Defining Research Methodology

Methodology means the systematic study of the methods, principles, procedures and rules applied
within a discipline. Hence research methodology
Significance /Relevance of research for management
OR
Role of research in industry

Significant in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry
Market research (investigation of the structure and development of market)
Important for formulating policies for purchase, production and sales
Motivational research studies consumers motives in their purchase behavior (Consumer
behavior)
Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques
to the solution of business problems of optimization of resource use, cost minimization and profit
maximization.
Aid to Informed decision making
Helps identify problem areas
Aid to forecasting
Helps business budgeting
Tool for efficient production and investment decision making
Optimal utilization of resources
Basis for innovation
Managers need research to measure and compare the ROI on various strategies.
Helps in a better understanding of employees, stockholders and customers

Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a certain phenomenon or gain new insights (Exploratory research)
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, group or situation. (Descriptive)
3. To see the frequency with which some phenomenon is associated with something else (Diagnostic)
4. Hypothesis of causal relationship between variables (Hypothesis-testing)
Criteria of Good Research

Good research is systematic- structured with specified steps taken in specified sequence in
accordance with well-defined rules

Good research is logical: logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of
decision making

Good research is empirical: dealing with concrete data that provides the basis for external
validity to research results.

Good research is replicable

1. Purpose should be clearly defined.

2. Research Process (source of data etc) should be described in sufficient detail-except when secrecy is
required-This will help verify, correct and extend knowledge, keeping the continuity of what has
already been achieved.
3. Design (Sampling, questionnaire, observation etc) should be thoroughly planned so as to yield
objective results.
4. High ethical standards -from misusing information , to forcing respondents to answering questions to
animal rights and human dignity- Dilemma
5. Limitations should be frankly revealed (e-g., flaws in design) so that the decision maker is made
aware.
6. Analysis of data should be adequate and methods of analysis appropriate. Should check for reliability
and validity, and probability of error
7. Unambiguous presentation should be avoided.
8. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research.

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the objectives
4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Analysis of Data
7. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of conclusions reached.

Step1. Formulating the research problem:

It is the first and most crucial step in the research process
- Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.
- The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows.

Steps in formulation of a research problem :

Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4 Raise research questions.
Step 5 Formulate objectives.
Step 6 Assess your objectives.
Step 7 Double check.
Considerations in selecting a research problem:
These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain motivated.

1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and possibly
unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time and
resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and measurement of
concepts (if used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps and
is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can be
overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage.

Step 2. Reviewing the literature:

-Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge in your
area of interest.
-Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every
operational step.
-Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding.
Its functions are:
a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
b. Improve your methodology;
c. Broaden your knowledge;
d. Contextualise your findings.
a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps
you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the
relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge in the area.
b. Improve your methodology:
A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones that you are
proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for them, and what problems they have
faced with them. Thus you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capable of providing
valid answer to your research questions.
c. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area:
It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct your research
study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study, it helps fulfil this expectation. It also
helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.
d.Contextualise your findings:
How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found? What contribution
have you been able to make in to the existing body of knowledge? How are your findings different from
those of others? For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature
review. It is important to place your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of
enquiry.

Procedure for reviewing the literature:

i) search for existing literature in your area of study;
ii) review the literature selected;
iii) develop a theoretical framework;
iv) develop a conceptual framework.
1. Search for existing literature:
-To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have in mind at least
some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters
for your search.
-Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are:
1. Books
2. Journals
BOOKS
comprise a central part of any bibliography.
Advantage-material published generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with
other research to form a coherent body of knowledge.
Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between the
completion of a work and publication in the form of a book.
Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these books in the libraries or
borrow from other sources. Examine their content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your
topic, delete it from your reading list.
JOURNALS
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is a gap of two to
three years between the completion of a research project and the publication in a journal.
As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for identifying literature relevant to your
study. This can be done as follows:
-locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study;
- use the internet
- look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and read the articles.
Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more detail for
your review of literature.
Select the latest issue, examine its content page to see if there is an article of relevance to your
research topic. If you feel a particular article is of relevance to you, read its abstract. If you think
you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for reference for later use.
2. Review the literature selected:
After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them critically to pull
together themes and issues that are associated.
If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of
paper for each article or book.
Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into that
framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework.
As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme so far
developed. You may need to add more themes as you go.
Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects:
Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond doubt.

 Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies adopted and
the criticisms of them.
Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain the areas in
which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.
3. Develop a theoretical framework:
As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to
some main themes pertinent to your research topic.
As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number of aspects that have a
direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for developing your
theoretical framework.
Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have
developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:
- universal;
- more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)
In writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing
down to the specific.
4. Writing up the literature reviewed:
In order to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. to provide theoretical background to your
study:
-List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.
-Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the theme in
question, and follow a logical progression.
-Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in question,
highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues.
In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising the findings of your
study- requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those made by others. Quote from
these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places your findings in the
context of
what others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing about your findings i.e. after
analysis of your data.

Step 3 The formulation of objectives:

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings:
a) main objectives ( aims)--- The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your
study. It is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to
discover or establish.
b) sub-objectives--- The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to
investigate within the main framework of your study.
They should be numerically listed.
Wording should clearly, completely and specifically communicate to your readers your intention.
Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.

Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

The objectives should start with words such as
to determine,
to find out,
to ascertain,
to measure,
to explore etc.
The wording of objectives determines the type of research (descriptive, correlational and
experimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them.

Identifying Variables:
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be operationalised in
measurable terms so that the extent of variations in respondents understanding is reduced if not
eliminated.
Techniques about how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge about variables, play an
important role in reducing this variability. Their knowledge, therefore is important in fine tuning
your research problem.
For example:
-Jet Airways is a perfect example of quality cabin service.
- Food in this restaurant is excellent.
- The middle class in India is getting more prosperous.
When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria in
their minds. Their judgement is based upon indicators that lead them to conclude and express
that opinion.
These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This warrants the use of
a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that knowledge about variables
plays an important role.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
. . . are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent
variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may damage a
study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and
moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must
at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.
MODERATOR VARIABLES
. . . affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of
the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are measured and taken
into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language acquisition research (when they
are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the
subjects.
CONTROL VARIABLES
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider every
variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be
held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other
variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables.

Step 4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy
adopted for the particular project. It is the heart of planning.
A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed.
It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be
collected from which source by what procedures.
Importance/utility of research design

Research design is important as it prepares proper framework within which the research
work/activity will be actually carried out.
Research design acts as a blue print for the conduct of the whole research project.
It introduces efficiency in investigation and generates confidence in the final outcome of the
study.
Research design gives proper direction and time-table to research activity. It keeps adequate
check on the research work and ensures its completion within certain time limit. It keeps the
whole research project on the right track.
Research design avoids possible errors as regards research problem, information requirement
and so on.
It gives practical orientation to the whole research work and makes it relevant to the marketing
problems faced by the sponsoring organisation.
Finally, it makes the whole research process compact and result-oriented. A researcher should
not go ahead with his research project unless the research design is planned properly.

Types of Research design

On the basis of information to be collected, research designs can be classified into the following three
categories:
a) Exploratory research
b) Descriptive research
c) Casual research
Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is often conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined as yet, or
its real scope is as yet unclear.
It allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept to be studied, and
perhaps generate hypotheses (definition of hypothesis) to be tested. It is the initial research, before
more conclusive research (definition of conclusive research) is undertaken.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and
selection of subjects, and sometimes it even concludes that the problem does not exist!
Another common reason for conducting exploratory research is to test concepts before they are put
in the marketplace, always a very costly endeavour. In concept testing, consumers are provided
either with a written concept or a prototype for a new, revised or repositioned product, service or
strategy.

Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature and/or data, or qualitative (definition of qualitative research) approaches such as
informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal
approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot
studies.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but
they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative research
can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how
often" or "how many". In other words, the results can neither be generalized; they are not
representative of the whole population being studied.

Descriptive research

It is also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the population or
phenomenon being studied.

Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how.

Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe
what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship,
where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low
requirement for internal validity.

The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best
approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. research often
has the aim of description and researchers may boner follow-up with examinations of why the
observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there are
always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the people around you.
For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the
research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.

Causal Research

It explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one variable on
another. The research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing
norms and allows market researchers to predict hypothetical scenarios upon which a company can
base its business plan.

For example, if a clothing company currently sells blue denim jeans, causal research can measure
the impact of the company changing the product design to the colour white. Following the research,
company bosses will be able to decide whether changing the colour of the jeans to white would be
profitable.

To summarise, causal research is a way of seeing how actions now will affect a business in the
future.

