Venky Leaf Spring - Docx 2

ABSTRACT
The Automobile Industry has shown keen interest for replacement of steel leaf spring with that
of glass fiber composite leaf spring, since the composite material has high strength to weight
ratio, good corrosion resistance and tailor-able properties. The present study searches the new
material for leaf spring. In present study the material selected was glass fiber reinforced plastic
(GFRP) and the polyester resin (NETPOL 1011) [5] is used against conventional steel. A spring
with constant width and thickness was fabricated by hand lay-up technique which was very
simple and economical. The numerical analysis is carried via finite element analysis using
HYPERMESH software. Stresses and deflection results for both steel and composite leaf spring
material were obtained. Result shows that, the composite spring has maximum deflection than
steel leaf spring and weight of composite spring was nearly reduced up to 85% compared with
steel material.
This paper describes design and FEA analysis of composite leaf spring made of glass fiber
reinforced polymer. The dimensions of an existing conventional steel leaf spring of a light
commercial vehicle are taken for evaluation of results.
IV
ESWAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
INDEX
CONTENTS
P.NO
ABSTRACT
IV
INDEX
LIST OF FIGURES
IX
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO BRAKE DISC PLATE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Characteristics
1.4 Manufacturing process
1.5Other uses
1.5.1 By blacksmiths
1.5.2 In trampolines
1.5.3 Clutches
1.6 Tips on Leaf Spring
1.7 Leaf Spring Types
1.8 Keep U-Bolt Nuts Tight!
1.9 U-Bolt Top Plate
13
1.10 The U-bolt top plate is important for

two reason
13
1.11 Center Bolt and Cupped Centers
15
1.12Spring Eyes
15
V
1.13 Typical Eyes of Springs
15
1.14 Heavy-Duty Spring Eyes
16
1.14.1 Add a leaf?
16
1.14.2 Stress Distribution Disturbance
17
1.15 Spring Clips
17
1.15.1 Spring clips prevent

breakage due to fanning
1.16 Inspection
18
19
1.16.1 Visual Inspection
19
1.16.2 Distance from Fixed Hanger

Bolt to Center bolt
20
1.16.3 Check leaves
20
1.16.4 Center bolt
20
1.16.5Check U-bolt nuts for tightness
20
1.16.6 Check spring clips
20
1.16.7 Check spring eyes for
21
1.16.8 Check spring shackle bolts for
21
1.16.9 Inspecting springs for

quality and workmanship
1.17 Driving Tips
22
23
1.17.1 Design
23
1.17.2 Steel
23
1.17.3 Processing
24
1.17.4 Maintenance
24
1.17.5 Vehicle Driver
24
1.17. Leaf Spring Three Things
24
VI
1.18 Spring length is measured

along curve of main leaf
1.19 Mechanical properties
26
27
1.20 Orthotropic Properties of

E-Glass/Epoxy material
27
1.21 Physical properties of materials
28
1.22 Terminology in leaf spring
29
1.23 Standard sizes of Automobile

Suspension Springs
29
1.24 Dimensions for centre bolts
29
1.25 Dimensions of clip, rivet and bolts
30
1.26Specifications of the modeled leaf spring
30
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM/CAE
2.1 Solid Modeling Using CAD Software
31
2.2 Introduction to CAD/CAM/CAE
32
2.3 Need for CAD, CAE &CAM
33
2.4 Introduction to NX
33
2.4.1 What is NX.
34
2.4.2 Feature-based
34
2.4.3 Parametric
34
2.4.4Solid Modeling
35
2.4.5Constraints
35
2.5 NX User Interface
35
2.5.1 Template parts
35
2.5.2 Objectives
36
VII
37
2.6.1 Gateway application
37
2.6.2 Ribbon bar interface
37
2.6.3 Assembly Navigator overview
38
2.6.4 Command Finder
38
2.6.5 Roles
39
2.6.6 Other view manipulation options
39
2.6.7QuickPick
40
2.6.8 Coordinate systems
40
2.6.9 Sketch curves
41
2.7 Creation of CAD Model
42
2.8 Conversion of CAD model to STL Format
44
2.9 Slicing of the STL File into layers
44
2.10 Cleaning and Finishing
44
2.11 Rapid Prototyping
45
2.11.1 Working Principle behind

Rapid prototyping
46
2.11.2Rapid Prototyping Techniques
47
2.12 Advantages of RP
49
2.13 Disadvantages of RP
50
2.14 Applications of Rapid Prototyping
50
2.14.1 Engineering
50
2.14.2 Architecture
50
2.14.3 Medical Applications
50
2.14.4 Arts and Archaeology
51
VIII
CHAPTER 3
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
3.1 Finite Element Analysis
52
3.2 Need for FEA
53
3.3 How Does Finite Element Analysis Work
53
3.4 Terms commonly used in FEM
55
3.5 Basic steps involved in FEA
56
3.5.1 The following are the five basic

stepsinvolved in an FEA analysis
3.6 Basic Approach to FEA
56
57
3.6.1. Pre-Processor
57
3.6.2. Solver
57
3.6.3. Post-Processor
58
3.7 Advantages of FEA
58
3.8 Limitations of FEA
59
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS
4.1 Static Analysis
60
4.1.1 Design Parameters Leaf Spring

4.2 Mesh model of leaf spring:
60
60
4.3 Loads and boundary conditions of leaf spring: 61

4.4
Material STEEL 65Si7:
61
4.4.1 Displacement diagram:
61
4.4.2 Stress diagram:
62
IX
4.5 Composite leaf spring:
62
62
63
4.6 Result Tables:
63
CONCLUSION
64
REFERENCES
65
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
P.NO
1.1 Leaf springs front independent

Suspension
1.2 Independent front suspension by

transverse leaf spring
1.3Independent front suspension by semielliptical springs
1.4 Leaf spring on a German locomotive
1.5 Types of springs
1.6 Bulldozing or Pre-setting a Leaf Spring
1.7 Semi-Elliptic Spring
1.8 Full Taper or Parabolic
1.9 Nuts may be tight while bolts are loose.
10
1.10 Don't Omit U-Bolt Top Plate
13
X
1.11 Typical center clamping of overslung spring
14
1.12 Minimum U-Bolt Corner Radius
14
1.14 Eye Springs
15
1.15 Heavy Duty Spring Eyes
16
1.16 Leaves Arrangement
17
1.17 Leaf Spring
18
1.18 Proper Clip Clearances
18
1.19 Visual Inspection
19
1.20Springs Cushion Brake and Acceleration

Torque Reactions.
24
1.21 Unequalized Brakes are Unfair to Springs.
25
1.22 Progressive Springs tend to equalize riding

comfort under both light and heavy loads
26
1.23 Spring Length Measurement
26
2.1- Template
36
2.2- Roles Command
39
2.3- Views Command Bar
39
2.4- Quick Plot Command Bar
40
2.5-Global Co-ordinate System
41
2.6-Movable Work Coordinate System
41
2.7-Datum Co-ordinate System
41
2.8 Sketch Curve Types
42
2.9 Leaf Spring Sketch Model
43
2.10 Leaf Spring Model
43
3.1 Example of mesh model
53
3.2 Example of analysis model
54
4.1 Mesh model of Leaf Spring
60
XI
4.2 Loads and boundary conditions of leaf spring
61
4.3 Displacement of leaf spring(steel)
61
4.4 Von mises stress of leaf spring (steel)
62
4.5 Displacement of leaf spring(composite material)
62
4.6 Vonmises stress of leaf spring (composite material)
63
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
P.NO
1.1 U- Bolt Grades
11
1.2 Allowable Torque
12
1.3 Physical Properties
28
1.4 Dimensions for Centre Bolts
29
1.5 Dimensions of Clip, Rivet and Bolts
30
4.1 Material Properties
68
4.2 Comparison of Results
72
XII
CHAPTER-1
XIII
LEAF SPRING
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used for the suspension in wheeled vehicles.
Originally called a laminated or carriage spring, and sometimes referred to as a semielliptical spring or cart spring, it is one of the oldest forms of springing, dating back
to medieval times.
Fig.1.1 Leaf springs front independent suspension, front-wheel-drive Alvis1928
Fig.1.2 Independent front suspension by transverse leaf spring Humber 1935
1
Fig.1.3 Independent front suspension by semi-elliptical springs Mercedes Benz 230 W153
1938
Fig.1.4 Leaf spring on a German locomotive built by Orenstein-Koppel and

LbeckerMaschinenbau
2
A leaf spring takes the form of a slender arc-shaped length of spring steel of rectangular crosssection. In the most common configuration, the center of the arc provides location for the axle,
while tie holes are provided at either end for attaching to the vehicle body. For very heavy
vehicles, a leaf spring can be made from several leaves stacked on top of each other in several
layers, often with progressively shorter leaves. Leaf springs can serve locating and to some
extent damping as well as springing functions. While the interleaf friction provides a damping
action, it is not well controlled and results in stiction in the motion of the suspension. For this
reason some manufacturers have used mono-leaf springs.
A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the frame at both ends or attached directly at one
end, usually the front, with the other end attached through a shackle, a short swinging arm. The
shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate when compressed and thus makes for
softer springiness. Some springs terminated in a concave end, called a spoon end (seldom used
now), to carry a swivelling member.
1.2 History:
There were a variety of leaf springs, usually employing the word "elliptical". "Elliptical" or "full
elliptical" leaf springs referred to two circular arcs linked at their tips. This was joined to the
frame at the top center of the upper arc, the bottom center was joined to the "live" suspension
components, such as a solid front axle. Additional suspension components, such as trailing arms,
would usually be needed for this design, but not for "semi-elliptical" leaf springs as used in
the Hotchkiss drive. That employed the lower arc, hence its name. "Quarter-elliptic" springs
often had the thickest part of the stack of leaves stuck into the rear end of the side pieces of a
short ladder frame, with the free end attached to the differential, as in the Austin Seven of the
1920s. As an example of non-elliptic leaf springs, the Ford Model T had multiple leaf springs
over its differential that were curved in the shape of a yoke. As a substitute for dampers (shock
absorbers), some manufacturers laid non-metallic sheets in between the metal leaves, such as
wood.
Elliptic
3
Semi-elliptic
Three quarter-elliptic
Quarter-elliptic
Transverse
Fig.1.5 Types of springs

