www.bleedlaw.

com

JURISPRUDENCE

Projecton
MORALITYININTERNATIONALLAW

Submittedby
HakimYasirAbbas
LawStudent

TABLEOFCONTENTS
Acknowledgement.3
Chapter1:Introduction..47
1.1:InternationalLaw:ProblemandSolution
..5

1.2:FormulationofInternationalLaw.
.6
Chapter2:WarandMorality...8
16
2.1:JusAdBellumConditions..9
2.1.1:SelfDefenceWars......10
2.1.2:WaronTerrorism...12
2.1.3:HumanitarianInterventions....1
3
2.2:JusinBelloConditions14
2.3:War,MoralityandUtilitarianism
.16
Chapter3:TradeandMorality...1
719
Chapter4:InternationalHumanitarianAidMorality.2021
Chapter5:Conclusions.22
Bibliography....23

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Anyaccomplishmentrequirestheeffortofmanypeopleandsameistrueaboutthisproject.This
projectisaresultofcollectiveeffort.Althoughtheprojecthasbeensolelypreparedbymewiththe
purposeoffulfillingtherequirementsofthecourseofB.A.LL.B.,thereareinnumeroushelping
handsbehinditwhohaveguidedmeonmyway.
FirstandforemostIwouldliketothanktheLL.Mprogramdevelopersforcreatingsuchan
opportunityforthestudentstobroadentheirframeofskills.Iamgratifiedwiththeirefforts.My
sinceregratitudealsogoestomyguideandteacherMr.A.P.Singhwhohelpedmetofirstofall
choosethecurrenttopicandsecondofallwhoselecturesaboutlawandmoralityhelpedmeraise
andanswersomeoftheleadingquestionsontheissue.

SaurabhVerma
Lucknow
1.11.2014

CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION

ThisprojectMoralityandInternationalLawisanendeavortoscrutinizetheinfluenceof
moralityinthedevelopmentofinternationallaw.Analysisoftheexistingjurisprudencesuggests
thatverylittlematerialisavailableonthesubjectandsameisinitsnebulousstage.Oneofthe
reasonsbehindthismaybethatdoubtsstillexistaboutthevalidityofinternationallawi.e.whether
itisalawornot?ThisdoubtledAustintotaginternationallawaspositiveinternational
morality.Hewrotethat:
Grotius,Puffendorf,andtheotherwritersonthesocalledlawofnations,havefallen
into.confusionofideas:theyhaveconfoundedpositiveinternationalmorality,ortheruleswhich
actuallyobtainamongcivilizednations,.withtheirownvagueconceptionsofinternational
1

moralityasitoughttobe.

Manybelievethatuntilthereisanobjectiveaffirmationamongthescholarsaboutthetruenature
ofinternationallaw,theroleofmoralityininternationallawmaynotbediscussed.However,I
believethatthisapproachiscompletelywrong.Thevalidityofinternationallawandthe
significanceofmoralityinitsdevelopmentaretwointertwiningtopicsandthestudyofone,
independentlyofotherdoesnotserveanypurpose.
Theaimofthisprojectistoshowthattheconceptofinternationallawhaschangedsincetheterm
internationallawwasfirstcoinedbyBenthamandmoralityplayedaverysignificantroleinits
fruition.Infact,itisbecauseofthemoralconceptsassociatedwithit,that,certainimportant
conceptsofinternationallawtodayareconsideredtobelegallybindingatall.Sincethesubjectsof
internationallawarevery,Iwilltakeupfewimportantonesamongthemandwillshowwiththeir
helpastohowandtowhatextentdoesmoralityplayaroleininternationallaw.

Austin,TheProvinceofJurisprudenceDetermined,1861atp.187.

Theprojectisdividedintofivechapters.Thefirstchapterwillintroducethetopicandwillput
forththeproblemswhicharisewhenoneattemptstostudytherolethatthemoralityplaysin
relationtointernationallaw.ChapterII,IIIandIVwillprovideacasestudyofvariousfieldsof
internationallawwheremorality(bothsubjectiveandobjective)comesincontactwith
internationallawandinfluencesit.Thefinalchapterwillsumupthetopicandprovidethe
authorsconclusionsaboutthesame.
1.1:INTERNATIONALLAWPROBLEMANDSOLUTION
Manisasocialbeing.Hedoesnotlivehislifeinisolation.Heinteractswithothermembersof
societysoastoearnthebasicnecessitiesthatsustainlifeontheplanet.Thisinteractionofmenis
governedbylawwhichislaiddownbytheState.Moreover,theselawsalsodefineandgovernthe
mannerinwhichtheStateinteractswithitssubjects.Sincecenturiesmanhasunderstoodlawtobe
ruleswhicharelaiddownbyaproperlegislatureandexecutedbyanexecutive.Moreover,men
havealwaysperceivedalegalsocietytohaveajudicialbodythatwillprovideforinterpretationof
lawsandsettlementoftheirdisputes.Ashasbeenstated,[i]nsystemsofmunicipallawthe
conceptofformalsource[oflaw]referstotheconstitutionalmachineryoflawmakingandthe
2

statusoftheruleisestablishedbyconstitutionallaw. Forthisreasonitisconsideredtobe
valid.However,suchaformalstructureisabsentintheinternationalarena.Largely,asaresult
ofitsverynature(thatis,thefactthatitiscomprisedofmanysovereignStatescoexisting)the
internationalcommunityischaracterizedbytheabsenceofanydefinedsovereignorformal
structurecomparabletothatpresentwithinnationaljurisdictions.Thisissuehasbeenasubjectof
debateforaverylongtimeandIbelievethattounderstandtheroleofmoralityininternational
law,anditisnotnecessarytodebateithereaswell.Assuch,forthepurposeofthisprojectIam
assumingthatinternationallawisavalidlaw.
ItisclearthatStateshavebecomemoreandmoredependantoneachother,aphenomenonperhaps
3