The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the
consideration of the following:
1. Objectives of the research study.
2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
3. Source of informationSample Design
4. Tool for Data collection

5. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative

1. Objectives of the Research Study: Objectives identified to answer the research questions have to
be listed making sure that they are:
a) Numbered, and
b) Statement begins with an action verb.
2. Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data
Primary Data collected for the first time
Secondary Datathose which have already been collected and analysed by someone else.
PRIMARY DATA
In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and
questionnaires. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and,
until you publish, no one else has access to it.
There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:
questionnaires
interviews
focus group interviews
observation
case-studies
diaries
critical incidents
portfolios.
Survey Method
A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly
used in psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on
factual information about individuals, or it might aim to collect the opinions of the survey takers.
A survey can be administered in a couple of different ways. In one method known as a structured
interview, the researcher asks each participant the questions. In the other method known as a
questionnaire, the participant fills out the survey on his or her own.
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way.
Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview according to their
answers.
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and thoughts. e.g. Why dont
you eat at MacDonalds?
Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: What kind of people eat at MacDonalds? From the
response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer avoids MacDonalds. It may
suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

Advantages of Using Surveys

Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short period of time.
Surveys are less expensive than many other data collection techniques
Surveys can be created quickly and administered easily.
Surveys can be used to collect information on a wide range of things, including personal facts,
attitudes, past behaviors and opinions.
Disadvantages of Using Surveys
Poor survey construction and administration can undermine otherwise well-designed studies.
The answer choices provided on a survey may not be an accurate reflection of how the participants
truly feels.
While random sampling is generally used to select participants, response rates can bias the results of
a survey.
Questionnaires and Interviews are types of survey methods
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not
require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized
answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users.
Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions
and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may
not be concrete.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN QUESTIONAIRES
There are different types of questions that can be put forth to a large audience. The key to getting the
right data depends on the questions that are asked. We have knowledge and expertise in the different
types of questions in questionnaire design.
The following is a list of the different types of questions in questionnaire design:
1. Open Ended Questions
Open format questions are those questions that give your audience an opportunity to express their
opinions. In these types of questions, there are no predetermined set of responses and the person is
free to answer however he/she chooses. By including open format questions in your questionnaire, you
can get true, insightful and even unexpected suggestions. Qualitative questions fall under the category
of open format questions. An ideal questionnaire would include an open format question at the end of
the questionnaire that would ask the respondent about suggestions for changes or improvements.
Example of an Open Format Question

2. Closed Ended Questions

Closed format questions are questions that include multiple choice answers. Multiple choice questions
fall under the category of closed format questions. These multiple choices could either be in even
numbers or in odd numbers. By including closed format questions in your questionnaire design, you can
easily calculate statistical data and percentages. Preliminary analysis can also be performed with ease.
Closed format questions can be asked to different groups at different intervals. This can enable you to
efficiently track opinion over time.
Example of an Open Format Question

3. Leading Questions
Leading questions are questions that force your audience for a particular type of answer. In a leading
question, all the answers would be equally likely. An example of a leading question would be a question
that would have choices such as, fair, good, great, poor, superb, excellent etc. By asking a question and
then giving answers such as these, you will be able to get an opinion from your audience.
Example of an Open Format Question

4. Importance Questions
In importance questions, the respondents are usually asked to rate the importance of a particular issue,
on a rating scale of 1-5. These questions can help you grasp what are the things that hold importance to
your respondents. Importance questions can also help you make business critical decisions.
Example of an Open Format Question

5. Likert Questions
Likert questions can help you ascertain how strongly your respondent agrees with a particular
statement. Likert questions can also help you assess how your customers feel towards a certain issue,
product or service.
Example of an Open Format Question

6. Dichotomous Questions
Dichotomous questions are simple questions that ask respondents to just answer yes or no. One major
drawback of a dichotomous question is that it cannot analyze any of the answers between yes and no.
Example of an Open Format Question

7. Bipolar Questions
Bipolar questions are questions that have two extreme answers. The respondent is asked to mark
his/her responses between the two opposite ends of the scale.
Example of an Open Format Question

8. Rating Scale Questions

In rating scale questions, the respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges from
poor to good. Rating scale questions usually have an even number of choices, so that respondents are
not given the choice of an middle option.
Example of an Open Format Question

9. Buying Propensity Questions

Buying propensity questions are questions that try to assess the future intentions of customers. These
questions ask respondents if they want to buy a particular product, what requirements they want to be
addressed and whether they would buy such a product in the future.
Example of an Open Format Question

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE DRAFTING A QUESTIONNAIRE

Deciding which questionnaire to use- - closed or open ended, self or interviewer administered
Wording and structure of questions-- Questions should be kept short and simple--avoid double
barreled i.e. two questions in one ask two Qs rather than one.