Leaf springs were very common on automobiles, right up to the 1970s in Europe and Japan and
late
'70s
in
America
when
the
move
to front-wheel
drive,
and
more
sophisticatedsuspension designs saw automobile manufacturers use coil springs instead. Today
leaf springs are still used in heavy commercial vehicles such as vans and trucks, SUVs,
andrailway carriages. For heavy vehicles, they have the advantage of spreading the load more
widely over the vehicle's chassis, whereas coil springs transfer it to a single point. Unlike coil
springs, leaf springs also locate the rear axle, eliminating the need for trailing arms and
a Panhard rod, thereby saving cost and weight in a simple live axle rear suspension. A further
advantage of a leaf spring over a helical spring is that the end of the leaf spring may be guided
along a definite path.
4
A more modern implementation is the parabolic leaf spring. This design is characterised by
fewer leaves whose thickness varies from centre to ends following a parabolic curve. In this
design, inter-leaf friction is unwanted, and therefore there is only contact between the springs at
the ends and at the centre where the axle is connected. Spacers prevent contact at other points.
Aside from a weight saving, the main advantage of parabolic springs is their greater flexibility,
which translates into vehicle ride quality that approaches that of coil springs. There is a trade-off
in the form of reduced load carrying capability, however. The characteristic of parabolic springs
is better riding comfort and not as "stiff" as conventional "multi-leaf springs". It is widely used
on buses for better comfort. A further development by the British GKN company and by
Chevrolet with the Corvette amongst others, is the move to composite plastic leaf springs.
Typically when used in automobile suspension the leaf both supports an axle and locates/
partially locates the axle. This can lead to handling issues (such as 'axle tramp'), as the flexible
nature of the spring makes precise control of the unsprung mass of the axle difficult. Some
suspension designs use a Watts link (or a Panhard rod) and radius arms to locate the axle and do
not have this drawback. Such designs can use softer springs, resulting in better ride. The various
Austin-Healey 3000's and Fiat 128's rear suspension are examples.
1.3 Characteristics:
1. The leaf spring acts as a linkage for holding the axle in position and thus separate linkages are
not necessary. It makes the construction of the suspension simple and strong.
2. Because the positioning of the axle is carried out by the leaf springs, it is disadvantageous to
use soft springs i.e. springs with low spring constant.
3. Therefore, this type of suspension does not provide good riding comfort. The inter-leaf friction
between the leaf springs affects the riding comfort.
4. Acceleration and braking torque cause wind-up and vibration. Also wind-up causes rear-end
squat and nose-diving.
5. The inter-leaf friction damps the spring's motion and reduces rebound, which until shock
absorbers were widely adopted was a great advantage over helical springs.
5
1.4 Manufacturing process:

Multi-leaf springs are made as follows:
1.
Shearing of flat bar
2.
Center hole punching / Drilling
3.
End Heating process forming (hot & cold process)
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
Eye Forming / Wrapper Forming
2.
Diamond cutting / end trimming / width cutting / end tapering
3.
End punching / end grooving / end bending / end forging / eye grinding
4.
Center hole punching / Drilling / nibbing
Heat Treatment
1.
Heating
2.
Hardening
3.
Camering
4.
Quenching
5.
Tempering
Surface preparation
1.
Shot peening / stress peening
2.
Primary painting
Eye bush preparation process

1.
Eye reaming / eye boring
2.
Bush insertion
3.
Bush reaming
Assemble
1.
Presetting & load testing
2.
Finish painting
3.
Marking & packing
1.5Other uses:
1.5.1 By blacksmiths:
Because leaf springs are made of relatively high quality steel, they are a favorite material
for blacksmiths. In countries such as Nepal, Bangladesh, the Philippines) and Pakistan, where
traditional blacksmiths still produce a large amount of the country's tools, leaf springs from
6
scrapped cars are frequently used to make knives, kukris, and other tools.They are also
commonly used by amateur and hobbyist blacksmiths in Western countries and India.
1.5.2 In trampolines:
Leaf springs have also replaced traditional coil springs in some trampolines (known as soft-edge
trampolines), which improves safety for users and reduces risk of concussion. The leaf springs
are spaced around the frame as 'legs' that branch from the base frame to suspend the jumping
mat, providing flexibility and resilience.
1.5.3 Clutches:
The "diaphragm" common in automotive clutches is a type of leaf spring.
Corvette leaf spring
Coil spring
Suspension lift
Carriage
Transverse leaf spring and solid axle front suspension of early Ford cars
1.6 Tips on Leaf Spring:

To assure proper spring life, the maintenance and inspection process must include the entire suspension
system of springs and chassis parts.
The motoring public has learned that proper maintenance on their vehicles is essential to obtain longer
life and economical service in this age of rising equipment and fuel costs. In most normal maintenance
checks, the spring suspension system is sorely overlooked, but a minimum of attention to the spring
suspension would yield a longer and more reliable suspension system service.
When warriors of old made punctures in each other with sharp rapiers, the swordsmen liked to test the
integrity of their rapiers by bending them almost double to make sure the rapiers would not break in
actual combat.
It is customary practice, of some leaf spring manufacturers, to test every assembled spring in a
"bulldozer". This bends the spring farther than it could ever be bent in actual service before the axle
makes metal-to-metal contact with the frame. While this does test the spring, and would reveal any
7
flaws existing in the steel, the real purpose is something else.

By bending the spring farther in the bulldozer; than it would ever go in actual service; this stresses the
metal, on the tension side of the leaves, a little beyond the yield point. This "pre-sets" the spring so that
it will reduce, settle or sag in actual use, and steering alignments will be better maintained.
It is obviously impractical to "pre-set" coil springs beyond normal operating compression, because the
adjacent coils of a helical spring make contact with each other-before the maximum yield point is
reached. This would seem to be the reason why coil spring front suspensions frequently settle or sag,
during the first five or ten thousand miles of use, and then have to be replaced in order to restore normal
steering alignments.
Fig.1.6 Bulldozing or Pre-setting a Leaf Spring
1.7 Leaf Spring Types:

Practically all leaf springs, as now used on cars, buses and trucks are of the semi-elliptic type. Because
the semi-elliptic spring has the outstanding advantages of not only acting as a spring, to resiliently
support the vehicle, but also serves the important functions of positioning the axles and of cushioning
both driving torque and brake reaction, the simple semi-elliptic type has superseded many other kinds of
springs, including cantilever; platform, full elliptic, etc. A semi-elliptic spring gives just as easy riding
as the same amount of steel, built into a cantilever of full elliptic spring.
Fig.1.7 Semi-Elliptic Spring
8
Fig.1.8 Full Taper or Parabolic
Although not new to the market, the full taper spring is now very popular for suspension systems on
light to heavy truck application as well as some passenger car suspensions. The major advantages to this
type spring are its superior ride and overall reduction of vehicle weight, which nets greater revenue per
load miles.
The full taper spring, although superior in some aspects, is not as forgiving as its counterpart the multileaf spring and should therefore be checked on regularly scheduled maintenance periods.
1.8 KEEP U-BOLT NUTS TIGHT!

"Tighten-and keep-those U-bolt nuts really tight" . . . is the keynote of good preventive maintenance of
leaf springs.
Operators of large fleets of trucks and buses have found that center breakage of springs is greatly
reduced by "retightening" U-bolt nuts-after the first day's run-when a spring has been repaired or
replaced. There are a number of surfaces between the leaves which bed down a little during the first
day's operation. But retightening takes up the resulting slack and the spring then remains tight for a
longer period. Just as it is good practice to retighten cylinder head nuts, after the engine has been run a
few hundred miles.
When installing U-bolts, it is good practice to use torque wrenches to determine when U-bolt nuts have
been adequately tightened. Do not rely on impact wrenches to provide the needed torque to properly
tighten the U-bolt. Impact wrenches can over or under torque the U-bolt, thus resulting in a failure to the
U-bolt by over torquing or the spring by under torquing.
But torque wrenches, like micrometer calipers, are only as good as the mechanic who uses them.
Instances have occurred where, due to insufficient length of threads or badly cut threads, torque
wrenches have merely measured the "pull around" of the nut on the U-bolt, rather than the "pull
together" of the spring and axle pad. Not only should threads be a correct fit, but both threads and
contacting surface of nut should be clean and free turning.
9
Fig.1.9 Nuts may be tight while bolts are loose.
When in doubt as to whether the U-bolt nuts are really clamping parts together tightly, a sharp "rap"
with a hammer will sound the answer. Just as railroad car wheel inspectors rap car wheels, before each
long trip.
Further retightening, of new or repaired springs, is suggested at the end of the first 500 miles, after
1,000 miles and on appropriate intervals determined by individual preventive maintenance plans.
Failure to retighten the U-bolts may lead to serious damage to the suspension system or serious injury or
death to the vehicle operator.
When a U-bolt has been torqued to its recommended torque level, the bolt and threads will stretch to
mate with the deep nut.
Because a properly installed U-bolt is stretched, it becomes apparent that the U-bolt should not be
reused in repair. The stretching action on the threads will distort the threads enough to achieve a type of
cross threading when the nut is removed. This action will tend to cut new threads as the nut is removed,
thus lowering the U-bolt's ability to clamp by specified torque.
U-Bolt Grades
Grade 2
Grade 5
1045
Steel
or
Annealed
36,000 PSI Yield