largelyattributabletothegrowinginstitutionalizationoftheinternationalcommunity. Thisso
calledinterdependencerequiresregulation.Althoughthisissometimes
I.Brownlie,PrinciplesofPublicInternationalLaw(FifthEdition,1998),p.1.
J.Sztucki,JusCogensandtheViennaConventionontheLawofTreaties,(1974),pp.35,165.[Mentionedin
RafaelNietoNavia,InternationalPeremptoryNorms(JusCogens)AndInternationalHumanitarianLaw

achievedbywayofagreementsreachedbetweenindividualStatesthelacunaisalsofilledthrough
therecognitionbyindividualStatesofasocalledinternationalconsciencewhichimposeslegal
regulationontheactionsofStatesandindoingsoensuresinternationalrespectforbasicsocial
4

values. Similarlythisisreflectedinthesocalledinternationalmoralinfrastructurewhichitselfis
5

subjecttonormativedisciplines. Theprovisionsofinternationallawdeveloporarecreatednotby
aninternationallegislatororsovereign,butverygenerallythroughtheconsensusofStateswhich
haverecognizedthatcertainvaluesamounttovalidlegalnormswhichmustberespectedas
betweenStatesInthisregard,itispossibletotalkofthevalidityofinternationallaw.However,
sometimesitbecomesverydifficultforcountriestoreachsuchconsensus,mainlybecausethe
definitionofvaluesinsomecasesmaycomeinconflictwitheachother.Even,thenitisclear
thatmoralobligationsplayaveryvitalroleinsolvingissuesofinternationalimportance.

1.2:FORMULATIONOFINTERNATIONALLAW
Averysuitableapproachtoprovemyhypothesisistounderstandthenatureinwhichinternational
lawisformulated.ThesourcesofinternationallawasenshrinedinArticle38oftheStatuteof
6

InternationalCourtofJusticeprovideinternationaltreatiesandconventions andcustomary
7

internationallaw astheprimarysourcesofinternationallaw. Inorderto

available at
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:nSRFzXmOCccJ:www.iccnow.org/documents/WritingColombiaE
ng.pdf+INTERNATIONAL+PEREMPTORY+NORMS+(JUS+COGENS)+AND+INTERNATIONAL+HUMAN
ITARIAN+LAW&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShgzQHvLKOw0BH3WDo1hs1nG72YxKqM0hi0O7tV
uxlOq5nbBq8Z7bPLez2jom0y8F_0de17zrbqUhOxo_1PScbuBnwGv_v9R8qjLmb
TLyoHLSPhwbUBClZIN3a0C05ldfw0ay&sig=AHIEtbQO9pK1IldUi55Z4IKOMj_pBg69Q]
4

Basedonthismoralcodeinternationalrecognitionandrespectforcertainbasicsocialvaluescanmeanthat
particularagreementsreachedbetweenalimitednumberofStatesbecomevalidforall.Sometimes,itiscalled
customaryinternationallawandsometimeshigherprinciplesofinternationallawknownasjuscogens.
AccordingtoF.Hauriouthebestwayaninstitutioncanexpressitselfisnotlegalbutmoralandintellectual.
Article38(1)(a)ofStatuteofICJ.
Article38(1)(b)ofStatuteofICJ.
TheothertwosourcesoflawprovidedinArticle38areGeneralprinciplesoflawrecognizedbycivilizedstatesand
writingsofeminentjuristsetc..

understandtheroleofmoralityininternationallawitisveryvitaltodiscussboththesesources
handinhand.IwillfirstofallspeakabouttheinternationalCustomandthenwillmoveonto
treatiesandconventions.Article38(1)(b)oftheStatuteofICJprovidesinternationalcustomary
lawtobeasourceofinternationallaw.Thus,ifastateisabletoshowthatthestateshave
developedapracticetogoverntheirrelationinaparticularwaythensuchapracticeisbinding
uponthem.Thetwobasicelementsofthissourceare(1)StatePractice,and(2)opiniojuris.The
secondconditionsprovidesthattobecomeacustomaryinternationallaw,thestatesmustshowthat
theyconsiderthemselvestobelegallyboundbytheprovisionsofsuchpractice.Thisiswhere
moralitycomesinpicture.Thebestexampleofthisbeingthecustomarylawsaboutconductinga
war.Thestatesfeelthemselvestobeboundbytheseprinciplesevenifsuchprincipleshavenot
beencodifiedinaTreatyoraConvention.
TreatiesandConventionscomeintoexistencewhenthenationsagreetocreateanobligation
whichtheyarereadytoabideby.Thus,thememberstatesofaparticulartreatyoraConvention
haveaconsensusuponacertainobligationwhichallofthemarereadytoundertake.However,the
statesenterintoatreatyonlywhensuchtreatydoesnothaveanadverseimpactontheirnational
interest.ThenationalinterestofaStateisaffectedbythecultureandsocialstrataofsuchstate.So,
whileinitiatingorconductingtheirrelationswithothernationsthroughtreaties,thestateskeepin
mindthemoralstandardsexistentwithintheirrespectivejurisdictions.

