Offshore

Hydromechanics
Module 1
Dr. ir. Pepijn de Jong

7. Waves

Introduction
Topics of Module 1

Problems of interest
Hydrostatics
Floating stability
Constant potential flows
Constant real flows
Waves

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5

Learning Objectives
Chapter 5

To apply linear wave theory and to derive and apply potential flow
theory to linear waves.

To describe wave shoaling, reflection and diffraction.

To describe basic nonlinear corrections to linear wave theory.

To perform simple statistical analysis to irregular wave trains.

To apply the concept of wave energy spectra and the relation between
the time and the frequency domains.

To describe wave climatology and wave prediction.

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Waves
Introduction
Sea:
Waves driven by local wind field

Short crested
Irregular
Unpredictable

Swell:
Generated by wind (storms) far away
More regular (sine-like)
Long crested
Unidirectional
Longer waves

Waves
Introduction
Deep water waves: short waves
(Almost) no influence sea floor

>1 2
Shallow water waves: long waves
Large influence by sea floor

< 1 20

Waves
Introduction
Wind waves irregular
Use superposition principle to
decompose in regular sine waves
(compare with Fourier Transform)

Regular waves
Definitions

wave elevation

wave length

wave amplitude

wave height

water depth

wave period

= 2

wave frequency

wave number

2
=

2
=

Regular waves
Definitions
Wave speed (or better: phase velocity)
=

Wave profile (dependent on both time and place)

, = cos
Due to minus sign before t-term: wave travels in positive x-direction
In case plus-sign: wave travels in the other direction

Regular waves
Potential theory
Assumptions:

Small wave steepness

Ignoring nonlinear terms
Linear relation between wave harmonic signals:
Displacements
Velocities
Accelerations
Surface displacement
(pressures, etc)
Wave potential

Regular waves
Potential theory
1. Assume harmonic wave elevation:

= cos
2. Assume harmonic wave potential function:
, , = sin
3. Use (boundary) conditions to find leading term P(z) (see book):
Continuity, Laplace equation
Sea bed boundary condition
Free surface dynamic boundary condition
Free surface kinematic boundary condition

10

Regular waves
Potential theory
Resulting wave potential equation:

cosh +
, , =
sin

cosh

For deep water:

, , =

sin

11

Regular waves
Potential theory - FS dynamic BC
Pressure at FS equals
atmospheric pressure

Bernoulli equation at FS:

1 2
0
2
2
+ + + + + = 0

2D and small wave steepness:

0
+ + = 0

= 0

Neglected/ included
in potential
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Regular waves
Potential theory FS kinematic BC
Velocity of water particles at FS equals velocity of FS (no leak condition)

Wave profile:
= cos
Small wave steepness:

=

= +

Linearization (small wave steepness):

= 0
=

13

Regular waves
Potential theory FS combined BC
Resulting kinematic FS BC:

= 0
=

Combining with dynamic FS BC:

+ = 0

= 0 = 0
2

= 0
2

+ =0
2

1 2

+
=0
2

= 0

Combined FS BC: Cauchy-Poisson condition

14

Regular waves
Potential theory Dispersion relation
Substitution of wave potential in CP condition yields:
2 = tanh
Deep water:
2

2
=

Shallow water:
=

2
=

42 2
=
2

2 2
=

2
1.56 2
2

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Regular waves
Potential theory phase velocity
Using dispersion relation and wave celerity:

2

=
=
= tanh

tanh

Deep water:
=

Shallow water:
=

critical velocity

16

Regular waves
Potential theory orbital velocity

Deep water:

2 + 2 =

Shallow water:

17

Regular waves
Potential theory orbital trajectories

deep water

shallow water
18

Regular waves
Potential theory wave pressure
Use the (linearized) Bernoulli equation

1
+ + + 2 + 2 = 0

2
linearized

cosh +
= +
cos
cosh

Deep water:
= + cos

19

Regular waves
Potential theory wave energy (kinetic)

1
1
= 2 = 2 + 2 =
2
2

1
= 0 2 + 2 =
2
0
1
= 0 2 + 2
2
small
1
+0 0 2 + 2 =
2

1
1
0
1
2
2
2
= = 0 + =. . . = 2
2
2
4

20

Regular waves
Potential theory wave energy (potential)

= =
1

= 0

1
=
2

2 =

= 2 0 cos2 =
2

= cos

1
1
= 2
2
2
1
= =. . . = 2
4
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Regular waves
Potential theory wave energy
Two forms of energy:
Kinetic energy (velocity)

1
1
2 =. . . = 2
2
4

per unit width

Potential energy (height)

