, generally synonymous with or part of the motherbo
ard.

Network interface card (NIC)

An expansion board inserted into a computer so that
the computer can be connected to a network.
Video card A board that plugs into a PC to give it display capabilities.
Audio card An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output s
ounds.
Parallel port
An interface capable of transferring more than one bit simultaneou
sly that is used to connect external devices such as printers.
Serial port An interface that can be used for serial communication in which only
one bit is transmitted at a time.
Mouse port A port used to connect a mouse to a PC.
USB port A Universal Serial Bus connector. A USB port connects devices such as a
mouse or printer to the computer quickly and easily.
Firewire A serial bus interface standard offering high-speed communications and
isochronous real-time data services.
Power cord A cord used to connect an electrical device to an electrical outlet t
hat provides power to the device.
Think of the internal components of a PC as a network of devices that are all at
tached to the system bus.
The Lab Activity will help students find and identify the physical components of
a PC.
The next page will provide more information about NICs.
1.1.3 Network interface card

This page will explain what a NIC is and how it works. Students will also learn
how to select the best NIC for a PC.
A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides network communication capabilities to and from a
PC. On desktop computer systems, it is a printed circuit board that resides in
a slot on the motherboard and provides an interface connection to the network me
dia. On laptop computer systems, it is commonly integrated into the laptop or a
vailable on a small, credit card-sized PCMCIA card. PCMCIA stands for Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association. PCMCIA cards are also known as P
C cards. The type of NIC must match the media and protocol used on the local net
work.
The NIC uses an interrupt request (IRQ), an input/output (I/O) address, and uppe
r memory space to work with the operating system. An IRQ value is an assigned lo
cation where the computer can expect a particular device to interrupt it when th
e device sends the computer signals about its operation. For example, when a pri
nter has finished printing, it sends an interrupt signal to the computer. The si
gnal momentarily interrupts the computer so that it can decide what processing t
o do next. Since multiple signals to the computer on the same interrupt line mig
ht not be understood by the computer, a unique value must be specified for each
device and its path to the computer. Prior to Plug-and Play (PnP) devices, users
often had to set IRQ values manually, or be aware of them, when adding a new de
vice to a computer.
These considerations are important in the selection of a NIC:
Protocols
Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI
Types of media Twisted-pair, coaxial, wireless, or fiber-optic
Type of system bus
PCI or ISA
Students can use the Interactive Media Activity to view a NIC.

The next page will explain how NICs and modems are installed.
connectivity.
1.1.4 NIC and modem installation

This page will explain how an adapter card, which can be a modem or a NIC, provi
des Internet connectivity. Students will also learn how to install a modem or a
NIC.
A modem, or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides the computer with c
onnectivity to a telephone line. A modem converts data from a digital signal to
an analog signal that is compatible with a standard phone line. The modem at the
receiving end demodulates the signal, which converts it back to digital. Modems
may be installed internally or attached externally to the computer using a pho
ne line.
A NIC must be installed for each device on a network. A NIC provides a network i
nterface for each host. Different types of NICs are used for various device conf
igurations. Notebook computers may have a built-in interface or use a PCMCIA car
d. Figure shows PCMCIA wired, wireless network cards, and a Universal Serial Bu
s (USB) Ethernet adapter. Desktop systems may use an internal network adapter ,
called a NIC, or an external network adapter that connects to the network throu
gh a USB port.
Situations that require NIC installation include the following:
Installation of a NIC on a PC that does not already have one
Replacement of a malfunctioning or damaged NIC
Upgrade from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100/1000-Mbps NIC
Change to a different type of NIC, such as wireless
Installation of a secondary, or backup, NIC for network security reasons
To perform the installation of a NIC or modem the following resources may be req
uired:
Knowledge of how the adapter, jumpers, and plug-and-play software are configured
Availability of diagnostic tools
Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts
The next page will describe the history of network connectivity.

1.1.5 Overview of high-speed and dial-up connectivity

This page will explain how modem connectivity has evolved into high-speed servic
es.
In the early 1960s, modems were introduced to connect dumb terminals to a centra
l computer. Many companies used to rent computer time since it was too expensive
to own an on-site system. The connection rate was very slow. It was 300 bits pe
r second (bps), which is about 30 characters per second.
As PCs became more affordable in the 1970s, bulletin board systems (BBSs) appear
ed. These BBSs allowed users to connect and post or read messages on a discussio
n board. The 300-bps speed was acceptable since it was faster than the speed at

which most people could read or type. In the early 1980s, use of bulletin boards
increased exponentially and the 300 bps speed quickly became too slow for the t
ransfer of large files and graphics. In the 1990s, modems could operate at 9600
bps. By 1998, they reached the current standard of 56,000 bps, or 56 kbps.
Soon the high-speed services used in the corporate environment such as Digital S
ubscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem access moved to the consumer market. These
services no longer required expensive equipment or a second phone line. These ar
e "always on" services that provide instant access and do not require a connecti
on to be established for each session. This provides more reliability and flexib
ility and has simplified Internet connection sharing in small office and home ne
tworks.
The next page will introduce an important set of network protocols.
1.1.6 TCP/IP description and configuration