CHAPTER2
WARANDMORALITY
InthischapterIwillshowastohownationsallaroundtheglobehavejustifiedtheirwarsonthe
groundsofmoralityorinternationalmoralobligation.Hownations,sincethedawnof
nineteenthcenturyjustifiedtheirwarsonthegroundthattheywereunderinternationalmoral
obligationtodoso.Thereisalotofimportantworkonmoralityofwars.However,itisnotonly
limitedtowesternjustwartheorists.BothJudaismandIslamgiveattentiontotheissue,
particularlytothequestionofhowwarshouldbeconducted,asdoessomeEasternthought.Itis
clear,forexample,fromtheOldTestamentthatwarscommandedbyGodareconsideredrighteous
(morallycorrectandobligatory)andthatdefiniteruleshavebeenlaiddownfortheconductof
war.Thus,therearetwoessentialcomponentsofajustwartheconditionsunderwhichonemay
haverecoursetowarandthemannerinwhichwarmaybeconducted.However,beforegoinginto
adetailedanalysisofthesecomponents,onequestionthatneedtobeansweredisWhetherwars
foranyreasonaremoralornot?
Thisquestionhaslongbeenansweredinaffirmativeandisgovernedbywhatispopularlyknown
intheinternationalarenaasJustWartheory.Itisarguedthatthereisageneralpresumptionthat
thelawshouldbecongruentwithmoralitythatis,thattheprohibitionsandpermissionsinthe
lawshouldcorrespondtotheprohibitionsandpermissionsofmorality.Andindeedinmostareas
ofdomesticlaw,andperhapsespeciallyinthecriminallaw,theelementsofthelawdoingeneral
9

derivemoreorlessdirectlyfromtherequirementsofmorality. Themedievalconceptoflawof
warcanbesaidtobeinfluencedbythenaturallaw.ThebestexampleofthisbeingThe
Crusades,whereeachside[ChristiansononesideandMuslimsontheother]believed
themselvestobeundermoralandreligiousdutytofightthewar.Thesegroupsunderstoodthe
moralityofwarasanadaptationtoproblemsofgroupconflictofthemoralprinciplesgoverning
relationsamongindividuals,andsawjustwarfareasaformofpunishmentforwrongdoing.These
Crusadeswereconcernedwitharatherpureconceptionof
9

JeffMacMahan,MoralityofWarandLawofWar,JournalofPoliticalPhilosophy,February2007,atp.1[Available
athttp://www.law.upenn.edu/academics/institutes/ilp/200708papers/mcMahanMoralityofWar.pdf.Retrievedon24th
October2014.]

rightandwrongthatmadefewconcessionstopragmaticconsiderationsandbothgroupswere
unwillingtocompromisemattersofprincipleforthesakeofconsiderationsofconsequences.
ThemodernideologybehindtheJustwartheorylaysdownaseriesofconditionsthatawarmust
10

satisfytobemorallyjustified ;ifitviolatesanyoftheconditionsitiswrong,althoughhow
wrongitisdependsonhowmanyconditionsitviolates,howimportanttheyare,andhowseriously
itviolatesthem.Theseconditionsarestandardlydividedintotwogroups.Thejusadbellum
conditionsconcerntheresorttowarandaredirectedtopoliticalleadersdecidingwhetherto
initiatewarorwhethertorespondtoanotherstatesdoingsowithmilitaryforceoftheirown.The
jusinbelloconditionsconcernthemeansusedtofightwar.Theyareagaindirectedatpolitical
leaderswhentheymaketacticaldecisionssuchasTrumansdecisiontobombHiroshima,butalso
atsoldiersastheyfightfromdaytoday.Itisusuallyassumedthatthetwosetsofconditionsare
independent,soastatecanbejustifiedinitsresorttowarbutviolatetheinbelloconditionsinhow
itfights,orinitiatewarunjustlybutuseonlytacticsthataremorallyallowed.Adetailedanalysis
oftheseconditionswillshowtheextenttowhichmoralityhasrappeditselfaroundinternational
law.
2.1.:JUSADBELLUMCONDITION
Themostimportantadbellumconditionsaystheresorttowarisjustifiedonlygivenajustcause.
Themostwidelyacceptedjustcauseforwarisresistingaggression,oranarmedattackonones
ownoranotherstate,buttherecanalsobeajustcausewhenonestatesponsorsorallowsdeadly
attacksonanotherscitizenswithoutthreateningtheothersterritory;thiswasthetriggerforthe
Afghanistanwarof2001.Anothersuchjustcausecaseswhichhavereceivedworldside
acceptanceareHumanitarianInterventionsandWaronTerror.Twolessimportantadbellum
conditionssayawarmustbedeclaredbyalegitimateauthorityandfoughtwithrightintentions,
andthreefinalconditionsconcerntheconsequencesofwar.Onesaysajustwarmusthavea
reasonablehopeofsuccess;ifthereisnoprobabilityofachievingthejustcauses,thewars
destructivenesswillbetonopurpose.Anothersayswarmustbealastresort;ifthejust
10

ThomasHurka,ProportionalityintheMoralityofWar,Philosophy&PublicAffairs,Vol.33,Blackwell

Publishers,2005atp.34.

causescanbeachievedbylessviolentmeanssuchasdiplomacy,fightingiswrong.Lastisthead
bellumproportionalitycondition,whichsaysthedestructivenessofwarmustnotbeoutof
proportiontotherelevantgoodthewarwilldo.Evenifthereisajustcauseandnowayof
achievingitotherthanwar,resorttowarcanbewrongifthedamageitwillcauseisexcessive.For
example,theSovietUnionsinvasionofCzechoslovakiain1968gaveNATOajustcauseforwar,
butmostpeoplethinkamilitarydefenseofthatcountrywouldhavebeenhorriblywrongbecause
itriskedstartingaglobalnuclearwar.Moreover,thewaronIraqstartedbyGeorgeW.Bush
(junior)mayhavehadajustcause,buttheaftermathofthewarwhichledtothedeathofmore
than200,000civiliansandthethreatofacivilwar(betweenShiaandSunnigroups)raises
questionsaboutitsjustifiability.Alltheseadbellumconditionsaremoralconditionswhose
violationwillholdanationliableforimmoralorunjustwar.However,inordertoperfectly
understandtheroleofmoralityininternationallaw,wedonothavetogointoalltheconditions
exceptthefirstoneviz.whatarethemoralgroundsuponwhichastatecaninitiateawar?As
statedearlier,followingarethethreecategoriesviz.SelfDefencegrounds,WaronTerrorism
andHumanitarianInterventionandIwilldealwiththemonebyone.
2.1.1:SELFDEFENCEWARS
Killingahumanbeingisimmoral.Thisfactisundisputed,forallthenationsintheirpenalcodes
havedeclaredmurderasanoffenceandhaveprovidedpunishmentforit.Ifoneistofollowthis
11