1045
Quenched
92,000 PSI Yield
10
Leaded
and
Tempered
Grade 7
Grade 8
TRI-8
1541 Cold Drawn / Cold Formed

115,000 PSI Yield
4140
Quenched
and
Tempered
130,000 PSI Yield

1552 Special Cold Drawn / Cold Formed
130,000+ PSI Yield
Table.1.1 U- Bolt Grades

Although the aforementioned methods of tightening are excellent rules of thumb, you must consider the
U-bolt material being used. Basic bolt gradings are Grade 2, being the lowest, with Grade 5 thru Grade
8 obtaining higher and better strength.
The chart below shows the Maximum Allowable Torque for Fine Thread Series on U-bolts.
Consult the original equipment manual on recommended torques.
Over torquing may damage other suspension parts.
Maximum
Allowable
Torque
Fine Thread Series
Dia and Threads Grade
1/2 20
9/16 18
Ft. Lbs.
36
92
114
129
51
131
164
185
11
Max. Torque
5/8 18
3/4 16
7/8 14
1 14
1 1/8 12
1 1/4 12
71
181
226
256
124
316
395
446
197
502
628
710
293
748
935
1,057
422
949
1,186
1,522
584
1,313
1,641
2,107
Table.1.2 Allowable Torque

The TRI-8 cold drawn material lends itself very well to those spring shops which have installed U-bolt
bending equipment capable of forming threaded rod into the formed U-bolt in the cold state. The
12
ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and reduction in area meet the specifications for the
mechanical properties of Grade 8 and the material has been accepted by several Original Equipment
manufacturers for truck " trailer U-bolt application.
We have emphasized U-bolt nut tightness because the center bolt area of a spring is the area of the least
cross section in multi-leaf springs, hence the weakest area. If the U-bolts are loose, the center bolt area
absorbs the greatest stress. When the center bolt area is clamped solidly against the axle pad, as in a
vise, then the middle of the spring cannot bend and, if it cannot bend, then it also cannot break at this
point. Because the middle of the spring is the place of greatest hazard, it is necessary to clamp it
securely to prevent breakage at this point.
It is possible for worn or improperly fitted axle pads to be a contributing cause of center spring
breakage. Since many modern springs are flat, under normal full load, pads for such springs should also
be flat, and only lightly rounded at the ends.
1.9 U-BOLT TOP PLATE:
Fig.1.10 Don't Omit U-Bolt Top Plate
Wear of spring pads can only be caused by movement of the spring on the pads. If the U-bolts have
been holding the spring so tightly to the pad that no movement occurs, there can be little wear.
1.10 The U-bolt top plate is important for two reasons:

1.
It maintains the U-bolts directly in the line of pull and proper alignment with each other.
When this top plate is omitted, the long U-bolts may be pulled up at a slight angle and
apparently tight. But when the vehicle flexes the spring, the U-bolts will gradually slide over to
their true position and may loosen enough to cause middle spring breakage.
2.
Because the top plates are shaped to fit the contour of the U-bolts, the U-bolts may be
drawn up more solidly and more securely.

The top plate shape must mate with the shape of the U-bolt; do not use improperly shaped U-bolts or U13
bolts produced on worn dies which may alter the intended top shape of the U-bolt.
On square bend U-bolts, it is very important that the corner radius be at least 1/2 the diameter of the rod
ie. 1" U-bolt legs will have a 1/2" radius at the bend.
Fif.1.11 Typical center clamping of overslung spring
Fig.1.12 Minimum U-Bolt Corner Radius
14
1.11 Center Bolt and Cupped Centers:

The center bolt assists in assembling, shipping and handling of the spring before the spring is placed on
the vehicle. After the spring is installed, the center bolt assists in preventing:
A.
the length-wise shifting of the leaves
B.
the width-wise shifting of the leaves
C.
acts as an indicator to show the spring is' correctly placed on axle
In all of these functions, it is only an assistant and, when a center bolt is bent or broken, the U-bolts
should be suspected of having failed in their full duty of clamping the spring to the axle.
Springs that are subjected to severe loads in the lengthwise motion are cupped to prevent this
movement.
1.12Spring Eyes:
Spring eyes should have a free turning, but not a loose fit on the spring pins or shackle bolts. Except
when rubber bushings are used in the spring eyes, as in some applications, the spring pin or shackle
bolts should be regularly lubricated with chassis lubricant, to prevent freezing or binding of the spring
eyes on the bolt. Improper lubrication might cause opening up of the eye, or "straight across" breakage
of the main leaf near the eye.
1.13 Typical Eyes of Springs:
Fig.1.14 Eye Springs

15
The military or full loose wrappers lengthwise clearance allows relative lengthwise freedom of the main
and second leaves. But if the eye of the main leaf should break, the spring is retained in place by the
wrapper eye of the second leaf, and the vehicle can still be safely transported to the nearest repair
facility.
1.14 Heavy-Duty Spring Eyes:
Fig.1.15 Heavy Duty Spring Eyes
1.14.1 Add a leaf?

Adding a leaf, to increase the load carrying capacity of a spring seems so easy... we should think twice
before doing so?
Suspension systems are designed to carry specified loads; therefore all of its component parts are
designed to carry specified parts of this load. In times of demanding economy, the truck and trailer
manufacturer must endeavor to maintain or reduce the cost of vehicles. Therefore the suspension parts
are designed with the minimum acceptable safety factor. Adding leaves to a spring may severely
overload the suspension parts or vehicle itself.
A properly designed spring is a balanced spring, with leaves so graded or "stepped" in length, with
16
regard to the other leaves, that each leaf carries its fair share of the load.
The lengths of the leaves of a spring, together with the thickness and individual leaf radii, determine the
distribution of stresses along each leaf.
1.14.2 Adding leaves without this in mind will upset the uniform stress
distribution:
Any alteration or change to the original design of a leaf spring may seriously damage the surrounding
parts of the suspension system, thus placing the vehicle operator in jeopardy of serious injury or death
by the suspension system failure.
A - Second Plate Too Short
B - All Backing Plates Too Long
Correct stepping equalizes stress between all plates.
Fig.1.16 Leaves Arrangement
1.15 SPRING CLIPS:

When a truck wheel hits a bump, the main leaf of the spring is strongly assisted by all the shorter leaves
of the spring in resisting the shock. But, after the bump has been passed, the main leaf would ordinarily
have to absorb most of the rebound-all by itself-if the main leaf was not assisted in absorbing the
17
rebound by the other leaves, attached to the main leaf by means of rebound clips.
Fig.1.17 Leaf Spring
1.15.1 Spring clips prevent breakage due to fanning:

The secondary function of the rebound clips is to prevent spreading or "fanning out" of the leaves,
which might result in eventual breakage. For these two reasons, it is obviously important that broken
rebound clips be replaced by "properly adjusted" rebound clips.
Fig.1.18 Proper Clip Clearances

While these rebound clips should control the leaves, they should not bind the ends of the leaves against
lengthwise motion on each other. The width of the clip should be 1/16 inch or more over the nominal
width of the spring. The spacer tube, over the spring clip bolt, maintains this width clearance.
There should also be clearance between the spacer tube of the clip, and the main leaf of the spring to:
A.
Allow the "twist" to be distributed over a greater length of the main leaf when one wheel
18
goes over a bump or drops in a rut, thus placing the axle at an angle. Clips near the ends of the
spring should have greater clearance.
B.
Clearance prevents rubbing of spacer tube on and consequent wear and weakening of the
main leaf.
Clip bolts should be assembled with the head of the bolt away from the tire, so that if a nut should
loosen and the clip bolt comes partly out, it will not cut the tire, and the nut end of the bolt should be
peened over to prevent the nut from backing off.
1.16 INSPECTION:
Because leaf spring suspensions usually give such trouble free performance, they are apt to be entirely
neglected until trouble actually occurs. However, since springs and chassis parts are both working parts
and structural parts, they will well repay the small amount of inspection and preventive maintenance
service necessary to keep them in safest operating condition.
Such spring suspension system inspection may be divided into:
a.
Checking the performance of the springs, as shown by vehicle.
b.
Checking the springs themselves by actual inspection.
c.
Checking all chassis parts for wear.
1.16.1 VISUAL INSPECTION:

Before a vehicle starts out, experienced mechanics can often spot a sagged spring by the low appearance
of the front fenders. But a more reliable method is to check the clearance between the chassis frame and
the shop floor. Of course the tire inflation must be considered, for greater accuracy. Or the distance
between floor and wheel rim can be checked. Any tilting or unevenness of the vehicle body should alert
the serviceman to the possibility of sagged springs.
Fig.1.19 Visual Inspection
19
1.16.2 Distance from Fixed Hanger Bolt to Center bolt should be equal on both
sides of vehicle:
Now that we know the causes and cures for possible spring suspension troubles, let's make our spring
check in this, or some other systematic manner, because, by following the same order each time, we are
less apt to miss anything.
1.16.3 Check leaves:

a.
for displacement out of position
b.
for checks or cracks or actual breakage of individual leaves
c.
for wear, due to rubbing of spring clips on main leaf
d.
for sagging or bent leaves
1.16.4 Center bolt:

a.
should be equidistant between two U-bolts
b.
should not be bent, loose or broken.
1.16.5Check U-bolt nuts for tightness:

a.
Rap with hammer, if necessary to check for tightness.
b.
Tighten securely, with wrench handle of adequate length. Check spring seats for wear, if
U-bolt nuts have been loose.
1.16.6 Check spring clips:

a.
for free fit between clips and edges of leaves
b.
there should be 1/16 inch clearance between main leaf and clip bolts nearest ends of
spring, to allow for twist. Less clearance is needed for clip bolts nearer center of spring.
20
1.16.7 Check spring eyes for:

a.
opening up or cracks
b.
for free but, not a sloppy fit on spring shackle bolts
c.
for lubrication
1.16.8 Check spring shackle bolts for:

a.
wear
b.
tightness
Check radius rods " all other related parts of spring suspension. hangers, equalizers, beam bushings, etc.
Check shock absorbers, as defective shock absorbers will definitely shorten spring life.
It is important to remember that nearly all leaf spring fractures or cracks are of the progressive type-they
start small. This gives the inspector a chance to locate small checks and cracks-before they become
large fractures. Since spring steel is stronger in compression than in tension, most fractures start at the
outer edge of the tension sides of the leaves.
Building codes give a laminated wood beam a much higher safety rating than a beam of solid wood. The
laminations (plates) of a leaf spring also give the leaf spring a higher safety rating-because it is very
seldom that more than one leaf breaks at a time.
The breakage of one leaf usually gives "warning" by
by the feel of the ride
by the position of the vehicle body
This gives ample time to replace it, before other leaves are damaged by the overload.
However, let's not overwork this safety factor, but use reasonably careful driving to finish the day's run
and then replace the broken leaf-before any other leaves are damaged by the "concentration" of stress
over the edge of the broken leaf. However, if the main leaf is broken (unless the second leaf is of the
wrapper" type, or there is a military wrap of the spring eye) it may be preferable to tow the vehicle to
the spring service station. With either the military wrap of the second leaf around the eye of the main
21
leaf, or the wrapper type of second leaf, the vehicle may usually proceed under its own power to the
nearest repair facility, but this is not recommended. Moving a vehicle with a broken main leaf is
extremely hazardous not only to the operator but to the component parts of the suspension due to
abnormal movement of the axle.
On the road. A tendency to "strike bottom" or hit the rubber bumpers may result from:
excessive overload
sagged springs.
Springs of modern design are usually nearly flat-under normal full load conditions. When springs are
nearly flat, they are in a better position to endure constant flexing, and they also tend to act as straight
radius rods and so maintain axle positions and steering alignments more accurately. Consequently, when
such modern springs have "reverse camber," the vehicle may be suspected of:
being overloaded
sagged springs
Springs of earlier designs often had more "arch" or camber and so may not have reverse camber, even
when overloaded or sagged.
Position and condition of shackles should be noted, to see if the angles of these shackles on the two
sides of the vehicle are the same. The design of spring shackles is such to allow the spring free
movement throughout its entire cycle from unloaded to "striking bottom." Proper design will also slow
down the oscillation rate, or rate of bounce, and so gives a more comfortable ride. The shackle angle,
for that particular vehicle, should be used as a guide. Wrong shackle angle may indicate a spring that is
too long or too short for that vehicle. Also some present designs are in reverse camber under full load
and are not overstressed in this position.
1.16.9 Inspecting springs for quality and workmanship:

1. Center hole.
If made with good dies, it will be clean-cut. A poor center hole may set up additional stresses in the
steel, which may cause premature breakage.
2. Trim points.
22
Must be done with good equipment, to avoid cracking, chipping and rough edges.
3. Clips.
Must be right size and shape to fit properly.
4. Eyes.
Must be:
tight
accurately sized
If the eye is too small, the bushing may be crushed when forced in. If the eye is too large, the bushing
will be loose.
must be parallel and straight, to avoid setting up excess stresses in the main leaf
5. Fitting of leaves must be accurate, to avoid setting up excess stresses in steel and causing premature
breakage.
6. Leaves must be fitted side to side, as well as surface to surface.
1.17 DRIVING TIPS:

Engineers evaluate the factors determining the life of springs somewhat roughly in this manner.
1.17.1 Design
When vehicles operate under special conditions, special design may considerably reduce spring costs
per mile. Vehicle manufacturers produce for average conditions. Under special conditions, redesign may
be necessary to insure improved performance.
1.17.2 Steel
Spring companies generally use steel of SAE specification 5160 or 51B60 which are developed for leaf
spring use.
1.17.3 Processing
The manufacture of springs includes the forming and the heat treating of the steel to temper and toughen
it, and is equally as important as the steel itself.
23
Improper heating and forming of heat treated steel will greatly reduce the strength of the steel by loss of
proper heat treating and represents a serious safety hazard.
1.17.4 Maintenance
Like such other vehicle parts as tires, engines, etc., the best made springs and chassis parts may be
greatly handicapped by lack of proper maintenance.
1.17.5 Vehicle Driver
The driver is the last but very important factor! To appreciate this, let's examine the action of the
standard truck drive, which is widely used because of its important advantage in protecting other vehicle
parts by providing resilient control of brake and torque applications.
1.17.6 In this style drive, the leaf springs do three things:
1.
Resiliently support vehicle, protect driver and load from damage by road shock.
2.
Resiliently control brake and torque applications.
3.
Act as structural members to position axle, both lengthwise and crosswise, with regard
to chassis frame.
Fig.1.20 Springs Cushion Brake and Acceleration Torque Reactions.

When the brakes are suddenly applied, the entire momentum of the moving vehicle tends to rotate the
axle in a forward turning direction. At high speeds, the power of this momentum is terrific (As proven
by collisions!) and the effect of this momentum on the axle is limited only by the skidding of the rubber
tires on the road.This causes brake wind-up of springs which tends to bend springs in S form as
shown in the sketch. Also, when starting a vehicle under adverse conditions of road, load or grade, the
driver may race the engine and develop a lot of momentum in the fly-wheel. This torque is greatly
multiplied by the transmission and this is again multiplied by the rear axle gears. So it is better (for all
parts of the vehicle) not to race the engine and then let the clutch out with a Bang!
Suppose the driver has been driving too fast and doesnt see a bump in the road until he is almost on top
24
of it-what should he do?

Of course he should have had the vehicle under better control. But in this predicament, he should apply
the brake before reaching the bump, and then release brake in sufficient time to allow springs to regain
normal position as the wheels (unchecked by brakes) roll freely over the bump.
Otherwise it is possible for the brake reaction to have forced the spring into such a position that one-half
of the spring was carrying the full weight of the vehicle, so the effect of the bump would be twice as
great as when the wheels were allowed to run freely over it.
Fig.1.21 Unequalized Brakes are Unfair to Springs.

Like the inexpensive fuse which protects a more costly electric motor, the springs, which protect the
more costly vehicle, should be regarded as "expendables"-to be replaced, when the limit of their
"economic" life has been reached. Batteries, tires, and springs could be designed to last the entire life of
the vehicle. But well designed springs, even though they require a minimum of care and occasional
replacement, reduce vehicle costs per mile-which is the final yardstick by which satisfactory spring
service is measured.
25
Fig.1.22Progressive Springs tend to equalize riding comfort under both light and heavy loads
Springs of the progressive type not only give almost equal riding comfort for the lightly loaded and fully
loaded vehicle, but they also have the additional advantage that there is less variation in spring
deflection from light load to full load. Consequently the chassis frame remains more nearly level and
better steering alignments and greater safety are obtained.
1.18 Spring length is measured along curve of main leaf:

Length of springs is measured along the main leaf, from center to center of the two eyes. That's the same
distance as center-to-center distance, between the two eyes,when the main leaf is flat under normal full
load.
Fig.1.23 Spring Length Measurement
26
1.19 Mechanical properties of existing leaf spring:

Parameters
Value
Material of spring
65Si7
Youngs Modulus,
E 2.1105 MPa
Poissons Ratio,
0.266
Tensile Strength Ultimate
1272 MPa
Tensile Yield Strength
1158
Density
7.8610-6Kg/mm3
Leaf span
860mm
Free Camber
90mm
Width of all leaves
60mm
Thickness of the spring
8mm
Weight of leaf spring
10.26Kg
Total Number of full leaves

(Including master leave)
Maximum Load given on spring 4169
1.20 Orthotropic Properties of E-Glass/Epoxy material:

Tensile modulus along X-direction (Ex), MPa
34000
Tensile modulus along Y-direction (Ey), MPa
6530
Tensile modulus along Z-direction (Ez), MPa
6530
Shear modulus along XY-direction (Gxy),
2433
Shear modulus along YZ-direction (Gyz),
1698
Shear modulus along ZX-direction (Gzx),
2433
Poisson ratio along XY-direction (NUxy)
0.217
Poisson ratio along YZ-direction (NUyz)
0.366
27
Poisson ratio along ZX-direction (NUzx)
0.217
Mass density of the material (), kg/mm3
2.6x10-6
Tensile strength of the material, MPa
900
Compressive strength of the material, MPa
450
Flexural modulus of the material, MPa
40000
Flexural strength of the material, MPa
1200
Here Weight and initial measurements of four wheeler TATA ACE Light commercial vehicle
is taken [20]
The material used for leaf spring is usually a plain carbon steel having 0.90 to 1.0% carbon. The
leaves are heat treated after the forming process. The heat treatment of spring steel produces
greater strength and therefore greater load capacity, greater range of deflection and better fatigue
properties.
According to Indian standards the recommended materials are :
1.
For automobiles : 50 Cr 1, 50 Cr 1 V 23, and 55 Si 2 Mn 90 all used in hardened
and tempered state.
2.
For rail road springs : C 55 (water- hardened), C 75 (oil- hardened), 40 Si 2 Mn
90 (water-hardend) and 55 Si 2 Mn 90 (oil-hardened).
3.
The physical properties of some of these materials are given in the following
table. All values are for oil Quenched condition and for single heat only.
1.21 Physical properties of materials commonly used for leaf springs:

Material
Condition
Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa)
Tensile yield
strength (MPa)
Brinell hardness
number
50 Cr 1
Hardened
1680-2200
1540-1750
461-601
50 Cr 1 V 23
and
1900-2200
1680-1890
534-601
55 Si 2 Mn 90
tempered
1820-2060
1680-1920
534-601
Table.1.3 Physical Properties
28
1.22 Terminology in leaf spring:

n - number of leafs in aspring = 10
2L Length of span or overall length of spring = 1300
l - Width of band or distance between centers of U bolts. It is the in effective length of
the spring= 640
t = Thickness of the leave, and
b= Width of the leaves
Length of smallest leaf =
Length of next leaf
Effectivelength
n1
Effectivelength
n1
+ Ineffective length
x 2 + Ineffective length
Similarly, length of (n-1)th leaf