 Avoid negative questions which have not in them as it is confusing for respondent to agree or
disagree.
Question should not contain Prestige Bias causing embarrassment or forcing the respondent to
give false answer in order to look good. Questions about educational qualification or income might
elicit this type of response
Use indirect questions for sensitive issues- in indirect questions respondents can relate their answer
to other people.
Using closed- ended questions- try to make sure that all possible answers are covered so that
respondents are not constrained in their answer. Dont Know category also needs to be added.
Avoiding Leading Question: Dont lead the respondent to answer in a certain way. e.g. How often do
you wash your car? assumes that respondent has a car and he washes his car. Instead, ask a filter
question to find if he has a car, and then, If you wash your car, how many times a year?
Length and ordering of the Questions: - Keep the questionnaire as short as possible
Ask easy questions which respondents will enjoy answering
If combined questionnaire, keep open ended Qs for the end.
Make Qs as interesting as possible and easy to follow by varying type and length of question
Group the qs. Into specific topic as this it makes it easier to understand and follow.
Layout and spacing is important as cluttered Questionnaire is less likely to be answered.
Piloting the Questionnaire
Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it. This means that you must test it out to
see if it is obtaining the result you require. This is done by asking people to read it through and see if
there are any ambiguities which you have not noticed. They should also be asked to comment about the
length, structure and wording of the questionnaire Alter the questions accordingly

Interviews
Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and
motivations for peoples attitudes, preferences or behaviour. Interviews can be undertaken on a
personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in a
shopping centre, or some other agreed location.
Personal interview
Interviewee is interviewed personally.
Advantages:

Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.

Good response rate.
Possible in-depth questions.
Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
Can investigate motives and feelings.
Can use recording equipment.

Disadvantages:

Need to set up interviews.

Time consuming.
Geographic limitations.
Can be expensive.
Normally need a set of questions.
Respondent bias tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview
quickly.
Embarrassment possible if personal questions.
If many interviewers, training required.

Types of personal interview

Unstructured informal interview

The unstructured informal interview is normally conducted as a preliminary step in the research
process to generate ideas/hypotheses about the subject being investigated so that these might
be tested later in the survey proper.
Such interviews are entirely informal and are not controlled by a specific set of detailed
questions. Rather the interviewer is guided by a pre-defined list of issues. These interviews
amount to an informal conversation about the subject.
Informal interviewing is not concerned with discovering 'how many' respondents think in a
particular way on an issue (this is what the final survey itself will discover). The aim is to find out
how people think and how they react to issues, so that the ultimate survey questionnaire can be
framed along the lines of thought that will be most natural to respondents.
The respondent is encouraged to talk freely about the subject, but is kept to the point on issues
of interest to the researcher. The respondent is encouraged to reveal everything that he/she feels
and thinks about these points.
The interviewer must note (or tape-record) all remarks that may be relevant and pursue them
until he/she is satisfied that there is no more to be gained by further probing.
Properly conducted, informal interviews can give the researcher an accurate feel for the subject
to be surveyed. Focus groups, discussed later in this chapter, make use of relatively unstructured
interviews.

Structured standardised interview

With structured standardised interviews, the format is entirely different. A structured interview
follows a specific questionnaire and this research instrument is usually used as the basis for most
quantitative surveys. A standardised structured questionnaire is administered where specific
questions are asked in a set order and in a set manner to ensure no variation between
interviews.
Respondents' answers are recorded on a questionnaire form (usually with pre-specified response
formats) during the interview process, and the completed questionnaires are most often analysed
quantitatively. The structured interview usually denies the interviewer the opportunity to either
add or remove questions, change their sequence or alter the wording of questions.

Telephone interview
This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview.
Advantages:

Relatively cheap.

Quick.
Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organisations.
Wide geographic coverage.
High response rate keep going till the required number.
No waiting.
Spontaneous response.
Can tape answers.

Disadvantages:
Often connected with selling.
Questionnaire required.
Repeat calls are inevitable average 2.5 calls to get someone.
Time is wasted.
Straightforward questions are required.
Respondent has little time to think.
Cannot use visual aids.
Can cause irritation.
Good telephone manner is required.
Focus group interviews
Focus Groups
Focus groups are a data collection method. Data is collected through a semi-structured group interview
process. Focus groups are moderated by a group leader. Focus groups are generally used to collect
data on a specific topic.
Characteristics of focus groups
The design of focus group research will vary based on the research question being studied. Below, we
highlight some general principles to consider:
Standardization of questions -- Focus groups can vary in the extent to which they follow a structured
protocol or permit discussion to emerge
Number of focus groups conducted - or sampling will depend on the 'segmentation' or different
stratifications (e.g. age, sex, socioeconomic status, health status) that the researcher identifies as
important to the research topic
Number of participants per group - the rule of thumb has been 6-10 homogeneous strangers, but as
Morgan (1996) points out there may be reasons to have smaller or slightly larger groups
Level of moderator involvement - can vary from high to low degree of control exercised during focus
groups (e.g. extent to which structured questions are asked and group dynamics are actively managed)