analogythenallwarsareperseimmoralbecausetheyinvolvekillingofhumanbeings. Sowhy
isitthatnationsstillengagethemselvesinwarsandtrytojustifytheiractions?Onecananswer
thisquestionbytakingtheexampleofdomesticpenalcodeswhichprovideselfdefence[Bothof
onesbodyandpropertyandthatofhisneighbors]asanexceptiontomurder.Whenonenation
startsawaragainstanothernation,itisconsideredimmoralandtheotherstateshaveamoral
obligationtostoptheaggressor.Thus,eventhoughwarisconsideredimmoral,anevenhigher
moralobligationistopreventanationfromconductingawaragainstothernations.
Alargenumberofinternationaltreatiesandconventionsexistwherebynationshaverenouncedwaranddeclareditto
bemorallywrong.TheGeneralTreatyfortheRenunciationofWar,1928andtheUNCharterarethebestexamples.
10

Thus,onlythosewarsaremorallycorrectwhichareconductedinselfdefenceorforthedefence
ofanationwhichisnotfinanciallyandtechnologicallyadvancedtodefenditself.Under
internationallaw,thestatesareconsideredtobeundermoralobligationtoprotectinternational
12

peaceandsecurity. Itisthisinternationalmoralobligationwhichledthenationstoconductthe
firstGulfWarin1992whentheUSanditsalliestookarmedactionagainstIraqandliberated
13

Kuwaitfromitsoccupation. TheUNCharterexpresslyprovidesinArticle50thatthestateshave
aninherentrighttoconductawarinselfdefenceuntiltheUNSCdecidesaboutthemeasuresthat
14

needtobetakenagainsttheaggressor. Notonlyselfdefencebutwarshavebeenjustifiedin
thosecasesalsowhereactionsofaparticularnationposeathreattointernationalpeaceand
security.Insuchsituations,theUNSChastheauthoritytotakearmedactionsagainsttheculprit
nations.

15

12

OnemaysaythatitisalegalobligationasitisprovidedintheUNCharter.However,UNCharterisnotenforceable
document.
13

ThespeechofGeorgeW.Bush[Senior]isattachedasAnnexure1.Thisspeechwillshowusastohowthenations
aroundtheglobejoinedhandstopreventIraqfrombringingunderitsoppression.HowitwasconsideredbyUSAand
alliesthatitwastheirmoraldutytoliberateKuwait.
14
Article50oftheUNCharterprovidesasfollows:

NothinginthepresentChartershallimpairtheinherentrightofindividualorcollectiveselfdefenseifanarmed
attackoccursagainstaMemberoftheUnitedNations,untiltheSecurityCouncilhastakenthemeasuresnecessaryto
maintaininternationalpeaceandsecurity.MeasurestakenbyMembersintheexerciseofthisrightofselfdefenseshall
beimmediatelyreportedtotheSecurityCouncilandshallnotinanywayaffecttheauthorityandresponsibilityofthe
SecurityCouncilunderthepresentChartertotakeatanytimesuchactionasitdeemsnecessaryinordertomaintainor
restoreinternationalpeaceandsecurity.
15

ChapterVII[Article3951],UnitedNationsCharter.AnanalysisofthischapterwillshowthatUNconsiderswaras
unjustandimmoral.Butdoesnotconsideritimmoralwhenitisinitiatedtoprotectinternationalpeaceandsecurity.
11

2.1.2:WARONTERRORISM
TheattackontheWorldTradeTowersandPentagononSeptember11,2001hasledtotwowars.
Boththesewarshavetwothingsincommon.Firstly,bothinvolvedlossoflifeanddamageto
propertyandsecondly,bothwerejustifiedonthegroundofbeingWaronTerror.TheUSand
thealliedforceshavestartedthiswarwiththepurposeofliberalizingtheworldformthemenace
16

ofterrorism.TheWaronAfghanistan wasthefirstofitskindandwasfollowedbytheWaron
17

Iraq. TheU.N.SecurityCouncilResolution1441authorisedtheWaronIraq.Theresolution
providedforsuchmeasuresinthecasewhereIraqfailedtodestroyWMDandalsostopthegrave
humanrightsviolationscommittedbyIraq.SinceIraqdidnotdeter,Resolution1441wastakenas
alegalgroundthatauthorizedUSandthealliedforcestoattackIraq.
2.1.3:HUMANITARIANINTERVENTION
InthepostColdWarera,thediscussiononhumanrightsanditspromotionattheinternational
levelhasproliferated,andthishascoincidedwithagrowingtendencytoseealinkagebetween
violationsofhumanrightsandinternationalsecurity.Drasticchangesininternationalrelations
16

FollowingisanexcerptfromthespeechthatGeorgeW.BushgavebeforethewaronAfghanistanbegan.Thespeech
clearlyreflectsthemoralvaluesofallcivilizationswhichrequirepeopletostandupagainsttyrannyandprovidehelpto
needy.
TheleadershipofAlQaidahasgreatinfluenceinAfghanistanandsupportstheTalibanregimeincontrollingmostof
thatcountry.InAfghanistan,weseeAlQaida'svisionfortheworld.Afghanistan'speoplehavebeenbrutalized.Many
arestarving,andmanyhavefled.Womenarenotallowedtoattendschool.Youcanbejailedforowningatelevision.
Religioncanbepracticedonlyastheirleadersdictate.AmancanbejailedinAfghanistanifhisbeardisnotlong
enough.TheUnitedStatesrespectsthepeopleofAfghanistanafterall,wearecurrentlyitslargestsourceof
humanitarianaidbutwecondemntheTalibanregime.Itisnotonlyrepressingitsownpeople;itisthreateningpeople
everywherebysponsoringandshelteringandsupplyingterrorists.Byaidingandabettingmurder,theTalibanregimeis
committingmurder.