This page will introduce the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TC
P/IP).
TCP/IP is a set of protocols or rules that have been developed to allow computer
s to share resources across a network. The operating system tools must be used t
o configure TCP/IP on a workstation. The process is very similar for Windows or
Mac operating systems.
The Lab Activity will teach students how to obtain basic TCP/IP configuration in
formation.
The next page will introduce the ping command

1.1.7 Testing connectivity with ping

This page will explain how the ping command is used to test network connectivity
.
Ping is a basic program that verifies a particular IP address exists and can acc
ept requests. The computer acronym ping stands for Packet Internet or Inter-Netw
ork Groper. The name was contrived to match the submariners' term for the sound
of a returned sonar pulse from an underwater object.
The ping command works by sending special Internet Protocol (IP) packets, called
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request datagrams, to a specified
destination. Each packet sent is a request for a reply. The output response for
a ping contains the success ratio and round-trip time to the destination. From
this information, it is possible to determine if there is connectivity to a des
tination. The ping command is used to test the NIC transmit and receive function
, the TCP/IP configuration, and network connectivity. The following types of pin
g commands can be issued:
ping 127.0.0.1
This is a unique ping and is called an internal loopback test. It
is used to verify the TCP/IP network configuration.
ping IP address of host computer
A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address
configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host.
ping default-gateway IP address
A ping to the default gateway indicates if the r

outer that connects the local network to other networks can be reached.
ping remote destination IP address
A ping to a remote destination verifies conne
ctivity to a remote host.
Students will use the ping and tracert commands in the Lab Activity.
The next page will discuss Web browsers.

1.1.8 Web browser and plug-ins

This page will explain what a Web browser is and how it performs the following f
unctions:
Contacts a Web server
Requests information
Receives information
Displays the results on the screen
A Web browser is software that interprets HTML, which is one of the languages us
ed to code Web page content. Some new technologies use other markup languages wi
th more advanced features. HTML, which is the most common markup language, can d
isplay graphics or play sound, movies, and other multimedia files. Hyperlinks th
at are embedded in a Web page provide a quick link to another location on the sa
me page or a different Internet address.
Two of the most popular Web browsers are Internet Explorer (IE) and Netscape Com
municator. These browsers perform the same tasks. However, there are differences
between them. Some websites may not support the use of one of these browsers. I
t is a good idea to have both programs installed.
Here are some features of Netscape Navigator:
Was the first popular browser
Uses less disk space
Displays HTML files
Performs e-mail and file transfers
Here are some features of IE:
Is powerfully integrated with other Microsoft products
Uses more disk space
Displays HTML files
Performs e-mail and file transfers
There are also many special, or proprietary, file types that standard Web browse
rs are not able to display. To view these files the browser must be configured t
o use the plug-in applications. These applications work with the browser to laun
ch the programs required to view special files:
Flash
Plays multimedia files created by Macromedia Flash
Quicktime
Plays video files created by Apple
Real Player Plays audio files
Use the following procedure to install the Flash plug-in:
Go to the Macromedia website.
Download the latest flash player installer file.
Run and install the plug-in in Netscape or IE.
Access the Cisco Academy website to verify the installation and proper operation
.

Computers also perform many other useful tasks. Many employees use a set of appl
ications in the form of an office suite such as Microsoft Office. Office applica
tions typically include the following:
Spreadsheet software contains tables that consist of columns and rows and it is
often used with formulas to process and analyze data.
Modern word processors allow users to create documents that include graphics and
richly formatted text.
Database management software is used to store, maintain, organize, sort, and fil
ter records. A record is a collection of information identified by some common t
heme such as customer name.
Presentation software is used to design and develop presentations to deliver at
meetings, classes, or sales presentations.
A personal information manager includes an e-mail utility, contact lists, a cale
ndar, and a to-do list.
Office applications are now a part of daily work, as typewriters were before PCs
.
The Lab Activity will help students understand how a Web browser works.
The next page will discuss the troubleshooting process.