= =. . . =

1
2
4

per unit width

Total energy:
1
1
2
= + = = 2
2
8

per unit horizontal sea surface

22

Regular waves
Potential theory wave energy transport
Work = force x distance

= 1 =
Average work per unit time:
(over one period T): Power
1
=

2
2
=. . . = 1 +
2
2
sinh2

23

Regular waves
Potential theory group velocity
Thus power:
1

2
2
=. . . = 1 +
2
2
sinh2

Also Power = energy x velocity:

=

1
2
2

Now the group velocity becomes:

2
= 1 +
2
sinh2

=
2

=
24

Regular waves
Shoaling
When waves move from deep to shallow water:
Wave length decreases for fixed wave period

Lower celerity (wave velocity)

Energy transport needs to remain constant:

Wave height increases near shore (higher energy density)

25

Regular waves
Shoaling

= 100

26

Regular waves
Shoaling

[1]

27

Regular waves
Refraction, reflection, diffraction
Refraction

Diffraction

Reflection

Standing wave:
[2]
[3]

28

Regular waves
Limits to linear wave theory
Waves in reality not sinusoidal
Use non-linear wave: stokes waves for instance:

Small wave steepness: no detailed information above z=0

29

Regular waves
Wave pressure in the splash zone
Linear wave theory:
No information above z = 0

Solution:
Wave profile stretching

30

Irregular waves
Wave superposition
Basic assumption:
Decompose irregular waves into a

large number of regular wave components

(Fourier transform)

31

Irregular waves
Characterization of irregular sea state
Period: Average zero up crossing or average crest or trough period

Significant wave height Hs or H1/3

The average height of the one-third highest part of the observed waves

Visually estimated wave height Hv approx. corresponds with significant

wave height
Mean wave height H or H1/1

32

Irregular waves
Probability density distributions

> =

33

Irregular waves
Wave elevation statistics
Standard deviation of the water level elevation signal and significant
wave height

1
1

2
=1

=2

=4

Gaussian water level distribution

2
Probability of exceedance

> =

1
2

2
2

34

Irregular waves
Wave height statistics
In case:
Wave elevation spectrum: narrow banded

Gaussian distributed

Then: Rayleigh distributed wave height distribution

2

= 2 2

Probability of exceedance

> =

> =

1
= 2

1
2 1 2
41 3

22

1 2 2

2 1 3

=2

=4

2
2
1 3

35

Irregular waves
Wave height statistics
Maximum wave height: choose design criterion:
The wave height that is exceeded once in every 1000 (storm) waves

It takes at least 3 hours for 1000 waves to pass by

By then storm should weaken
(chance of zero gives a design criterion of infinite wave height)

> =

1 3

2
1 3

1
=
1000

1
1 2 ln
1000

2
1 3

= ln

= 1.86 1

1
1000

36

Irregular waves
Wave energy density spectrum
Wave elevation in long-crested irregular sea:

cos +
=1

1. Apply Fourier transform to time trace of wave elevation

2. Use dispersion relation: relation between k and

3. Discard phase angle
(only statistical representation, not exact spacial and temporal
reproduction)
Then combinations of n and n are obtained to represent the wave
elevation
37

Irregular waves
Wave energy density spectrum
More robust way:
1. Cut time signal in small pieces (windows)
2. Fourier transform each window to obtain combinations of n and n
3. Average the values of n over the windows (take mean square):

2
Removes sensitivity to time shift in analysis
Reduces precision, improve reliability
Gives a smooth spectrum instead of grass

Typically: measure 50 to 200 times largest expected wave period:

15 to 20 minutes
38

Irregular waves
Wave energy density spectrum
Now define a spectral function S as:
+

1 2

2

Read as: the area under the S function for a narrow frequency band at is
proportional to energy of waves at this frequency

Now let 0:

1 2
=
2

1
= 2
2

Variance is area under S

2 =

0
39

Irregular waves
Transformation to Time Series and back

40

Irregular waves
Wave energy density spectrum
Mind the definition of S!
=

The amount of energy per frequency band is constant!!!

= 2

= 2

41

Irregular waves
Wave energy density spectrum wave height
and period

Spectral moments:

RMS wave elevation:

= =

Significant wave amplitude:

= 2 0

Significant wave height:

Mean centroid wave period:

0
1 = 2
1

Mean zero crossing period:

0
2 = 2
2

= 4 0
42

Irregular waves
Standard wave spectra
For design purposes:
Describe wave frequency spectrum in one mathematical expression
General expression:
= 12

Common types:
Brettschneider:
JONSWAP:
=

320 12
4

5 exp

173 12

14

1950 4

692 4
exp

14

= exp

1
2

43

Irregular waves
Storm development

44

Irregular waves
Long term wave statistics

45

Irregular waves
Scatter diagram

46

Irregular waves
Extrapolation to low probability of exceedance
(design condition)

47

Sources images
[1] Source: Greenfield Geography
[2] Waves, source: Revision World
[3] Diffraction in sea waves, source: unknown

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