17

TheGeorgeW.BushsspeechisattachedasAnnexure2.Analysisofthisspeechshowsthatthiswaralongwith
otherwarswasalsofoughtonprinciplesofmorality.
12

sincetheendoftheColdWarhaveincreasedtheprobabilityofinterventionwithorwithoutUN
SecurityCouncilauthorisation.Thus,thedebateabouthumanitarianinterventionhasbeen
reheated,generatingaconsiderableliterature,besidestheincreasingstatepractice.Thisarticleis
anattempttocomprehendandilluminatethiscontroversialissue.
AccordingtoSabanKardas,theissueofhumanitarianinterventionisrelatedtointernationallaw,
18

politicalscience,moralityandinternationalrelations. Thisresultsinalotofdifferentdefinitions
andcategorisations.Andthebestwaytounderstandastohowmoralityaffectshumanitarian
interventionsisbygoingthroughthesedefinitions.AdamRobertsdefineshumanitarian
interventionasa"militaryinterventioninastate,withouttheapprovalofitsauthorities,andwith
thepurposeofpreventingwidespreadsufferingordeathamongtheinhabitants".

19

ForTonnyBremsKnudsen,humanitarianinterventionis"dictatorialorcoerciveinterferenceinthe
20

sphereofjurisdictionofasovereignstatemotivatedorlegitimatedbyhumanitarianconcerns".
AccordingtoMarthaFinnemore,humanitarianinterventionisa"militaryinterventionwiththe
21

goalofprotectingthelivesandwelfareofforeigncivilians". InthewordsofBhikhuParekh,
humanitarianinterventionis"anactofinterventionintheinternalaffairsofanothercountrywitha
viewtoendingthephysicalsufferingcausedbythedisintegrationsorgrossmisuseofauthorityof
22

thestate,andhelpingcreateconditionsinwhichaviablestructureofcivilauthoritycanemerge".
Inaproperlegalsense,accordingtoWilD.Verwey,itisunderstood"asreferringonlytocoercive
actiontakenbystates,attheirinitiative,
18

SabanKarda,HumanitarianIntervention:Theevolutionoftheideaandpractice,JournalofInternationalAffairs,
JuneJuly2001,VolumeVINumber2atp.2[Retrievedfromhttp://www.sam.gov.tr/perceptions/Volume6/June
July2001/kardas09.PDFon1.11.2014]
19

AdamRoberts,'HumanitarianWar:MilitaryInterventionandHumanRights',InternationalAffairs,Vol.69,No.3,
July1993,p.426.[CitedinIbidatp.2].
TonnyBremsKnudsen,'HumanitarianInterventionRevisited:PostColdWarResponsestoClassicalProblems',in
MichaelPugh,TheUN,PeaceandForce,London,FrankCass,1997,p.146.[CitedinSupraNote18atp.2].
MarthaFinnemore,'ConstructingNormsofHumanitarianIntervention',inPeterZ.Katzenstein(ed.),TheCultureof
NationalSecurity:NormsandIdentitiesinWorldPolitics,NewYork,ColombiaUniversityPress,1996,p.154.[Cited
insupranote18atp.2]
BhikhuParekh,'RethinkingHumanitarianIntervention',inJanNederveenPieterse(ed.),WorldOrdersintheMaking,
London,MacmillanPressLtd,1998,p.147.[CitedinSupraNote18atp.2].

13

andinvolvingtheuseofarmedforce,forthepurposeofpreventingorputtingahalttoseriousand
widescaleviolationsoffundamentalhumanrights,inparticulartherighttolife,insidethe
territoryofanotherstate".

23

Oneofthemanythingsthatiscommontotheabovedefinitionsisthathumanitarianintervention
isusuallybroughtintopicturewhenissuesofviolationsofhumanrightsariseinothercountries.
Andthereisnolawwhichmakesitobligatoryforotherstatestohelpthenationalsofsuffering
state.Thenationsconsiderthisastheirmoralobligationtoprovideassistance.

2.2:JUSINBELLOCONDITIONS
Ifthisquestionisansweredinpositive,thenextquestionarisesastowhatarethemoralstandards
wherebyacountrycandeclarewarandwhatarethestandardsofconductingthesame?Themost
importantofinbelloconditionsis,thediscriminationcondition,whichdistinguishesbetween
thosepeoplewhoareandthosewhoarenotlegitimatetargetsofmilitaryforce.Thereis
controversyaboutexactlywhothesepeopleare,butthetraditionalviewisthatdeadlyforcemay
bedirectedonlyatcombatants,includingsoldiersandmunitionsfactoryworkers,butnotat
noncombatants.Thediscriminationconditiondoesnotforbidallkillingofcivilians.Itconcerns
onlytargetingandthereforeallowsthekillingofnoncombatantsasasideeffectofforcedirected
atproperlymilitarytargets,orascollateraldamage.Inmanyversionsofjustwartheory,the
distinctionhereturnsonthedoctrineofdoubleeffect,whichsaysitismoreobjectionabletointend
evilasonesendorameanstoonesendthanmerelytoforeseethatevilwillresultfromwhat
onedoes.Justwartheorywouldbeunacceptableifitsaidthereisnoobjectionatalltokilling
civilianscollaterally,buttwofurtherconditionspreventthis.Thenecessitycondition,which
parallelstheadbellumlastresortcondition,saysthatkillingsoldiersandespeciallyciviliansis
forbiddenifitservesnomilitarypurpose;unnecessaryforceiswrong.Andtheinbello
proportionalityconditionsaysthecollateralkillingofciviliansisforbiddeniftheresulting
23