When focus groups might be used

Focus groups may be used:

To explore new research areas

To explore a topic that is difficult to observe (not easy to gain access)
To explore a topic that does not lend itself to observational techniques (e.g. attitudes and
decision-making)
To explore sensitive topics
When you want to collect a concentrated set of observations in a short time span
To acertain perspectives and experiences from people on a topic, particularly when these are
people who might otherwise be marginalized
In combination with other methods, focus groups might be used to:

gather preliminary data

aid in the development of surveys and interview guides

clarify research findings from another method

Recording focus group data

One of the challenges in recording focus group data is knowing who is speaking at any particular time,
since often multiple people speak in overlap.

Consider audio- or video-recording focus group sessions (or even both). Video will be helpful for
identifying who is speaking. Recordings also provide access to nuances of the discussion and
the abilility to replay sessions during analysis
Transcribe focus group discussions
Have a least 2-3 researchers (in addition to the moderator) attend the focus group and take
notes. The focus of each researcher's note-taking efforts might be different (e.g. nonverbal
behavior, group dynamics, emergent themes).
Note taking is important to capture nonverbal data. Even if one is video-recording a group, some
nonverbal behavior will be lost that might be recorded by a note-taker.

Benefits

Ability to produce a large amount of data on a topic in a short time

Access to topics that might be otherwise unobservable
Can insure that data directly targets researcher's topic
Provide access to comparisons that focus group participants make between their experiences.
This can be very valuable and provide access to consensus/diversity of experiences on a topic

Observation
Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic
manner. Observational methods may be:
Structured or unstructured
In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and the
information needed is specified.

In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem
relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in
observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses. The potential for bias
is high. Observation findings should be treated as hypotheses to be tested rather than as conclusive
findings.
Disguised or undisguised
In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are being observed and thus behave naturally.
Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people disguised as
shoppers.
In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a danger of the
Hawthorne effect people behave differently when being observed.
Natural or contrived
Natural observation involves observing behaviour as it takes place in the environment, for example,
eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet.
In contrived observation, the respondents behaviour is observed in an artificial environment, for
example, a food tasting session.
Personal
In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behaviour as it occurs. The observer may or may
not normally attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The observer merely
records what takes place.
Mechanical
Mechanical devices (video, closed circuit television) record what is being observed. These devices may
or may not require the respondents direct participation. They are used for continuously recording ongoing behaviour.
Non-participant
The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being observed. He or she
does not participate.
Participant
In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being investigated.
Participant observation has its roots in ethnographic studies (study of man and races) where
researchers would live in tribal villages, attempting to understand the customs and practices of that
culture. It has a very extensive literature, particularly in sociology (development, nature and laws of
human society) and anthropology (physiological and psychological study of man). Organisations can be
viewed as tribes with their own customs and practices.
Case-studies

The term case-study usually refers to a fairly intensive examination of a single unit such as a person, a
small group of people, or a single company. Case-studies involve measuring what is there and how it
got there. In this sense, it is historical. It can enable the researcher to explore, unravel and understand
problems, issues and relationships. It cannot, however, allow the researcher to generalise, that is, to
argue that from one case-study the results, findings or theory developed apply to other similar casestudies. The case looked at may be unique and, therefore not representative of other instances. It is, of
course, possible to look at several case-studies to represent certain features of management that we
are interested in studying. The case-study approach is often done to make practical improvements.
Contributions to general knowledge are incidental.
The case-study method has four steps:
1. Determine the present situation.
2. Gather background information about the past and key variables.
3. Test hypotheses. The background information collected will have been analysed for possible
hypotheses. In this step, specific evidence about each hypothesis can be gathered. This step aims to
eliminate possibilities which conflict with the evidence collected and to gain confidence for the
important hypotheses. The culmination of this step might be the development of an experimental
design to test out more rigorously the hypotheses developed, or it might be to take action to remedy
the problem.
4. Take remedial action. The aim is to check that the hypotheses tested actually work out in practice.
Some action, correction or improvement is made and a re-check carried out on the situation to see
what effect the change has brought about.
The case-study enables rich information to be gathered from which potentially useful hypotheses can be
generated. It can be a time-consuming process. It is also inefficient in researching situations which are
already well structured and where the important variables have been identified. They lack utility when
attempting to reach rigorous conclusions or determining precise relationships between variables.
Diaries
A diary is a way of gathering information about the way individuals spend their time on professional
activities. They are not about records of engagements or personal journals of thought! Diaries can
record either quantitative or qualitative data, and in management research can provide information
about work patterns and activities.
Advantages:

Useful for collecting information from employees.