=
Effectivelength
n1
x (n-1) + Ineffective length
The nth leaf will be the master leaf and it is of full length
1.23 Standard sizes of Automobile Suspension Springs:

Following are the standard sizes for the automobile suspension springs:
1. Standard nominal widths are : 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 100
and 125mm
2. Standard nominal thicknesses are : 3.2, 4.5, 5.6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14
and 16mm
3. At the eye the following bore diameters of recommended :
19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 50 and 55mm
4. Dimensions for the center bolts, if employed, shall be as given in the following
tabl
1.24 Dimensions for centre bolts:

Width of leaves in
mm
Upto and including
65
Dia of centre bolt in

mm
8 or 10
Dia of head in mm
12 or 15
Length of bolt head

in mm
10 or 11
Above 65
12 or 16
17 or 20
11
Table.1.4 Dimensions for Centre Bolts
29
1.25 Dimensions of clip, rivet and bolts:

Spring width (B) in
mm
Under 50
Clip section (bxt) in

mm x mm
20 x 4
Dia. of rivet (d1)

In mm
6
Dia. of bolt (d2)

In mm
6
50, 55 and 60
25 x 5
65, 70, 75 and 80
25 x 6
10
90,100 and 125
32 x 6
10
10
Table.1.5 Dimensions of Clip, Rivet and Bolts
Load on each spring,

Totalload
2W =No .ofsprings
1.26Specifications of the modeled leaf spring:

Total load on the leaf spring = 3658 kgf= 35848.4N = 35.8KN
No: of leaves in the leaf spring =10
Span of the spring 2L = 1300mm
Width of the leaf b = 70mm
Thickness of the leaf t = 11mm
6 WL
Bending stress =n.b.t 2

= 1650.63 N/mm2
30
1kgf = 9.8N
CHAPTER -2
31
INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM/CAE
2.1 SOLID MODELING USING CAD SOFTWARE:

CAD software, also referred to as Computer Aided Design software and in the past as computer
aided drafting software, refers to software programs that assist engineers and designers in a wide
variety of industries to design and manufacture physical products.
It started with the mathematician Euclid of Alexandria, who, in his 350 B.C. treatise on
mathematics "The Elements" expounded many of the postulates and axioms that are
thefoundations of the Euclidian geometry upon which today's CAD software systems are built.
More than 2,300 years after Euclid, the first true CAD software, a very innovative system
(although of course primitive compared to today's CAD software) called "Sketchpad was
developed by Ivan Sutherland as part of his PhD thesis at MIT in the early 1960s.
First-generation CAD software systems were typically 2D drafting applications developed by a

manufacturer's internal IT group (often collaborating with university researchers) and primarily
intended to automate repetitive drafting chores. Dr. Hanratty co-designed one such CAD system,
named DAC (Design Automated by Computer) at General Motors Research Laboratories in the
mid 1960s.
In 1965, Charles Lang's team including Donald Welbourn and A.R.Forrest, at Cambridge
University's Computing Laboratory began serious research into 3D modeling CAD software. The
commercial benefits of Cambridge University's 3D CAD software research did not begin to
appear until the 1970 however, elsewhere in mid 1960s Europe, French researchers were doing
pioneering work into complex 3D curve and surface geometry computation. Citroen's de
Casteljau made fundamental strides in computing complex 3D curve geometry and Bezier (at
Renault) published his breakthrough research, incorporating some of de Casteljau's algorithms,
in the late 1960s. The work of both de Casteljau and Bezier continues to be one of the
foundations of 3D CAD software to the present time. Both MIT (S.A.Coons in 1967) and
32
Cambridge University (A.R.Forrest, one of Charles Lang's team, in 1968) were also very active
in furthering research into the implementation of complex 3D curve and surface modeling in
CAD software.
2.2 Introduction To CAD/CAM/CAE

The Modern world of design, development, manufacturing so on, in which we have stepped cant
be imagined without interference of computer. The usage of computer is such that, they have
become an integral part of these fields. In the world market now the competition in not only cost
factor but also quality, consistency, availability, packing, stocking, delivery etc. So are the
requirements forcing industries to adopt modern technique rather than local forcing the industries
to adapt better techniques like CAD / CAM / CAE, etc.
The Possible basic way to industries is to have high quality products at low costs is by using the
computer Aided Engineering (CAE), Computer Aided Design (CAD) And Computer Aided
Manufacturing (CAM) set up. Further many tools is been introduced to simplify & serve the
requirement NX, PRO-E, UG, CATIA are some among many.
This penetration of technique concern has helped the manufacturers to
a) Increase productivity
b) Shortening the lead-time
c) Minimizing the prototyping expenses
d) Improving Quality
e) Designing better products
CAD: Computer Aided Designing (Technology to create, Modify, Analyze or Optimize the
design using computer.
CAE: Computer Aided Engineering (Technology to analyze, Simulate or Study behaviour of the
cad model generated using computer.
CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing (Technology to Plan, manage or control the operation in
manufacturing using computer.
33
2.3 Need for CAD, CAE &CAM :

The usage of CAD CAE & CAM have changed the overlook of the industries and developed
healthy & standard competition as could achieve target in lean time and ultimately the product
reaches market in estimated time with better quality and consistency. In general view, it has led
to fast approach and creative thinking.
ADVANTAGES:
o
Cut off of the designing time
Cut off of the editing time
Cut off of the manufacturing time
High & controlled quality
Reduction of process cost.
Consistency
Maintenance of Universal accessing data
DRAWBACKS:
o
Requires skilled operators
Initial setting & assumption consumes time
Setting cost is more
Over heads are high and
Applicable if production is high
NX is a robust application that enables you to create rich and complex designs. NX, formerly
known as NX Uni-graphics or usually just U-G, is an advanced high-end CAD/CAM/CAE
software package originally developed Uni-graphics. It is very easy to build parts and assemble
the in NX (Uni-graphics).
34
2.4.1 What is NX.

NX is mechanical design software. It is a feature-based, parametric solid modelling design tool
that takes advantage of the easy-to-learn Windows graphical user interface. You can create fully
associative 3-D solid models with or without constraints while utilizing automatic or userdefined relations to capture design intent.
2.4.2 Feature-based
Like an assembly is made up of a number of individual parts, a NX document is made up of
individual elements. These elements are called features.
When creating a document, you can add features such as extrudes, pockets, holes, ribs, fillets,
chamfers, and drafts. As the features are created, they are applied directly to the work piece.
Features can be classified as sketched-based or dress-up:
Sketched-based features are based on a 2D sketch. Generally, the sketch is transformed
into a 3D solid by extruding, rotating, sweeping, or lofting.
Dress-up features are features that are created directly on the solid model. Fillets and
chamfers are examples of this type of feature.
2.4.3 Parametric
The dimensions and relations used to create a feature are stored in the model. This enables you
to capture design intent, and to easily make changes to the model through these parameters.
Driving dimensions are the dimensions used when creating a feature. They include the
dimensions associated with the sketch geometry, as well as those associated with the
feature itself. Consider, for example, a cylindrical extrude. The diameter of the pad is
controlled by the diameter of the sketched circle, and the height of the pad is controlled
by the depth to which the circle is extruded.Relations such as parallelism, tangency and
concentricity. This type of information is typically communicated on drawings using
35
feature control symbols. By capturing this information in the sketch, NX enables you to
fully capture your design intent up front.
2.4.4Solid Modeling:A solid model is the most complete type of geometric model used in CAD systems. It
contains all the wireframe and surface geometry necessary to fully describe the edges and
faces of the model. In addition to geometric information, solid models also convey their
topology, which relates the geometry together. For example, topology might include
identifying which faces (surfaces) meet at which edges (curves). This intelligence makes
adding features easier. For example, if a model requires a fillet, you simply select an edge
and specify a radius to create it.
2.4.5Constraints:Geometric constraints (such as parallel, perpendicular, horizontal, vertical, concentric, and

coincident) establish relationships between features in your model by fixing their positions
with respect to one another. In addition, equations can be used to establish mathematical
relationships between parameters. By using constraints and equations, you can guarantee
that design concepts such as through holes and equal radii are captured and maintained.
2.5 NX User Interface:

2.5.1 Template parts
Template parts are effective tools for establishing customer defaults or anysettings that are partdependent, which means that they are saved with thepart. Part-dependent settings may include
non-geometric data such as:
A frame of reference, such as a datum coordinate system
Commonly used expressions
An initial application such as Modeling, Drafting, or Sheet Metal
Part attributes, for example, attributes for a parts list
36
Drawing formats
User-defined views
Layer categories
Choose a template from the new dialog box.
Fig.2.1- Template
2.5.2Objectives
Start an NX session.
Create a new part file using templates.
Open a part file.
Load an assembly.
Copy a part file.
Close a part file and exit NX.
37
The first step in working in NX is to log on to a workstation and start an NX session.
2.6.1 Gateway application

The tools in NX are grouped into a series of applications that support different major workflows,
including creating geometry, building an assembly or producing a drawing.
Gateway is the first application you access when you:
Create a new blank part file.
Open a part file that was saved in Gateway after NX 4.
Open a part file that was last saved in NX or earlier.
Gateway allows you to review existing parts.
To create or edit objects within a part, you must start another application such as Modeling.
2.6.2 Ribbon bar interface

The NX Ribbon bar interface provides access to frequently used commands
with a minimum number of mouse clicks while maintaining a maximum
graphics window area.
The tabs and groups on the Ribbon bar logically organize commands,using a mix of icon
sizes and informative text.
You can customize the interface to suit your workflows, for example, byunlocking tabs or by
adding frequently used commands to the border bars.
The tabs and groups on the Ribbon bar logically organize commands,using a mix of icon
sizes and informative text.
The Command Finder is embedded in the Ribbon bar and providesadditional capabilities
such as showing hidden commands, starting otherapplications, and letting you easily add
commands to a tab, to the borderbars, or to the Quick Access toolbar.
38
2.6.3 Assembly Navigator overview