WilD.Verwey,'HumanitarianInterventioninthe1990sandBeyond:AnInternationalLaw

Perspective',inJanNederveenPieterse(ed.),WorldOrdersintheMaking,London,MacmillanPressLtd,1998,p.180.
[CitedinSupraNote18atp.3]
14

civiliandeathsareoutofproportiontotherelevantgoodonesactwilldo;excessiveforceis
wrong.ThisproportionalityconditionisincludedinAdditionalProtocolItotheGeneva
Conventions,whichforbidsattackswhichmaybeexpectedtocauseincidentallossofcivilian
life,injurytocivilians,damagetocivilianobjects,oracombinationthereof,whichwouldbe
24

excessiveinrelationtotheconcreteanddirectmilitaryadvantageanticipated. Moreover,there
internationalcommunityhasalsotakenupresolutionswheretheuseofcertainkindsofweapons
inconflictshasbeenbanned.Thereasonbehindsuchbanismoralgrounds.
2.3:WAR,MORALITYANDUTILITARIANISM
Despitetheconflictamongthescholarsaboutthenatureofadbellumandadbelloconditions,one
thingthatisclearfromabovediscussionisthatawaroractinwariswrongiftherelevantharmit
willcauseisoutofproportiontoitsrelevantgood.Howeverthequestionsthatariseisthatwhat
aretherelevantgoodsthatcountinfavorofawarsoractsproportionalityorwhatarethe
relevantevilsthatcountagainstitandmoreimportantlyhowdothesegoodsandevilsweigh
againsteachother.Thesimplestviewofproportionalityinwarisaquasiconsequentialistonethat
countsallthegoodsandevilsthatresultfromawaroractinwarandweighsthemequally,soa
choiceisdisproportionateifthetotalevilitcausesisgreaterthanitstotalgood.Thisapproachfalls
squarelywithintheambitofutilitarianismaswascontemplatedbyJermeyBenthamandJ.S.Mill.
JamesTurnerJohnsondefendsthisviewaboutadbellumproportionality,sayingitrequiresthe
totalgoodcausedbywartooutweighthetotalevil,orthattheoverallgoodachievedbythe
25

useofforce..begreaterthantheharmdone. Similarly

1977GenevaProtocolIAdditionaltotheGenevaConventionsof12August1949,andRelatingtotheProtectionof
VictimsofInternationalArmedConflicts,Art.51(5)(b).
[Retrievedfromhttp://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201425/volume1125I17512English.pdfon
1.11.2014.
ThisProtocolhasnotbeenratifiedbytheUnitedStates,butitsmilitaryacceptsverysimilarstatements.Thus,the
UnitedStatesArmysFieldManual2710says,aboutthebombingofdefendedplaces,thatlossoflifeanddamageto
propertyincidentaltoattacksmustnotbeexcessiveinrelationtotheconcreteanddirectmilitaryadvantagetobe
gained[Retrievedfromhttp://www.aschq.army.mil/gc/files/fm2710.pdfon1.11.2014]
JamesTurnerJohnson,MoralityandContemporaryWarfare(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1999),pp.

2728[CitedinSupraNote10atp.39]
15

RichardJ.Regancallstheresorttowarjustifiedonlyifthewrongtobepreventedequalsor
surpassesthereasonablyanticipatedhumanandmaterialcostsofthewar.

26

26

RichardJ.Regan,JustWar:PrinciplesandCases(Washington,D.C.:CatholicUniversityofAmericaPress,

1996),p.63
16

CHAPTER3
INTERNATIONALTRADEANDMORALITY
Underinternationallaw,nationsarerequiredtoprovideafreetrademarkettoothercountriessoas
toensurefreeflowofgoodsandservices.TheWorldTradeOrganisationprovidesinitsrulesthat
thememberstatescannotmakelawswhichpreventothernationsfromcarryingouttradewithin
theterritoryofsuchmemberstate.Sotheoneimportantquestionthatanyfreetradesystemmust
resolveisthemanneranddegreeofregulatoryautonomywhichitcanretaindespiteacommitment
27

tothefreeflowofgoodsandservices. OnesuchinstanceunderWTOtradesystemwhere
nationshaveretainedlegalauthoritytoimposetraderestrictivemeasuresisthatrelatingto
measuresnecessarytoprotectpublicmorals.Thenationshavetimeandagainusedthis
exemptionclausetofreeitselffrominternationalliability.Whatisimportanttonoteisthemanner
inwhichthenationshaveinterpretedthemeaningofthetermpublicmorals.Thereasonbeing
thateverynationfollowsdifferentmoralstandardswhicharedeterminedbytheirowncultureetc.
Anationcanthuscircumventitsinternationalobligationtoprotectthepublicmoralsbyimposing
restrictiononfreetrade.
Thusthereisaclashbetweentradeandmoralitywhichcontinuestorattleinternationaleconomic
relations.Atissueiswhethertraderestrictionsmaybeusedtopromotemoralgoals.Animportant
considerationinthisdebateiswhethermoralitydriventrademeasuresconflictwithinternational
traderules.TheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT)containsanexceptiontoits
rulesprohibitingtraderestrictionsformeasures"necessarytoprotectpublicmorals."Questionsof
moralityareimplicatedinnumerouscontemporaryinternationaltradelawdebates.Shouldtradeto
pariahregimeslikeSerbiaorCubabeembargoed?Shouldinternationaltrafficinproductsmade
bychildlaborbehalted?Shouldlocalmoralsbeabletotrumpeconomicglobalization?Should
internationalmoralsbeabletotrumptheexerciseofpowerbylocalelites?
Thereareseveralwaysthatmorallybasedtraderestrictionscanbeemployed.First,theymayseek
to"protect"themoralityoftheindividualengagedinthetrade.Forexample,saleof
AnexampleofthisbeingthecaseofWyomingv.Oklahoma,502U.S.437,461(1992).InthiscasetheSateof
Oklahomapassedalegislationwhichrequiredtheinstatepowerplantstoburnatleast10percentOkhlamacoal.This
washeldtobeunconstitutionalasitadverselyaffectedUSAscommitmenttoensurefreetrade.
17

liquorfromAtoBcanbehaltedtoprotectthebuyerB'smorality(orsellerA'smorality).Second,
traderestrictionscanbeusedtosafeguardthemoralityofaparticipantinproduction.Thus,photos
ofachildCmightbebannedininternationaltradeinordertoprotectCeventhoughAandBwant
totradethephotos.Third,traderestrictionscanbeusedtogivemoralsupporttoaclassof
individuals.Forexample,CountryEmightbantradewithCountryFasameansofprotestagainst
immoralactsbyF'sgovernmentagainstcitizensofF.
Othermoralitybasedtradebansfocusonanimalwelfare.Forexample,in1983,theEuropean
Commissionbarredtheimportationofskinsofcertainsealpupsbecauseofpublicoutrageatthe
killingofbabysealsbyCanadians.Someanimalwelfarebansarelinkedtothemethodof
production.Forexample,theCommissionhasforbiddentheimportationofanimalpeltsunlessthe
countryoforiginhasbannedlegholdtrapsorunlessthetrappingmethodsusedforthespecies
28

meet"internationallyagreedhumanetrappingstandards." U.S.lawforbidstheimportationof
meatproductsunlessthelivestockfromwhichtheywereproducedwasslaughteredinaccordance
29

withU.S.statutoryrequirements. Amongtheserequirementsisthattheslaughteringbe
30

"humane." TheU.S.MarineMammalProtectionActbanstheimportationofanymarinemammal
ifsuchmammaliscapturedinamannertheSecretaryofCommercedeemsinhumane.
Othermoralitybasedtradebansarelinkedtothemethodoftransportation.Forexample,since
1949,U.S.lawhasprohibitedtheimportationofanywildanimalorbird"underinhumaneor
unhealthfulconditions."TheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWild
FaunaandFloradirectsexportingnationsto"minimizetheriskofinjury,damagetohealthorcruel
treatment"toanimals.Recently,nongovernmentalorganizationsinEuropehavesought
Communitywiderulesprescribingbetterconditionsfortransportingliveanimalsacrossborders.
28

CouncilDecision97/602,1997O.J.(L242);CommissionRegulation3254/91,art.3,1991O.J.(L308).See
generallyGillianDale,Comment,TheEuropeanUnion'sSteelLegholdTrapBan:AnimalCrueltyLegislationin
ConflictwithInternationalTrade,7Colo.J.Int'lEnvtl.L.&Pol'y441(1996)[Retrievedfrom
http://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic/Default.aspon1.11.2014]
21U.S.C.620(a)(1972).[Availableathttp://uscode.vlex.com/vid/secimports19200627.Lastaccessedon1.11.2014.]
7U.S.C.1902(a)(1988).[Availableathttp://www.animallaw.info/statutes/stusfd7usca1901.htm.Lastaccessedon
1.11.2014.

18

AnotherexampleofthiscanbethatinthejustendedsummitoftheCommonwealthHeadsof
GovernmentinAustralia,theBritishPMDavidCameronthreatenedtowithholdUKaidfrom
31

Africancountrieswithstrictlegislationonhomosexuality. Some41nationswithinthe54
memberCommonwealthhavelawsbanninghomosexuality.Manyoftheselawsarealegacyof
BritishEmpirelaws.ThediscussionintheUgandanparliamentofanantihomosexualitybillin
2009sparkedparticularcontroversy,andearlierthisyearUgandangayrightscampaignerDavid
Katowasbeatentodeathinasuspectedhatecrime.Nigeria'sSenateiscurrentlydiscussingabill
banningsamesexmarriage,whichincludespenaltiesforanyonewitnessingoraidingasamesex
marriage.AspokesmanfortheDepartmentforInternationalDevelopmentsaidthatbudget
support,whichaccountsforabout5%oftheUK'sannualaidbudgetof7.46bn,isconditional
directassistancetogovernments.Toqualify,recipientsmustadheretorulesonpovertyreduction,
respectofhumanrights,goodgovernanceanddomesticaccountability.Malawirecentlyhad19m
ofbudgetsupportsuspendedfollowingvariousinfractionsincludingpoorprogressonhuman
rightsandmediafreedomsandconcernoverthegovernment'sapproachtogayrights.
Thesemoralissueraisesaseriousconcernintheareaofinternationallaw.Underinternational
law,everynationissovereign.Itmeansthateverynationhascompleteindependencetotake
decisionaboutitsinternalmatters.So,thequestionarisesastohowcananationforceitswillupon
othernationsinamannerinwhichBritainisattemptingtodo?Thus,weseethatissuesofmorality
affectthewayinwhichthestatesinteractwitheachother.Thecountriesdeveloptheirforeign
policiesandcustomizetheirrelationwithotherstatesinaccordancewiththemoralstandards
existentwithintheirlocaljurisdiction.

31

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica15558769.Lastaccessedon5.11.2014.