1.1.9 Troubleshooting Internet connection problems

The Lab Activity on this page will show students how to troubleshoot hardware,
software, and network configuration problems. The goal is to locate and repair t
he problems in a set amount of time to gain access to the curriculum. This lab w
ill demonstrate how complex it is to configure Internet access. This includes th
e processes and procedures used to troubleshoot computer hardware, software, and
network systems.
This page concludes this lesson. The next lesson will discuss computer number sy
stems. The first page will describe the binary system.
1.2.1 Binary presentation of data
This page will explain how computers use the binary number system to represent
data.
Computers work with and store data using electronic switches that are either ON
or OFF. Computers can only understand and use data that is in this two-state or
binary format. The 1s and 0s are used to represent the two possible states of an
electronic component in a computer. 1 is represented by an ON state, and 0 is r
epresented by an OFF state. They are referred to as binary digits or bits.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the code that is m
ost commonly used to represent alpha-numeric data in a computer. ASCII uses bin
ary digits to represent the symbols typed on the keyboard. When computers send O
N or OFF states over a network, electrical, light, or radio waves are used to re
present the 1s and 0s. Notice that each character is represented by a unique pat
tern of eight binary digits.
Because computers are designed to work with ON/OFF switches, binary digits and b
inary numbers are natural to them. Humans use the decimal number system, which i
s relatively simple when compared to the long series of 1s and 0s used by comput
ers. So the computer binary numbers need to be converted to decimal numbers.
Sometimes binary numbers are converted to hexadecimal numbers. This reduces a lo
ng string of binary digits to a few hexadecimal characters. It is easier to reme

mber and to work with hexadecimal numbers.

The next page will discuss bits and bytes.
1.2.2 Bits and bytes

This page will explain what bits and bytes are.

A binary 0 might be represented by 0 volts of electricity.
A binary 1 might be represented by +5 volts of electricity.
Computers are designed to use groupings of eight bits. This grouping of eight bi
ts is referred to as a byte. In a computer, one byte represents a single addres
sable storage location. These storage locations represent a value or single char
acter of data, such as an ASCII code. The total number of combinations of the ei
ght switches being turned on and off is 256. The value range of a byte is from 0
to 255. So a byte is an important concept to understand when working with compu
ters and networks.
The next page will describe the Base 10 number system
1.2.3 Base 10 number system

Numbering systems consist of symbols and rules for their use. This page will dis
cuss the most commonly used number system, which is decimal, or Base 10.
Base 10 uses the ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. These symbols, ca
n be combined to represent all possible numeric values.
The decimal number system is based on powers of 10. Each column position of a va
lue, from right to left, is multiplied by the base number 10 raised to a power,
which is the exponent. The power that 10 is raised to depends on its position to
the left of the decimal point. When a decimal number is read from right to left
, the first or rightmost position represents 100, which equals 1. The second pos
ition represents 101, which equals 10. The third position represents 102, which
equals 100. The seventh position to the left represents 106, which equals 1,000,
000. This is true no matter how many columns the number has.
Here is an example:
2134 = (2x103) + (1x102) + (3x101) + (4x100)
This review of the decimal system will help students understand the Base 2 and B
ase 16 number systems. These systems use the same methods as the decimal system.

1.2.4 Base 2 number system

This page will discuss the number system that computers use to recognize and pro

cess data, which is binary, or Base 2.

The binary system uses only two symbols, which are 0 and 1.
digit from right to left in a binary number represents the
to a power or exponent. These place values are, from right
23, 24, 25, 26, and 27, or 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128

The position of each

base number 2 raised
to left, 20, 21, 22,
respectively.

Here is an example:
101102 = (1 x 24 = 16) + (0 x 23 = 0) + (1 x 22 = 4) + (1 x 21 = 2) + (0 x 20 =
0) = 22 (16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0)
This example shows that the binary number 10110 is equal to the decimal number 2
2.
The next page will explain the conversion of decimal numbers to binary numbers

1.2.5 Converting decimal numbers to 8-bit binary numbers

This page will teach students how to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers.
There are several ways to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers. The flowcha
rt in Figure describes one method. This method is one of several methods that c
an be used. It is best to select one method and practice with it until it always
produces the correct answer.
Conversion exercise:
Use the example below to convert the decimal number 168 to a binary number:
128 is less than 168 so the left most bit in the binary number is a 1. 168 - 128
= 40.
64 is not less than or equal to 40 so the second bit from the left is a 0.
32 is less than 40 so the third bit from the left is a 1. 40 - 32 = 8.
16 is not less than or equal to 8 so the fourth bit from the left is a 0.
8 is equal to 8 so the fifth bit from the left is a 1. 8 - 8 = 0. Therefore, the
bits to the right are all 0.
This example shows that the decimal number 168 is equal to the binary number 101
01000.
The number converter activity in Figure will allow students to practice decimal
to binary conversions.
In the Lab Activity, students will practice the conversion of decimal numbers to
binary numbers.
The next page will discuss the conversion of binary numbers to decimal numbers.

1.2.6 Converting 8-bit binary numbers to decimal numbers

This page will teach students how to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers.
There are two basic ways to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers. The flowc
hart in Figure shows one example.
Students can also multipy each binary digit by the base number of 2 raised to th
e exponent of its position.
Here is an example:
Convert the binary number 01110000 to a decimal number.
NOTE:
Work from right to left. Remember that anything raised to the 0 power is 1.

0 x 20 = 0
0 x 21 = 0
0 x 22 = 0
0 x 23 = 0
1 x 24 = 16
1 x 25 = 32
1 x 26 = 64
0 x 27 = 0
__________
= 112

The Lab Activity will let students practice the conversion of binary numbers to
decimal numbers.

1.2.7 Four-octet dotted decimal representation of 32-bit binary numbers

This page will explain how binary numbers are represented in dotted decimal nota
tion.
Currently, addresses assigned to computers on the Internet are 32-bit binary num
bers. To make it easier to work with these addresses, the 32-bit binary number
is broken into a series of decimal numbers. First the binary number is split int
o four groups of eight binary digits. Then each group of eight bits, or octet, i
s converted into its decimal equivalent. This conversion can be performed as sho
wn on the previous page.

When written, the complete binary number is represented as four groups of decima
l digits separated by periods. This is called dotted decimal notation and provid
es a compact and easy way to refer to 32-bit addresses. This representation is u
sed frequently later in this course, so it is necessary to understand it. For do
tted decimal to binary conversions, remember that each group of one to three dec
imal digits represents a group of eight binary digits. If the decimal number tha
t is being converted is less than 128, zeros will be needed to be added to the l
eft of the equivalent binary number until there are a total of eight bits.
Try the following conversions for practice:
Convert 200.114.6.51 to its 32-bit binary equivalent.
Convert 10000000 01011101 00001111 10101010 to its dotted decimal equivalent.

1.2.8 Hexadecimal

This page will teach students about the hexadecimal number system. Students will
also learn how hexadecimal is used to represent binary and decimal numbers.
The hexadecimal or Base 16 number system is commonly used to represent binary nu
mbers in a more readable form. Computers perform computations in binary. Howeve
r, there are several instances when the binary output of a computer is expressed
in hexadecimal to make it easier to read.
The configuration register in Cisco routers often requires hexadecimal to binary
and binary to hexadecimal conversions. Cisco routers have a configuration regis
ter that is 16 bits long. The 16-bit binary number can be represented as a fourdigit hexadecimal number. For example, 0010000100000010 in binary equals 2102 in
hexadecimal. A hexadecimal number is often indicated with a 0x. For example, th
e hexadecimal number 2102 would be written as 0x2102.
Like the binary and decimal systems, the hexadecimal system is based on the use
of symbols, powers, and positions. The symbols that hexadecimal uses are the di
gits 0 through 9 and the letters A through F.
All combinations of four binary digits can be represented with one hexadecimal s
ymbol. These values require one or two decimal symbols. Two hexadecimal digits c
an efficiently represent any combination of eight binary digits. The decimal rep
resentation of an eight-bit binary number will require either two or three decim
al digits. Since one hexadecimal digit always represents four binary digits, hex
adecimal symbols are easier to use than decimal symbols when working with large
binary numbers. Using hexadecimal representation also reduces the confusion of r
eading long strings of binary numbers and the amount of space it takes to write
binary numbers. Remember that 0x may be used to indicate a hexadecimal value. Th
e hexadecimal number 5D might be written as 0x5D.
To convert to binary, simply expand each hexadecimal digit into its four-bit bin
ary equivalent.
The Lab Activity will teach students how to convert hexadecimal numbers into dec
imal and binary values.

1.2.9 Boolean or binary logic

This page will introduce Boolean logic and explain how it is used.
Boolean logic is based on digital circuitry that accepts one or two incoming vol
tages. Based on the input voltages, output voltage is generated. For computers
the voltage difference is represented as an ON or OFF state. These two states ar
e associated with a binary 1 or 0.
Boolean logic is a
a choice based on
With the exception
ccept two numbers,
ule.

binary logic that allows two numbers to be compared and makes

the numbers. These choices are the logical AND, OR, and NOT.
of the NOT, Boolean operations have the same function. They a
which are 1 and 0, and generate a result based on the logic r

The NOT operation takes the value that is presented and inverts it. A 1 becomes
a 0 and a 0 becomes a 1. Remember that the logic gates are electronic devices b
uilt specifically for this purpose. The logic rule that they follow is whatever
the input is, the output is the opposite.
The AND operation compares two input values. If both values are 1, the logic gat
e generates a 1 as the output. Otherwise it outputs a 0. There are four combina
tions of input values. Three of these combinations generate a 0, and one combina
tion generates a 1.
The OR operation also takes two input values. If at least one of the input valu
es is 1, the output value is 1. Again there are four combinations of input value
s. Three combinations generate a 1 and the fourth generates a 0.
The two networking operations that use Boolean logic are subnetwork and wildcard
masking. The masking operations are used to filter addresses. The addresses ide
ntify the devices on the network and can be grouped together or controlled by ot
her network operations. These functions will be explained in depth later in the
curriculum.

1.2.10 IP addresses and network masks

This page will explain the relationship between IP addresses and network masks.
When IP addresses are assigned to computers, some of the bits on the left side o
f the 32-bit IP number represent a network. The number of bits designated depend
s on the address class. The bits left over in the 32-bit IP address identify a
particular computer on the network. A computer is referred to as a host. The IP
address of a computer consists of a network and a host part.
To inform a computer how the 32-bit IP address has been split, a second 32-bit n
umber called a subnetwork mask is used. This mask is a guide that determines how
the IP address is interpreted. It indicates how many of the bits are used to id
entify the network of the computer. The subnetwork mask sequentially fills in th
e 1s from the left side of the mask. A subnet mask will always be all 1s until t
he network address is identified and then it will be all 0s to the end of the ma
sk. The bits in the subnet mask that are 0 identify the computer or host.
Some examples of subnet masks are as follows:

11111111000000000000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.0.0.0

11111111111111110000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.255.0.0
In the first example, the first eight bits from the left represent the network p
ortion of the address, and the last 24 bits represent the host portion of the ad
dress. In the second example the first 16 bits represent the network portion of
the address, and the last 16 bits represent the host portion of the address.
The IP address 10.34.23.134 in binary form is 00001010.00100010.00010111.1000011
0.
A Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.0.0.0 produ
ces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000
The dotted decimal conversion is 10.0.0.0 which is the network portion of the IP
address when the 255.0.0.0 mask is used.
A Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.255.0.0 pro
duces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
00001010.00100010.00000000.00000000
The dotted decimal conversion is 10.34.0.0 which is the network portion of the I
P address when the 255.255.0.0 mask is used.
This is a brief illustration of the effect that a network mask has on an IP addr
ess. The importance of masking will become much clearer as more work with IP add
resses is done. For right now it is only important that the concept of the mask
is understood.

Summary
Decimal representation of IP addresses and network masksThis page summarizes the
topics discussed in this module.
A connection to a computer network can be broken down into the physical connecti
on, the logical connection, and the applications that interpret the data and dis
play the information. Establishment and maintenance of the physical connection r
equires knowledge of PC components and peripherals. Connectivity to the Internet
requires an adapter card, which may be a modem or a network interface card (NIC
).
In the early 1960s modems were introduced to provide connectivity to a central c
omputer. Today, access methods have progressed to services that provide constant
, high-speed access.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. The Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary group of protocols use

d on the Internet. TCP/IP can be configured on a workstation using operating sys

tem tools. The ping utility can be used to test connectivity.
A web browser is software that is installed on the PC to gain access to the Inte
rnet and local web pages. Occasionally a browser may require plug-in application
s. These applications work in conjunction with the browser to launch the program
required to view special or proprietary files.
Computers recognize and process data using the binary, or Base 2, numbering syst
em. Often the binary output of a computer is expressed in hexadecimal to make it
easier to read. The ablility to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers is va
luable when converting dotted decimal IP addresses to machine-readable binary fo
rmat. Conversion of hexadecimal numbers to binary, and binary numbers to hexadec
imal, is a common task when dealing with the configuration register in Cisco rou
ters.
Boolean logic is a binary logic that allows two numbers to be compared and a cho
ice generated based on the two numbers. Two networking operations that use Boole
an logic are subnetting and wildcard masking.
The 32-bit binary addresses used on the Internet are referred to as Internet Pro
tocol (IP) addresses.