The Assembly Navigator is a window that displays an assembly structure,component properties,
and constraints between member components, in ahierarchical tree.
You can use the Assembly Navigator to:
View the assembly structure of the displayed part.
Apply commands to specific components.
Edit the structure by dragging nodes to different parents.
Identify components.
Select a component.
2.6.4 Command Finder

Use Command Finder to find and activate a specific NX command that isassociated with one or
more words or phrases. This includes commands thatmay not be active in the currentapplication
or task environment.Resultsare limited to commands available in the ribbon groups, inthe
Menus, or on toolbars. Commands contained only on backgroundshortcut menus or in navigators
are not included in the search.
From the list of commands you can:

Display the command location, when it is available in the current environment.
Launch the command, if it is available.
Turn on a toggle command, when it is available in the currentenvironment.
Add the command to a Border Bar.
Access the Help information for the command.
When a command is not available, Command Finder either states that the
command is unavailable or identifies the application in which the command
is available.
39
2.6.5 Roles
Roles let you control the appearance of the user interface based on your job
Tasks and NX experience.
Fig.2.2- Roles Command
2.6.6 Other view manipulation options

Orient View options Modifies the orientation of a specified view to a
Predefined view.
Changes only the alignment of the view, not theview name.
Can be selected from the View tab Operationgroup or from the shortcut menu.
Home key orients the current view to Trimetric.
End key orients the current view to Isometric.
F8 key
Orients the current view to a selected planar face or datum plane or the planar view (top, front,
right, back, bottom, left) that is closest to the current vieworientation.
Fig.2.3- Views Command Bar
40
2.6.7QuickPick
When you select objects, more than one object will often be within the selection
ball. Quick Pick provides easy browsing through selection candidates.
If there is more than one selectable object at the selection ball location
and the cursor lingers for a short period of time, the cursor changes to a
Quick Pick indicator:
This cursor display indicates that there is more than one selectable object at
that position. Click after the cursor changes to display the QuickPickdialogbox.
Fig.2.4- Quick Plot Command Bar
2.6.8 Coordinate systems

There are different coordinate systems in NX. A three-axis symbol is used toidentify a
coordinate system.
The intersection of the axes is called the origin of the coordinate system.
The coordinate values of the origin are X = 0, Y = 0, and Z = 0. Each axis line
represents the positive direction for that axis.
You can define planes and coordinate systems for constructing geometry.
These planes are completely independent of the viewing direction.
41
Absolute Coordinate System
Fig.2.5-Global Co-ordinate System
There is one absolute coordinate system. It is not visible or movable. The

direction of the global coordinate system axes are the same as the View
Triad (shown above), but not its origin.
Work Coordinate System (WCS)
Datum coordinate system
Fig.2.6-Movable Work Coordinate System
Fig.2.7-Datum Co-ordinate System
2.6.9 Sketch curves

Sketching commands are available in both the Direct Sketch ribbon group
and the Sketch Task Environment.The following is a chart of the essential sketching commands.
Not allavailable commands are shown.
42
FIG 2.8 SKETCH Curve Types
2.7 CREATION OF CAD MODEL:

First, the object to be built is modelled using Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software. Solid
modelers, such as Pro-E, NX and Autodesk Inventor tend to represent 3-D objects more
accurately than wire-frame modelers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results. A
pre-existing CAD file or a newly created CAD file for prototyping purpose can also be used.
This process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.
43
Fig.2.9 Leaf Spring Sketch Model
Fig.2.10 Leaf Spring Model
44
2.8 Conversion of CAD model to STL Format:

Different CAD software save the modelled files in different formats. To establish consistency, a
standard format has been adopted which is known as STL (stereo lithography), the first RP
technique) format for rapid prototyping industry. The second step, therefore, is to convert the
CAD file into STL format. This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of
planar triangles. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation and result, but
the file size gets bigger. As the large and complicated files take more time for construction the
designer should consider for both accuracy and manageabilitywhile creating the STL file. Since
the STL format is universal, this process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.
2.9 Slicing of the STL File into layers:

In the third step, a pre-processing program is used to prepare the STL file for construction. For
this purpose several programs are available and the size, location and orientation of the model
can also be adjusted by the user. Build orientation is important for several reasons. As the layers
are formed in x-y plane, the properties of the prototyped model are weaker and less accurate
along z-direction. So part orientation is used to make the orientation of the model such that the
minimum dimension lies along z-direction which not only improves the quality and accuracy,
also reduces the time due to decrease in number of layers. The STL model is sliced into a
number of layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm thick using the pre-processor software and it also
depends on the building technique. pre-processor software is supplied by the manufacture of the
rapid prototyping machine.
2.10 Cleaning and Finishing:

The final step is post-processing. In this step the prototyped model is taken out of the machine
and supports are detached. Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment.
Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and durability
45
2.11 Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping (RP) refers to a class of technologies that can automaticallyproduce solid
models from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) data. It is a freeform fabrication technique in
which the object of prescribed shape, size, dimension and finish can be directly constructed from
the CAD based geometrical model stored in a computer, with little human intervention.
The fabrication processes in a rapid prototyping can basically be divided into three categories
which are additive, subtractive and formative. In the additive or incremental processes, the object
is divided into thin layers with distinct shape and then they are stacked one upon other to
produce the model. The shaping method of each layer varies for different processes. Most of the
commercial Rapid Prototyping systems belong to this category. Such processes can also be
called layered manufacturing (LM) or solid freeform fabrication (SFF). Layer by layer
construction method in LM greatly simplifies the processes and enables their automation. An
important feature in LM is the raw material, which can be either one-dimensional (e.g. liquid and
particles) or two-dimensional (e.g. paper sheet) stocks. Whereas in case of subtractive RP
processes three-dimensional raw material stocks are used. Stereo-lithography apparatus (SLA),
three dimensional printing, selective laser sintering (SLS), contour crafting (CC), fused
deposition modelling (FDM), etc. are few examples of LM. Subtractive or material removal
(MR) processes uses the method of cutting of excessive material from the raw material stocks.
There are not as many subtractive prototyping processes as that of additive processes. A
commercially available system is DeskProto, which is a three-dimensional computer aided
manufacture (CAM) software package for Rapid Prototyping and manufacturing. As in case of
pure subtractive RP processes the model is made from a single stock, fully compact parts of the
same material as per actually required for end use is possible. The other advantages like accuracy
of the part dimensions and better surface quality can be achieved by the subtractive machining
approach. However if we compare geometric complexity the MR processes are limited than the
LM processes. Different types of cutting methods used are computer numerical control (CNC)
milling, water-jet cutting, laser cutting etc. In formative or deforming processes, a part is shaped
by the deforming ability of materials. At present there is no commercial forming-based
RPsystem in the market. In case of LM process the geometric complexity of objects is relaxed
upto a significant extent due to the layer by layer manufacturing. Some features which are
difficult to obtain using MR process can be achieved using LM process. Raw material is one of
46
the limitations in case of LM process. Both the LM and MR processes can be integrated to obtain
more benefits. This integration creates a hybrid RP system which can produce better surface
quality without tempering the manufacturability in case of complex features.
2.11.1 Working Principle behind Rapid prototyping:

Although several rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the same basic five-step process.
The steps are:
1.
Creation of the CAD model of the design
2.
Conversion of the CAD model to STL format
3.
Slicing the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers
4.
Layer by layer construction
5.
Cleaning and finishing the model
Creation of CAD Model:

First, the object to be built is modelled using a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software. Solid
modellers, such as Pro-E, NX and Autodesk Inventor tend to represent 3-D objects more
accurately than wire-frame modellers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results. A
pre-existing CAD file or a newly created CAD file for prototyping purpose can also be used.
This process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.
Conversion of CAD model to STL Format:
Different CAD software save the modelled files in different formats. To establish consistency, a
standard format has been adopted which is known as STL (stereo lithography), the first RP
technique) format for rapid prototyping industry. The second step, therefore, is to convert the
CAD file into STL format. This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of
planar triangles. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation and result, but
the file size gets bigger. As the large and complicated files take more time for construction the
designer should consider for both accuracy and manageabilitywhile creating the STL file. Since
the STL format is universal, this process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.
47
Slicing of the STL File into layers:

In the third step, a pre-processing program is used to prepare the STL file for construction. For
this purpose several programs are available and the size, location and orientation of the model
can also be adjusted by the user. Build orientation is important for several reasons. As the layers
are formed in x-y plane, the properties of the prototyped model are weaker and less accurate
along z-direction. So part orientation is used to make the orientation of the model such that the
minimum dimension lies along z-direction which not only improves the quality and accuracy,
also reduces the time due to decrease in number of layers. The STL model is sliced into a
number of layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm thick using the pre-processor software and it also
depends on the building technique. pre-processor software is supplied by the manufacture of the
rapid prototyping machine.
Layer by Layer Construction:
In the fourth step the actual construction of the part is done. Layers can be produced by different
methods. Therefore several types of techniques are available for the production of layers. One of
these techniques can be used to produce the part.
Cleaning and Finishing:
The final step is post-processing. In this step the prototyped model is taken out of the machine
and supports are detached. Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment.
Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and durability.
2.11.2Rapid Prototyping Techniques

Most commercially available rapid prototyping machines use one of six techniques.
Stereo lithography
This technique works on the principle that when liquid photosensitive polymers are exposed to
ultraviolet light they get solidified. In this process the platform is situated in liquid epoxy or
acrylate resin. When the UV light falls on the liquid layer, the part that is to be constructed gets
solidified and remaining part stays liquid. An elevator is used to lower the platform to form
48
successive layers. In this way the process is repeated to finally get the final model. After that the
model is taken out and excess liquid is removed and then placed in a UV oven for complete
curing.
Laminated Object Manufacturing
This technique was developed by Helisys of Torrance, CA. in this method layers of adhesivecoated sheet material are bonded together to make the prototype. Here a feeder mechanism is
used to prepare the sheet over the build platform. A heated roller is used to apply pressure for
bonding of paper to the base. Laser cutting is used to cut the outline of the layers. After each
layer is prepared and cut, the platform lowers and fresh material is used for another layer. As the
model is prepared from paper, after completion of the prototyping the model must be sealed and
finished with paint to prevent it from moisture damage.
Selective Laser Sintering
This technique has been developed by Carl Deckard and was patented in 1989. A laser beam is
used to fuse powdered materials such as elastomer, nylon into a solid object. Here the platform is
situated just below the surface in bin containing heat-fusable powder. After fusing of the first
layer by the laser beam, the platform is lowered by the height of a layer and powder is applied
again. This process is repeated until the completion of the model. Excess powder helps in
supporting the model during the process.
Fused Deposition Modelling
In this method some thermoplastic material is heated and extruded from a tip. The tip moves in
x-y plane and very thin beads are deposited on the platform to build the first layer. Low
temperature is maintained at the platform so that the thermoplastic will get hard quickly.
Then the platform is lowered and the second layer is formed over the first one. In this way the
modelis prototyped.
Solid Ground Curing
In this method ultraviolet light is used to harden photosensitive polymers. It is a bit similar to
stereo-lithography method but here the curing of the entire layer is done at a time. A photo mask
is developed according to the layer and placed above a glass plate, which is over the platform
containing photosensitive resin. The mask is then exposed to UV light, which only passes
49
through the transparent portion and hardens the required shape of the layer. After completion of
each layer vacuum is used to remove excess liquid resin and wax is applied for support. This
process is repeated till model is complete.
3-D Ink-Jet Printing
Ink-jet printers employ ink-jet technology. Z corporation uses this technology in its 3-D printers.
Here a printing head deposits a binder over the powder material to fuse them together in the
required areas according to the model. Unbounded powder is used as support. After completion
of one layer the platform is lowered and excess powder is blown off. Then the next layer is
printed and this process is repeated till the model is complete. This process is very fast and the
parts produced have a bit grainy surface.
2.11. Advantages of RP
The main benefits of RP are:
Production of parts is faster and less expensively.
Material savings comparison to other methods.
Product testing is quickly possible.
Design improvements can be achieved.
Error elimination from design can be fast.
Experiments can be done on physical objects of any complexity in a relatively
short period of time.
Using a prototype development of a system can be done with less effort in
comparison to development without prototype.
Labor cost due to manufacturing, machining, inspection and assembly is reduced.
Reduction in material cost waste disposal cost, inventory cost,material
transportation cost.
Design misinterpretations can be avoided.
Quick design modification is possible.
Better communication between the designer and user because of 3-d presentation
of the model to be prototyped.
50
2.12. Disadvantages of RP
Some of the disadvantages of rapid prototyping are described below.
According to some people rapid prototyping is not an effective model of instructional
design because it does not replicate the real thing.
Many problems may be overlooked that results in endless rectification and
revision.Rushing in to develop a prototype may exclude other design ideas.
Design features may get limited because of the limitation of the prototyping tool.
Sometimes the prototyping machine may not deliver product up to expectation.
The system could be left unfinished due to various reasons or the system may be
implemented before it is completely ready.
The producer may produce an inadequate system that is unable to meet the overall
demands of the organization.
2.13. Applications of Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping is widely used in the automotive, aerospace, medical, and consumer products
industries.
2.13.1. Engineering
In aerospace industries rapid prototype method is used for production of complex parts. For
space shuttle and space stations also parts are manufactured using RP. Boeings
Rocket-dyne has used RP technology to produce hundreds of parts of space shuttle and
international space station. To manufacture parts for fighter jets also RP technology is used. In
labs for testing of a new concept rapid prototyping is done and experiments are executed.
2.13.2. Architecture
In the field of architecture, new designs and ideas can be shown using rapid prototyped models.
It helps for better understanding and analysis.
2.13.3. Medical Applications
RPT has created a new market in the world of orthodontics. Instead of using metal teeth
straighter rapid prototyped teeth can be used for better appearance. The stereo lithography
technology can be used to produce custom-fit, clear plastic aligners in a customized mass
51
process. The RP technique is also used to make hearing instruments. The instrument shells
produced are stronger, fit better and are biocompatible to a very high degree. The ear impression
is scanned and then digitized with the help of an extremely accurate 3-D scanner. Then using the
software developed the digital image is converted into a virtual hearing instrument shell .Thanks
to the accuracy of the Rapid Prototyping process, instrument shells are produced with high
precision and reproducibility. In the case of repairs, an absolutely identical shell can be
manufactured quickly, since the digital data are stored in the system.
2.13.4. Arts and Archaeology
Selective Laser Sintering with marble powders can be used to restore or duplicate ancient statues
and ornaments, which suffer from environmental influences. The originals are scanned to derive
the 3D data, damages can be corrected within the software and the duplicates can be created
easily. One application is duplicating a statue. The original statue was digitized and a smaller
model was produced to serve a base for a bronze casting process.
52
CHAPTER-3
53
INTRODUCTION TO FEA
3.1 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz
method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate
solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R.
W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis.
The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".
By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned by the
aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of
computers and the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an
incredible precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to produce accurate results for all
kinds of parameters.
In recent years, FEA has been used almost universally to solve structural engineering problems.
One discipline that has relied heavily on this technology is the Automotive and Aerospace
industry. Due to the need to meet the extreme demands for faster, stronger, efficient and light
weight Automobiles and Aircrafts, manufactures have to rely on theTechnique to stay
components and the high media coverage that the Industry is exposed to, Automotive and
Aircraft companies need to ensure that none of their components fail, that is to cease providing
the Service that the design intended.
The finite element method is a very important tool for those involved in engineering design; it is
now used routinely to solve problems in the following areas:
Structural Strength design
Structural interaction with fluid flows
Analysis of shock (underwater & in materials)
Acoustics
Thermal analysis
Vibrations
Crash simulations
54
Fluid flows
Electrical analyses
Mass diffusion
Buckling problems
Dynamic analyses
Electromagnetic evaluations
Metal forming
Coupled analyses
3.2 Need for FEA:
Provides a non-destructive means of testing products.
Faster prototyping for what if scenarios.
Design optimization.
Speed up time to market by shortening the design cycle.
Fig 3.1: example of mesh model
3.3 How Does Finite Element Analysis Work?

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh (Figure 2).
This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the
structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density
throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions
which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those which
experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of previously tested
material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in
that from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of
vectors is what carries the material properties to the object, creating many elements. A wide
55
range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization or
maximization:
Fig 3.2: example of analysis model
Mass, volume, temperature
Strain energy, stress strain
Force,displacement,velocity, acceleration
Synthetic (User defined)
There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Next to Figure 3, some
examples are shown:
Point, pressure (Figure 3), thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads
Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis
Enforced displacements
Heat flux and convection
Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads
Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some
sample elements are:
Rod elements
Beam elements
Plate/Shell/Composite elements
56
Shear panel
Solid elements
Spring elements
Mass elements
Rigid elements
Viscous damping elements
Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the
structure such as:
Isotropic, identical throughout
Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees
3.4 Terms commonly used in finite element method
Discretization: The process of selecting only a certain number of discrete points
in the body can be termed as Discretization.
Continuum: The continuum is the physical body, structure or solid being
analysed.
Note: The finite elements, which are interconnected at joints, are called nodes or
nodal points.
Element: Small geometrical regular figures are called elements.
Displace Models: The simple functions, which are assumed to approximate the
displacement for each element. These functions are called the displacement models or
displacement functions.
Local coordinate system: Local coordinate system is one that is defined for a
particular element and not necessary for the entire body or structure.
Global system: The coordinate system for entire body is called the global
coordinate systemother nodal points.
Aspect ratio: The aspect ratio describes the shapes of the element in the
assemblage for two dimensional elements; this parameter is defined as the ratio of largest
dimension of the element to the smallest dimension.
Field variables: The principal unknowns of a problem are called the variables.
57
Natural coordinate system: Natural coordinate system is a local system, which
permits the specification of point with in the element by a set of dimensionless numbers,
whose magnitudes never exceeds unity.
Interpolation function: It is a function, which has unit value at one nodal point
and a zero value at all
3.5 The basic steps involved in FEA:

Within each of these modelling schemes, the Engineer can insert numerous algorithms
(functions) which may Mathematically, the structure to be analyzed is subdivided into a mesh of
finite sized elements a matrix form which can be easily be programmed and solved on a
computer. After applying the appropriate boundary conditions, the nodal displacements are
found by solving the matrix stiffness equation. Once the nodal displacements are known, element
stresses and strains can be calculated. Make the system of simple shape. Within each element,
the variation of displacement is assumed to be determined by simple polynomial shape functions
and nodal displacements. Equations for the strains and stresses are developed in terms of the
unknown nodal displacements. From this, the equations of equilibrium are assembled in behave
linearly or non-linearly. Linear systems are far less complex and generally ignore many
subtleties of model loading and behavior.Non-linear systems can account for more realistic
behavior such as plastic deformation, changing loads etc. and is capable of testing a component
all the way to failure.
3.5.1 The following are the five basic steps involved in an FEA analysis:
Discretization of the Domain
Applications of Field/ Boundary conditions
Assembling the system equations
Solution for the system equations
Review of result
58
3.6 BASIC APPROACH TO FEA:

Basic approach for any finite element analysis (FEA) can be divided into three parts
Pre-processor
Solver
Post-processor
3.6.1. PRE-PROCESSOR:
Pre-processor mainly contains building of model, meshing, assigning material
properties etc.
Building of model:
Geometry is usually difficult to describe, as it has to be as close as real. Since it has to
take real world loads and boundary conditions, it is equal to proto type simulated in a computer.
Creation of finite element model of Meshing:

After assigning material properties and structural properties to the model, meshing is
done. Meshing means dividing a solid model into a finite sized element.
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes, which make a grid called MESH. This mesh
is programmed to contain material and structural properties, which define how the structure will
react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the
material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area.
Regions that will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those,
which experience little or no stress.
3.6.2. SOLVER:
Solver is geometric task oriented. These are developed for specific applications. Solvers
are designed based on continuum approach where in construction of mass, momentum and
59
energy equations of state, thermodynamic equations as and when required for each of the
elements and the solution is obtained by interpreting these solutions. The solution to these
equations essentially depends on two methods
1. Implicit
2. Explicit
Choice of the method is based on the nature of the problems.
The main goal of a finite element analysis is to examine a structure or a component
response to certain loading conditions. Therefore specifying the proper loading conditions is a
key step in the analysis. These loading conditions may be static, dynamic or transient whose
nature may be linear or non-linear.
3.6.3. POST-PROCESSOR:
Here the results of the analysis are read and interpreted. They can be presented in
the form of table, a contour plot, deformed shape of the component or the mode shapes and
natural frequencies are involved. Other results are available for fluids, thermal and electrical
analysis types. Contour plots are usually the most effective way of viewing results for structural
problems. Slices can be made through 3-D models to facilitate the viewing of internal stress
patterns.
3.7 Advantages of Finite Element Analysis:

1.
In contrast to other variation and residual approaches the finite element method
does not require trial solutions, which apply to entire multi-dimensional continuum.
2.
The use of separate sub regions, or finite elements, for the trial solutions permits a
greater flexibility in considering of complex shape.

3.
Rather than requiring every trail solution to satisfy the boundary conditions, one
prescribes the conditions after obtaining the algebraic equations for the assemblage.
4.
As boundary conditions do not enter in to equations for the individual finite
elements, one can use the same field variable for both internal and boundary elements.
60
5.
The filed variable models need not be changed when the boundary conditions
change.
6.
The introduction of boundary conditions in to assembled equations is a relatively
easy process. No special techniques or artificial device are necessary.

7.
The finite element method not only accommodates complex geometry and
boundary conditions, but also proven successful in representing various types of

complicated material properties that are difficult to incorporate in the numerical methods.
8.
The finite element method readily accounts for non-homogeneity by the simple
tactic of assigning different properties to different elements.

9.
The simple generality of the finite element procedure makes it a powerful and
versatile tool for a wide range of problems.
3.8 Limitations of Finite Element Analysis:

The finite element method does not accommodate few complex phenomena such as
1.
Cracking and fracture behaviour.
2.
Contact problems.
3.
Bond failures of composite materials.
4.
Non-linear behaviour with work softening.
5.
It does not account for transient, unconfined seepage problems.
6.
The finite element analysis has reached a high level of
development as a
solution technique. However, the method yields realistic results only if the coefficients or
material parameters, which describe the basic phenomena, are available.
7.
The most tedious aspect of the use of finite element method is the basic process of
sub dividing the continuum error free input data for the computer.
61
CHAPTER-4
62
RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS

4.1 STATIC ANALYSIS:
4.1.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS LEAF SPRING:
Material
STEEL
65Si7
Composite
leaf spring
Ultimate
stress(MPa)
1272
Youngs
Density(kg/m3) Poissons
modulus(MPa)
ratio
2.1e5
7860
0.266
900
0.6e5
2600
4.2 Mesh model of leaf spring:
Fig.4.1 Mesh model of Leaf Spring
63
0.217
4.3 Loads and boundary conditions of leaf spring:
Fig.4.2 Loads and boundary conditions of leaf spring
4.4Material STEEL 65Si7:

Fig.4.3 Displacement of leaf spring(steel) is 1.74 mm
64
Fig.4.4 Vonmises stress of leaf spring (steel) is 93.99 N/mm2
4.5 Composite leaf spring:

Fig.4.5 Displacement of leaf spring(composite material) is 6.14 mm

65
Fig.4.6 Vonmises stress of leaf spring (composite material) is 94.99 N/mm2
4.6 Result Tables:

The table shows the comparative results both Steel and composite leaf spring.
Results of Steel and composite material

Deformation(mm)
Stress (N/mm2)
Steel
1.744
93.9
composite
6.146
94.82
66
CONCLUSION
The 3-D modeling of both steel and composite leaf spring is done and analyzed A comparative
study has been made between composite and steel leaf spring with respect to Deflection , strain
energy and stresses. From the results, it is observed that the composite leaf spring is lighter and
more economical than the conventional steel spring with similar design specifications. It is
observed that the weight reduction of mono leaf spring is achieved up 84.94% in case of
composite than steel.
It can be easily observed that material having lower modulus and density will have a greater
specific strain energy capacity. The introduction of composite materials was made it possible to
reduce the weight of the leaf spring without any reduction on load carrying capacity and
stiffness. Since the composite materials have more elastic strain energy storage capacity and high
strength-to-weight ratio as compared to those of steel. It is observed that the composite material
shows more deflection and strain energy than that of steel material.
67
REFERENCE
1. Aggarwal, M. L., Khan, R. A., & Agrawal, V. P. (2006 a). Optimization of micro welds in leaf
springs used in automotive vehicles. Indian Journal of Engineering and Materials Sciences,
13(3), 217-220.
2. Aggarwal, M. L., Agrawal, V. P., & Khan, R. A. (2006 b). A stress approach model for
predictions of fatigue life by shot peening of EN45A spring steel. International journal of fatigue,
28(12), 18451853.
3. Arora, V., Aggarwal, M. L., &Bhushan, G. (2011). A comparative study of CAE and
experimental results of leaf springsin automotive vehicles. International journal of engineering
science and technology, 3(9), 6856-6866.
4. Chantranuwathana, S., Kadekheaw P., Preedanood, P., Wichienprakarn,P, Kruoongarjnukool,P (2009) Experimental Verification of Leaf Spring Model by Using a Leaf Spring
Test Rig,23rd conference of Mechanical Engineering Network of Thailand.
5. Fuentes, J. J., Aguilar, H. J., Rodrguez, J. A., & Herrera, E. J. (2009). Premature fracture in
automobile leaf springs. Engineering Failure Analysis, 16(2), 648-655.
6. Junior, G. S., Voorwald, H. J. C., Vieira, L. F. S., Cioffi, M. O. H., &Bonora, R. G. (2010).
Evaluation of WC-10Ni thermal spray coating with shot peening on the fatigue strength of AISI
4340 steel. Procedia Engineering, 2(1), 649-656.
7. Kumar, M. S., &Vijayarangan, S. (2007). Analytical and experimental studies on fatigue life
prediction of steel and composite multi-leaf spring for light passenger vehicles using life data
analysis.Materials science, 13(2), 141-146.
8. Patunkar, M. M., &Dolas, D. R. (2011). Modelling and Analysis of Composite leaf spring
under the static load condition by using FEA. International Journal of Mechanical & Industrial
Engineering, 1(1-2011), 1-4.
9. SAE Spring Committee.(1990). Spring Design Manual.HS-744, AE-11, Society of
Automotive Engineers.
10. Torabi, A., &Aliha, M. (2013). Determination of permissible defect size for solid axles
loaded under fully-reversed rotating bending. Engineering Solid Mechanics, 1(1), 27-36.
68

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ABSTRACT

1.4 Manufacturing process

1.6 Tips on Leaf Spring

1.7 Leaf Spring Types

1.8 Keep U-Bolt Nuts Tight!

1.9 U-Bolt Top Plate

1.10 The U-bolt top plate is important for

1.11 Center Bolt and Cupped Centers

1.13 Typical Eyes of Springs

1.14 Heavy-Duty Spring Eyes

1.14.1 Add a leaf?

1.14.2 Stress Distribution Disturbance

1.15 Spring Clips

1.15.1 Spring clips prevent

1.16.1 Visual Inspection

1.16.2 Distance from Fixed Hanger

1.16.3 Check leaves

1.16.4 Center bolt

1.16.5Check U-bolt nuts for tightness

1.16.6 Check spring clips

1.16.7 Check spring eyes for

1.16.8 Check spring shackle bolts for

1.16.9 Inspecting springs for

1.17.5 Vehicle Driver

1.17. Leaf Spring Three Things

1.18 Spring length is measured

1.20 Orthotropic Properties of

1.21 Physical properties of materials

1.22 Terminology in leaf spring

1.23 Standard sizes of Automobile

1.24 Dimensions for centre bolts

1.25 Dimensions of clip, rivet and bolts

1.26Specifications of the modeled leaf spring

2.2 Introduction to CAD/CAM/CAE

2.3 Need for CAD, CAE &CAM

2.4.1 What is NX.

2.5 NX User Interface

2.5.1 Template parts

ESWAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

2.6.1 Gateway application

2.6.2 Ribbon bar interface

2.6.3 Assembly Navigator overview

2.6.4 Command Finder

2.6.6 Other view manipulation options

2.6.8 Coordinate systems

2.6.9 Sketch curves

2.7 Creation of CAD Model

2.8 Conversion of CAD model to STL Format

2.9 Slicing of the STL File into layers

2.10 Cleaning and Finishing

2.11 Rapid Prototyping

2.11.1 Working Principle behind

2.11.2Rapid Prototyping Techniques

2.14 Applications of Rapid Prototyping

2.14.3 Medical Applications

2.14.4 Arts and Archaeology

3.2 Need for FEA

3.3 How Does Finite Element Analysis Work

3.4 Terms commonly used in FEM

3.5 Basic steps involved in FEA

3.5.1 The following are the five basic

3.7 Advantages of FEA

3.8 Limitations of FEA