19

CHAPTER4
INTERNATIONALHUMANITARIANAIDANDMORALITY
InthischapterIhavetriedtoshowthathownationsaroundtheglobefeelthattheyareundera
moralobligationtogivehumanitarianaidtoothernations.Foralongtimenow,nationsaroundthe
globehaveadoptedthepolicytogivehumanitarianaidtothosenationswhofaceeconomicand
politicalcrisis.Thisaidcanbeashorttermaidoralongtermaidwhichisalsoknownas
developmentaid.OnemustmakeanoteofthefactthattheissueofInternationalForeignAidis
thatofInternationalPoliticsandnotthatofInternationalLaw.However,forthepurposeof
thisprojectIamusingthetermsinterchangeably.Thewholeideaofincludingthischapterwasto
makeapointthatsometimesobligationininternationallawcanbeunilateral(onesided)anditis
possibleonlybecauseofmorality.
Inthecurrentinternationalsystem,humanitarianassistanceisusuallydefinedastheaidand
actiondesignedtosavelives,alleviatesufferingandmaintainandprotecthumandignityduring
andintheaftermathofemergencies(GlobalHumanitarianAssistance2010),whilelongtermaid
32

isconsidereddevelopmentaid. Theuseofthetermssavelives,suffering,humandignity
Foreignassistanceisafundamentalcomponentoftheinternationalaffairsbudgetandisviewed
33

bymanyasanessentialinstrumentofU.S.foreignpolicy. TherationalethattheAmericahas
providedforprovidinghumanitarianaidhasbeenasubjectofconstantchange.From1950sto
1980sitwasmostlytoprotecttheothernationsfromthewarthofthecommunistideologyof
Russia.AfterSeptember2001,itwasshiftedtoropeinthecountriesthathadthetendencyof
beinginfluencedbytheAlQaidaandTalibandoctrine.Atthesametime,astrongcurrenthas
existedthatexplainedU.S.assistanceasamoralimperativetohelppovertystrickencountriesand
thosetryingtoovercomedisastersorconflict.Providingassistanceforhumanitarianreasonsorin
responsetonaturaldisastershasgenerallybeentheleastcontestedpurposeofaidbytheAmerican
publicandpolicymakersalike.

34

GlobalHumanitarianAssistance,2010.
CRSReportforCongress,ForeignAid:AnintroductiontoU.S.ProgramandPolicy,April9,2009atp.1.
[Retrievedfromhttp://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/124970.pdfon1.11.2014]
34

Ibid,p.3.

20

OfallthereasonsputforwardtosupporttheflowofaidfromindustrializedcountriestotheThird
Worldthemoralargumenthasalwaysbeencentral.Inhisclassicarticle,Famine,Affluence,and
Morality,PeterSingerclaimedthataffluentpeopleinthedevelopedworldaremorallyobligated
35

totransferlargeamountsofresourcestopoorpeopleinthedevelopingworld. Hederivedthis
conclusionfromtwoprinciples,bothofwhichhebelievedarebackedbytheauthorityofcommon
sense.Thefirstprincipleisthatsufferinganddeathfromlackoffood,shelter,andmedicalcare
36

arebad. Thesecondisthatifitisinourpowertopreventsomethingbadfromhappening,
withouttherebysacrificinganythingofcomparablemoralimportance,weoughtmorallytodoit.
37

Ina1983nationalopinionpoll,peopleinBritainwereaskediftheybelievedrichcountriesshould
givehelptopoorercountries:71percentwereinfavourand13percentagainst.Ofthosein
favour,78percentgaveanethicalexplanationfortheirpositiveattitudetoaid,citingspecifically
morals,humanitarianreasons,conscience,duty,Christiandutyandtheneedsofthepoorasthe
38

underlyingreasonfortheirsupport. Itis,moreover,notonlythegeneralpublicwhichhasmade
referencetoethicalconsiderationswhenarguingthecaseforaid.In1969thePearsonReport
answeredthequestionWhyAid?asfollows:
Thesimplestanswertothequestionisamoralone:thatitisonlyrightforthosewhohaveto
sharewiththosewhohavenot.
Elevenyearslater,theBrandtCommissiongaveasitsmotivesforaddressingtheproblemsof
ThirdWorldpovertyhumansolidarityandcommitmenttointernationalsocialjustice.

PeterSinger,Famine,Affluence,andMorality,PhilosophyandPublicAffairs1(1972),pp.229243.[CitedinDale
Jamieson,Dutiestothedistant:Aid,Assistance,andInterventionintheDevelopingWorld,TheJournalofEthics,
(2005)Vol9atp.151,Retrievedfromhttp://as.nyu.edu/docs/IO/1192/Duties_to_the_Distant.pdfon1.11.2014.]
Singer,Famine,AffluenceandMorality,p.231.
Supra
DevelopmentPolicyReview(SAGE,London,BeverlyHillsandNewDelhi),Vol.4(1986),2443.
21

CHAPTER5
CONCLUSIONS
Thisprojecthasbeenanattempttocapturewithinthesepages,therolewhichmoralityplaysin
InternationalLaw.Theprojectprovidesuswiththeinsightaboutthemannerinwhichmorality
affectsinternationallaw.Itaffectsbothinternationallawmakingaswellasattheapplication
level.Wehaveseenthatsinceinternationallawisbasedupontheconsentofstates,themoral
standardsofeachnationaretakenintoconsiderationbeforeinternationallawcomesintobeing.
BasedupontheresearchIhavedoneforpreparingthisproject,Ihavecometofollowing
conclusions.However,itmustbenotedthattheseconclusionsarerestrictedtoonlythoseaspects
ofInternationallawwhichhavebeendiscussedabove.
Theonlywaythatawarcanbejustifiedagainstanationiswhenitcanbeprovedthatahigher
moralobligationexistsforsuchwar.Sotechnicallyspeaking,warsassuchcannotbejustifiedon
legalgrounds.Becausebothadbellumandadbelloconditionsarebasicallymoralgrounds.
AnimportantconclusionthatIhavecometohereisthatdomesticissuesofmoralityaffect
internationallawi.e.thestateswhileinteractingwithotherstateskeepinmindthemoralstandards
thatexistwithintheirlocaljurisdictions.

Theprincipleswhichgoverntheinitiationandconductofwararemorallyorientedrules.
Themoralprinciplesgoverningtherelationsofstatesmaybecodifiedinatreatyorconvention.
However,itisnotnecessarythatfortheapplicationoftheseprinciplesthereisaneedfora
codifiedlaw.
Themannerofapplicationofmoralitytointernationallawworksattwostages.Firstatthetimeof
makingsuchlawaswellasatthetimeofitsexecution.

22

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25