Researcher not personally involved.
Diaries can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive interviewing.
Used as an alternative to direct observation or where resources are limited.

Disadvantages:

Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to do, why and what you plan to do
with the data.
Diarists need to be of a certain educational level.
Some structure is necessary to give the diarist focus, for example, a list of headings.

Encouragement and reassurance are needed as completing a diary is time-consuming and can
be irritating after a while.
Progress needs checking from time-to-time.
Confidentiality is required as content may be critical.
Analyses problems, so you need to consider how responses will be coded before the subjects
start filling in diaries.

Portfolios
A measure of a managers ability may be expressed in terms of the number and duration of issues or
problems being tackled at any one time. The compilation of problem portfolios is recording information
about how each problem arose, methods used to solve it, difficulties encountered, etc. This analysis
also raises questions about the persons use of time. What proportion of time is occupied in checking; in
handling problems given by others; on self-generated problems; on top-priority problems; on minor
issues, etc? The main problem with this method and the use of diaries is getting people to agree to
record everything in sufficient detail for you to analyse. It is very time-consuming!

SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by and readily available from other
sources. Such data are cheaper and more quickly obtainable than the primary data and also may be
available when primary data can not be obtained at all.
Collection of Secondary Data
The secondary sources can be classified into two categories via. Published and unpublished sources.
A. Published Sources
Generally, published sources are international, national, govt., semi-Govt, private corporate bodies,
trade associations, expert committee and commission reports and research reports.
They collect the statistical data in different fields like national income, population, prices, employment,
wages, export, import etc. These reports are published on regular basis i.e., annually, quarterly,
monthly, fortnightly, weekly, daily and so on. These published sources of the secondary data are given
below:
1. Govt. Publications:
The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) and various state govt. collect compile and publish data on
regular basis. Some of the important such publications are:
(i) Indian Trade Journals
(ii) Reports on Currency and Finance
(iii) Indian Customs and Central Excise Tariff
(x) Economic Survey and so on.
2. International Bodies:
All foreign govts and international agencies publish regular reports of international significance. These
reports are regularly published by the agencies like;

(i) United Nations Organization

(iii) World Health Organization
(ii) International Labour Organization
(iv) Food and Agriculture Organization
(v) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(vi) World Meteorological Organization.
3. Semi Govt. Publications:
Semi govt, organizations municipalities, District Boards and others also publish reports in respect of
birth, death and education, sanitation and many other related fields.
4. Reports of Committee and Commissions:
Central Govt, or State Govt, sometimes appoints committees and commissions on matters of great
importance. Reports of such committees are of great significance as they provide invaluable data.
These reports are like, Shah Commission Report, Sarkaria Commission Report and Finance
Commission Reports etc.
5. Private Publications:
Some commercial and research institutes publish reports regularly. They are like Institutes of Economic
Growth, Stock Exchanges, National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT), National
Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) etc.
6. Newspapers and Magazines.
Various newspapers as well as magazines also do collect data in respect of many social and economic
aspects. Some of them are as:
(i) Economic Times
(ii) Financial Express
(iii) Hindustan Times
(iv) Indian Express
(v) Business Standard
7. Research Scholars:
Individual research scholars collect data to complete their research work which further is published with
their research papers.
B. Unpublished Source
There are certain records maintained properly by the govt, agencies, private offices and firms. These
data are not published.
Limitations of Secondary Data
One should not use the secondary data without care and precautions. As such, secondary data suffers
from pitfalls and limitations as stated below:
1. No proper procedure is adopted to collect the data.
2. Sometimes, secondary data is influenced by the prejudice of the investigator.
3. Secondary data sometimes lacks standard of accuracy.

4. Secondary data may not cover the full period of investigation.

SAMPLING
In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals
from within a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.
Researchers rarely survey the entire population because the cost of a census is too high. The three
main advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower, data collection is faster, and since the data set
is smaller it is possible to ensure homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of the data.
Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, color) of observable
bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied
to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling (blocking). Results
from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide practice. In business and medical
research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population.
TYPES OF SAMPLING:
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than
zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. The
combination of these traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates of population totals, by
weighting sampled units according to their probability of selection.
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a sampling procedure in which every element of the population has the
same chance of being selected and every element in the sample is selected by chance. Simple random
sampling is a method of selecting n units from a population of size N such that every possible sample of
size an has equal chance of being drawn.
Stratified Random Sampling
In this form of sampling, the population is first divided into two or more mutually exclusive segments
based on some categories of variables of interest in the research. It is designed to organize the
population into homogenous subsets before sampling, then drawing a random sample within each
subset. With stratified random sampling the population of N units is divided into subpopulations of units
respectively. These subpopulations, called strata, are non-overlapping and together they comprise the
whole of the population. When these have been determined, a sample is drawn from each, with a
separate draw for each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata are denoted by
respectively. If a SRS is taken within each stratum, then the whole sampling procedure is described as
stratified random sampling.
Systematic Sampling
This method of sampling is at first glance very different from SRS. In practice, it is a variant of simple
random sampling that involves some listing of elements - every nth element of list is then drawn for
inclusion in the sample. Say you have a list of 10,000 people and you want a sample of 1,000.
Creating such a sample includes three steps:

1. Divide number of cases in the population by the desired sample size. In this example,
dividing 10,000 by 1,000 gives a value of 10.
2. Select a random number between one and the value attained in Step 1. In this
example, we choose a number between 1 and 10 - say we pick 7.
3. Starting with case number chosen in Step 2, take every tenth record (7, 17, 27, etc.).
More generally, suppose that the N units in the population are ranked 1 to N in some order (e.g.,
alphabetic). To select a sample of n units, we take a unit at random, from the 1st k units and take every
k-th unit thereafter.
The advantages of systematic sampling method over simple random sampling include:
1. It is easier to draw a sample and often easier to execute without mistakes. This is a
particular advantage when the drawing is done in the field.
2. Intuitively, you might think that systematic sampling might be more precise
than SRS. In effect it stratifies the population into n strata, consisting of the 1st k
units, the 2nd k units, and so on. Thus, we might expect the systematic sample to be
as precise as a stratified random sample with one unit per stratum. The difference is
that with the systematic one the units occur at the same relative position in the
stratum whereas with the stratified, the position in the stratum is determined
separately by randomization within each stratum.
Cluster Sampling
In some instances the sampling unit consists of a group or cluster of smaller units that we call elements
or subunits (these are the units of analysis for your study). There are two main reasons for the
widespread application of cluster sampling. Although the first intention may be to use the elements as
sampling units, it is found in many surveys that no reliable list of elements in the population is available
and that it would be prohibitively expensive to construct such a list. In many countries there are no
complete and updated lists of the people, the houses or the farms in any large geographical region.
Even when a list of individual houses is available, economic considerations may point to the choice of a
larger cluster unit. For a given size of sample, a small unit usually gives more precise results than a
large unit. For example a SRS of 600 houses covers a town more evenly than 20 city blocks containing
an average of 30 houses apiece. But greater field costs are incurred in locating 600 houses and in
traveling between them than in covering 20 city blocks. When cost is balanced against precision, the
larger unit may prove superior.
Important things about cluster sampling:
1. Most large scale surveys are done using cluster sampling;
2. Clustering may be combined with stratification, typically by clustering within strata;
3. In general, for a given sample size n cluster samples are less accurate than the other
types of sampling in the sense that the parameters you estimate will have greater
variability than an SRS, stratified random or systematic sample.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population
have no chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It
involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which

forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability
sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. These conditions give rise to exclusion bias.
Availability Sampling
Availability sampling is a method of choosing subjects who are available or easy to find. This method is
also sometimes referred to as haphazard, accidental, or convenience sampling. The primary advantage
of the method is that it is very easy to carry out, relative to other methods. A researcher can merely
stand out on his/her favorite street corner or in his/her favorite tavern and hand out surveys. One place
this used to show up often is in university courses.
The primary problem with availability sampling is that you can never be certain what population the
participants in the study represent. The population is unknown, the method for selecting cases is
haphazard, and the cases studied probably don't represent any population you could come up with.
However, there are some situations in which this kind of design has advantages - for example, survey
designers often want to have some people respond to their survey before it is given out in the "real"
research setting as a way of making certain the questions make sense to respondents. For this purpose,
availability sampling is not a bad way to get a group to take a survey, though in this case researchers
care less about the specific responses given than whether the instrument is confusing or makes people
feel bad.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is designed to overcome the most obvious flaw of availability sampling. Rather than
taking just anyone, you set quotas to ensure that the sample you get represents certain characteristics
in proportion to their prevalence in the population. Note that for this method, you have to know
something about the characteristics of the population ahead of time. Say you want to make sure you
have a sample proportional to the population in terms of gender - you have to know what percentage of
the population is male and female, then collect sample until yours matches. Marketing studies are
particularly fond of this form of research design.
The primary problem with this form of sampling is that even when we know that a quota sample is
representative of the particular characteristics for which quotas have been set, we have no way of
knowing if sample is representative in terms of any other characteristics. If we set quotas for gender and
age, we are likely to attain a sample with good representativeness on age and gender, but one that may
not be very representative in terms of income and education or other factors.
Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is a sampling method in which elements are chosen based on purpose of the study.
Purposive sampling may involve studying the entire population of some limited group (sociology faculty
at Columbia) or a subset of a population (Columbia faculty who have won Nobel Prizes). As with other
non-probability sampling methods, purposive sampling does not produce a sample that is representative
of a larger population, but it can be exactly what is needed in some cases - study of organization,
community, or some other clearly defined and relatively limited group.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a method in which a researcher identifies one member of some population of
interest, speaks to him/her, then asks that person to identify others in the population that the researcher
might speak to. This person is then asked to refer the researcher to yet another person, and so on.

Snowball sampling is very good for cases where members of a special population are difficult to locate.
For example, several studies of Mexican migrants in Los Angeles have used snowball sampling to get
respondents.
The method also has an interesting application to group membership - if you want to look at pattern of
recruitment to a community organization over time, you might begin by interviewing fairly recent recruits,
asking them who introduced them to the group. Then interview the people named, asking them who
recruited them to the group.

Step 5: COLLECTING DATA :

Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research instrument
and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions
for your study. Depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire,
conduct experiments and/or make observations.
Step 6: PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA
Processing and analysing data involves a number of closely related operations which are performed
with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer
the research questions (objectives).
The Data Processing operations are:
1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct
these when possible.
2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved
a) Classification according to attributes: here data is analysed on the basis of common characteristics
which can either be
: Descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or
: Numerical such as weight, height, income etc.
3. Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the data and provides a means to introduce
the interpretations of it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding requires the analyst to read the
data and demarcate segments within it. Each segment is labelled with a code usually a word or short
phrase that suggests how the associated data segments inform the research objectives. When coding is
complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of: summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing
similarities and differences in related codes across distinct original sources/contexts, or comparing the
relationship between one or more codes.

Step8: REPORTING THE FINDINGS:

Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process. The report
informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you have drawn
from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style. Language should be formal and
not journalistic

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Statistical procedure identifying the relationship between two or more independent variables in an effort
to identify patterns within the relationship.
The general purpose of multiple regression is to learn more about the relationship between several
independent or predictor variables and a dependent or criterion variable. For example, a real estate
agent might record for each listing the size of the house (in square feet), the number of bedrooms, the
average income in the respective neighborhood according to census data, and a subjective rating of
appeal of the house. Once this information has been compiled for various houses it would be interesting
to see whether and how these measures relate to the price for which a house is sold. For example, you
might learn that the number of bedrooms is a better predictor of the price for which a house sells in a
particular neighborhood than how "pretty" the house is (subjective rating). You may also detect
"outliers," that is, houses that should really sell for more, given their location and characteristics.
In the social and natural sciences multiple regression procedures are very widely used in research. In
general, multiple regression allows the researcher to ask (and hopefully answer) the general question
"what is the best predictor of ... For example, educational researchers might want to learn what are the
best predictors of success in high-school. Psychologists may want to determine which personality
variable best predicts social adjustment. Sociologists may want to find out which of the multiple social
indicators best predict whether or not a new immigrant group will adapt and be absorbed into society.

Correlation analysis
It is a statistical analysis that defines the variation in one variable by the variation in another, without
establishing a cause-and-effect relationship. The coefficient of correlation is a measure of the strength of
the relationship between the variables; that is, how well changes in one variable can be predicted by
changes in another variable. For example, correlation can be shown between the frequency with which
a commercial is aired and sales volumes by plotting on a graph the values of each. A line drawn through
the plotted points defines the correlation algebraically. The greater the density of the points around the
line, the greater the strength of the correlation. In example I, the correlation is high; in example II, the
correlation is low. Although the correlation may be high between advertising exposures and sales, other
factors could be the cause, such as the supply of competitive products, availability of the product in
stores, and so forth.

CHI-SQUARE TEST

T-TEST
A statistical examination of two population means. A two-sample t-test examines whether two samples
are different and is commonly used when the variances of two normal distributions are unknown and
when an experiment uses a small sample size. For example, a t-test could be used to compare the
average floor routine score of the U.S. women's Olympic gymnastics team to the average floor routine
score of China's womens team.

The test statistic in the t-test is known as the t-statistic. The t-test looks at the t-statistic, t-distribution
and degrees of freedom to determine a p value (probability) that can be used to determine whether the
population means differ. The t-test is one of a number of hypothesis tests. To compare three or more
variables, statisticians use an analysis of variance (ANOVA). If the sample size is large, they use a ztest. Other hypothesis tests include the chi-square test and f-test.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS