AquaShareware

Aqua for All

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2596 AA Den Haag
P.O.Box 93218
2509 AE Den Haag
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Hydraulic design for gravity

based water schemes

Dick Bouman, April 2014

Aqua for All is a Dutch organization, aiming to mobilize expertise and resources from the
Dutch private sector to contribute to reaching the 7th Millennium Development Goal on water
and sanitation.
AquaShareware products are open source support materials for the water and sanitation
sector and may be used free of charge, but with reference to Aqua for All. Any suggestion for
correction, addition or remark is welcome at info@aquaforall.nl.
The author of this AquaShareware product, Mr. Dick Bouman, is head of the program desk
and experienced in water resources and water supply. Mr. Dick Bouman started his career in
1981 with a water resource mapping in the Morogoro Region for DHV Consultants (now
Royal Haskoning DHV), with emphasis on low flow analysis of small streams.

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Contents
1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................4
2. Design ................................................................................................................................5
2.1 Preliminary work............................................................................................................5
2.2 Design criteria ...............................................................................................................6
2.3 Hydraulics .....................................................................................................................8
2.4 Pipes ...........................................................................................................................14
2.5 Storage tanks ..............................................................................................................15
2.6 Other Devices ............................................................................................................16
2.7 Valves .........................................................................................................................17
3. Specific Issues .................................................................................................................18
3.1 Too high pressures......................................................................................................18
3.2 Air locks ......................................................................................................................19
3.3 Water hammer ...........................................................................................................19
3.4 Preferential flow in TEES.............................................................................................19
4. Final Remarks ..................................................................................................................20
References ....................................................................................................................21
Appendix A - Example of a hydraulic calculation ...............................................................22
Appendix B - Explanation of terms in design of water schemes .........................................25

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1. Introduction
Gravity schemes are water distribution schemes without pumping; only the power of the
earth gravity force is used to bring the water from a high entry point to the lower outlets.
Compared to pumped schemes, gravity schemes require less operational cost for power and
pump operation and less maintenance cost for pumps.
It looks simple: just let gravity do its work. But many gravity schemes do not function properly
and fail to distribute the water evenly among the water points. In many cases, taps at the
higher end and at the lower end get insufficient or irregular water.
This hand out starts with an introduction on design, pipe hydraulics and pipe materials,
required for the further calculations, followed by several critical aspects.
The theory of hydraulics can also be applied to other than purely gravity schemes:

Distribution from a raised tower is very similar to a gravity scheme

The pumping of water through a pipe line follows the same hydraulics logics, but
starts with a high pressure instead of zero/atmospheric pressure

Appendix B gives a summary of the most important terminology.

Figure 1 Example of a gravity scheme with

branched distribution. A=source, B=division box, C
and B21 are Storage Tanks

B1

B21

B3

B2

B12
B22
B11

C1

D1

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2. Design
2.1 Preliminary work
Most schemes exist of a central transmission main between an intake and the main Storage
Tank. From the Storage Tank the water is distributed to water points (public or private). Most
systems are so called closed systems (the water flow can be stopped by closing valves and
taps). In case of abundant yield at the source and high pressure differences, an open system
is recommended, where the flow in the pipelines is not interrupted by valves and taps. In this
general instruction, the closed system is used as a reference, except when the exception of
an open system is mentioned.
Appendix A provides a module to exercise the theory provided in this manual.
1. Before starting a hydraulic calculation, one should start with the analysis of water
sources and the calculation of the minimum flow at the available sources. Preferably, the
once in 20 years minimum flow of the source is taken as the maximum design flow. This
flow can be determined from at least 3 discharge measurements during the dry season
in 3 consecutive months. Most commonly, the decline of the discharge follows an
inverse logarithmic formulae. In that case, the minimum flow can be calculated for a
period that lasts as long as the once in 20 years longest drought. This period can be
obtained from meteorological statistics.

Figure 2 Example of an excel file to determine once in 20 years minimum (at 347 days)

The analysis of the potential of a natural spring is elaborated in a separate Aqua for All
Shareware product: Dick Bouman (January 2013) Determination of the potential of natural
springs for water schemes. This analytical tool holds for stable situations, but the situation
might worsen with changing land use patterns and climate change (more extreme events:
higher intensities and longer droughts).
For small streams the theory is rather comparable, but the abstraction devices are
different and need a precaution for high floods, sediment load and contamination.
One should also analyse the water quality, the risk of contamination and the risk of
damage by erosive forces.
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2. One should also check whether it is likely that the water can be brought down by gravity.
This can be done from topo-maps, from Google Earth (look at altitude indication), or by
using GPS and altitude measurements in the field. If height differences are too high, the
designer has to find solutions to deal with the high pressure or to break the pressure. If
height differences are too little, GPS and Google may not be accurate enough for design
purposes and land surveys are required.
3. Thereafter one should make a sketch map of the area and the concentrations of present
and future population. Make a first draft plan of the lay out map of the scheme (source,
mains, distributions, siting of stand posts and siting of tanks and other devices).
4. Then one should analyse the future demand at the end of the life time of the scheme
(population, other users and the use per consumer); calculate the required stand posts
per area and define the required flow per stand post.
5. Finally, one can make per sub-section an analysis of the required design flow, working
from the end to the top and using design criteria such as a risk factor for the mains and a
peak factor for the distribution lines. One should check whether the required flow is
below the minimum flow of the source. If not, one should look after additional or
alternative sources, or one could adopt the preliminary design (smaller distribution,
restriction on additional use or elimination of branches that require peak demand from
the main line).
From the resulting preliminary sketch one can start with the hydraulic calculations.

2.2 Design criteria

Examples of design criteria for closed and open systems are summarized in table 1.
CLOSED SYSTEM

OPEN
SYSTEM

OBSERVATION

Domestic Water Use

20-50 l/capita/day

20-50 l/cap/day

Mean between public standposts (67%)

and house connections (33%)

Peak Factor in Main

1.15

To compensate for losses

Peak Factor in
distribution

This factor is used to determine peak

design flow per Public Standpost: Q = nr
of people per PS* use (l/d) * peak factor /
86,400. (l/sec)

Storage capacity of
Tank

0.5 * daily water demand in

distribution

For open system not required; only if

there are sub-systems with many house
connections

Maximum pressure in
pipes

(50 m)

(50 m)

PN6 pipes have 60 meter; but most taps

can only have less than 50; other wise a
pressure break is required

Preferred velocity in
pipe at design flow

0.5 2.0 m/s

0.5-2.0 m/s

Min. and Max velocity 0.2 3.0 m/s

at design flow

0.2 3.0 m/s

Design flow Public

Stand post

0.33 l/s

Aimed at 0,33 l/s, but

variable in design; = 20

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l/minute
Max. Users per PS
(single tap)

250

250

Might grow to 500 in 20 years time. No

MDG criterion on number; but 500 is the
maximum.

Max. distance to PS

500 m

500 m

(MDG criterion is 1.000 m)

Population growth

3.3%

3.3%

Friction factor for

Hazen Williams

110 for GS pipes

same

150 for plastic pipes

Table 1 Example of design parameters used in the hydraulic calculations

A scheme is mostly designed for a life time of 20 years. With a population growth of 3.5%,
the present population will almost double in that period ((1+x)^N). It is good to know the
occupation trends to incorporate possible future extensions into the design of the mains and
tanks. In the demand analysis, other use than domestic needs to be considered, such as the
water use in institutions (a hospital bed requires 100 l/bed/day-night at minimum), use for
livestock and for gardening. For livestock, there may be a switch from moving herds to zerograzing, which requires less water but closer to the dwellings. Bye laws are required to
regulate the extra demand. If the source is insufficient (or may have temporary shortages),
this non-domestic use might need to be taken from other sources.
For a closed system, the minimum flow at a source should be 1.15 times the mean daily
demand at the end of life time. (For an open system, this is 3 times the mean daily demand).
In some countries, a seasonal factor is added to compensate for higher demand during warm
and/or dry periods).
A closed system normally has a central transmission main, connecting the source with a
storage tank. The transmission main should be able to carry 1.15 times the mean daily flow.
The storage tank is positioned at the start of the distributions. In closed systems, the
connection of taps along the transmission main should be disregarded as they require a peak
flow in the design, except when they have an intermediate small storage tank in between (a
PScumTank) and a flow limiter to avoid too high outflows in case of failure.
The minimum water pressure at a point should be not less than 5 m water column at peak
flow. When there is no flow in a pipe, the pressure raises to the level of the upstream open
point (tank or intake). This Static Pressure should be less than 60 m water column, unless
high pressure pipes are used. Taps should have less than 50 m of pressure.
If static pressure becomes too high and the landscape does allow, break pressure tanks
could be included in the transmission main. This could be done for each 60 m difference in
topography, except when there is a high point in the downstream direction.
The use of Break Pressure Tanks in distribution branches is disregarded (i.e. downstream a
storage tank). The reason is that the inflow into a BPT needs to be regulated, which is
normally done by floating ball valves. The price of good quality floating ball valves is high and
in case of failure, these are rarely replaced. Unrepaired, the BPT will drain the distribution
main. Flow limiters could be a solution to reduce the negative impact of such a failure.
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Some schemes have Storage Tanks in series. In most cases this is not very efficient, as the
downstream tanks constantly drain the upstream tank. In such cases, it can be more efficient
to continue the main line to the downstream tank, bypassing the upstream tank. The division
of flows between the two lines can be regulated through valves, or by a so-called division
box.
For the distribution, one should include the peak factor to determine the design flow at each
outflow point. For stand posts, normally a peak factor of 3 4 is used, to compensate for the
uneven distribution of demand during the day. For institutions, houses and irrigation, the
peak factor may be different.
There are 2 principle lay-outs:

Branched systems
Looped systems

A variation is a looped ring, to which branched systems are connected, with or without
secondary storage tanks. Advantage of a looped system is a better response to peak
demands and the possibility to continue the water supply during maintenance works along the
main. It is mostly a bit more costly, and more complicated to calculate without a computer
programme.
In this manual, only the branched system is elaborated.

2.3 Hydraulics
The hydraulic calculations are elaborated in Appendix A. The basics of hydraulic calculations
are explained below. The pressure at a certain point in a pipe line can be expressed as:

Relative pressure: the pressure in relation to a reference altitude, mostly an artificial

zero- reference line at or below the lowest point.
Internal pressure: the real pressure inside a pipe; pipes and devices have a maximum
allowable internal pressure, depending the material, wall thickness and strength of
the connections. The internal pressure is also called the head.

The principle of hydraulic calculations in closed pipes is, that the (relative) pressure of water
is reduced downstream by friction between water and the pipe wall. Without these
losses/without flow, the pressure at one point of the pipe is the same as in the other points
(law of communicating vessels). This is the static head. If water flows, the pressure reduces
in the direction of flow. In this situation we have dynamic head. If the dynamic head is
expressed as the internal pressure, then it is also called residual head (mostly in meter
water column).
Hydraulic calculations are made for the design flow in pipes (at the maximum demand). With
hydraulic calculations, one determines the sequence of pressure along a section and makes
a hydraulic grade line (dynamic grade line). The dynamic head at design flow should stay at
least 5 m above the topography.

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The dynamic loss is dependent on the following variables:

Velocity (in m/s), which is a direct function of:

o Yield or flow (in l/s or m3/h)
o Internal Diameter (ID in mm or m; determining the surface area of the pipe
section the water is flowing through; in mm2 or m2)
Roughness of the wall (expressed as a coefficient; plastic and new pipes are
smoother than steel pipes, ductile or asbestos cement pipes; the smoother the
material the higher the roughness coefficient).

Hence, yield (design flow), diameter and wall roughness are determining factors.
In theory, there are other variables, like variation in gravity force (altitude) and viscosity
(temperature) but these are commonly of a very small influence.
Hydraulic theory is rather straightforward for smooth flow, but becomes complicated with
turbulent and shooting flow. The situation of turbulent flow is avoided by putting a maximum
to the flow (3 m/s). But in and after devices and sharp bends, the flow can be temporary
turbulent. The effect of these devices is mostly within the error of the calculation, but needs
attention in case of many devices and sharp bends.
The presence of air pockets can reduce the effective diameter and provoke shooting water
with additional cavitational power if the water contains sediments (and air).
In specific cases, flow limiters or valves may be used to burn down some of the pressure or
the flow to the required level.
There are two additional factors to check, when one designs a pipe line: velocity in the pipe
and pressure.
At design flow, the velocity in the pipe should be preferably within 0.5 and 2.0 m/s, but not
less than 0.2 and not higher than 3 m/s. With too low flows, the self cleaning capacity of the
pipes will be lost and sediments settle permanently. With too high velocities, the flow
becomes turbulent and, loaded with air or particles, can become destructive for pipes.
The Nominal pressure (PN) of a pipe is the pressure, which a pipe can sustain. Mostly it is
expressed in Atmosphere, which is almost equivalent to 10 m of water column. For plastic
pipes, there are several classes; class C being max 100 m water pressure (PN 10); class B
60 m water pressure (PN 6). Care should be taken in pipe design, that the Static head will
not be over the indicated pressure class.
Two situations can be distinguished: open systems and closed systems. In a closed system,
the lower end of the pipe-line can be closed. Static pressure is up to the level of the entrance
point. In open systems, there is (/should be) no valve at the bottom end. This means that
water is continuously flowing and the dynamic pressure is the maximum pressure.

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Figure 3a Closed system

Figure 3b Open system

There are 2 different formulae for the calculation of hydraulic loss:

Darcy-Weissbach or Colenbrander, using an iteration method for a coefficient, the

Reynolds number; often very complicated for simple calculators
Hazen Williams, using a simple formulae;

Hazen Williams is somewhat more conservative, which becomes more real, when pipes
encrust over time. In this manual, the Hazen Williams formula is used.
The Hazen Williams Formula:
Gradient = 162,000,000 * (Design flow/HWC)^1.85 * (Internal Diameter/10)^ (-4.87)
Gradient in m/km
Design Flow in l/s
Hazen William Coefficient (110 for Steel pipes and 140 for plastic pipes)
Diameter in mm (mind: internal diameter)

Traditionally, the calculations are done using a monogram. This way one can play with
diameters to get the right design flow, staying within the above velocity range of 0.5 2 m/s
(figure below).

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Figure 4 Monograph to calculate

friction losses (in m/100 m) and flow
(m/s) in plastic pipes from Yield
(m3/h) and pipe size (Internal
diameter)

The chart is calculated for fresh water at 15C

Use actual bores rather than nominal pipe size.
For stainless steel pipe multiply the numbers by 1.1
For steel pipe multiply the numbers by 1.3
For cast iron pipe multiply the numbers by 1.7
The losses are calculated for a fluid viscosity similar to fresh water

http://www.mcnallyinstitute.com/Charts/metric_friction_loses.html

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m/km

Sum of
outflows
downstream

From
flow
and
ID

Hazen
Wiiliam
s

Gradient *
Length

Pressure
above
minus DH

Static head

Dynamic Head

m/s

Residual head

DH

L/s

Topography

Gradient

= end
minus
begin

Velocity

mm

10 M
water

Flow at begin of
sub-section

Outflow branch

Reason end

HWCoefficient

M m

Internal
Diameter

Pipe type

End

Length

Begin

Nominal press
class

In modern times, computers are used. The most simple way is to use a spread sheet,
systematising the otherwise manual calculation. A model is given below.

Dyn Head
- Topo

Begin
topo
topo
end of
chain

Table 2a Basic elements in the hydraulic design. The coloured cells are used in formulae. The cells
with the small fonts are cells with formulae (they are explained)

5,0

5,0
5,0
5,0

1,38
1,38
3,79

26,5
26,5
310,9

7,9
11,9
77,7

G14*R14/1000

5,00 l/s

150
150
150

(m)

(m)

S
1100
1000
992
980
902

(m)

T
1100
1000
940
960
900

(m)

U
1000,00
52,06
20,16
2,44

1000
60
40
100

U$10-U14

(m)

T14-U14

(m/k m)

900

(m/s)

T13-S14

(l/s)

162000000*(P14/L14)^1,85*(K14/10)^(-4,87)

Qpipe

(l/s)

P14/(1000*0,25*3,142*(K14/1000)^2)

0,0

41,0

calculation design flow

300 PV
75
6
68,0
450 PV
75
6
68,0
250 PE
50
10
41,0

P15+N14+O14

(l/s)

I J

150

10

1200

B13+1

50

300
750
1000

0
1
2
3

(mm)

PE

0
300
750

D14-C14

D13

(m)

Table 2b Hydraulic design with the visible formulae

There are also complete computer programmes, like Branch and Loop, produced by the UN.
These can be obtained from internet. The advantage of spreadsheets is that these are easier
to manipulate, but need more informed decisions.

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Procedure:
1. One starts to divide the full section into different chainages (sub-sections), normally split
at the highest points or at indicated special points with a proposed branch and stretches
where it is known that special pipes are required (such as GI pipes in a valley crossing; or
where high pressure pipes are required).
2. The line with formulae in the spread sheet needs to be copied as many times as the
number of sub-sections.
3. Above the first line one adds the elevation of the source or starting point at Dynamic head
and Topography.
4. Below the last line one fills in the design outflow (green cell).
5. For each sub-section one fills in the End distance from the zero point (the Begin is
calculated), or Length; the design outflow into a branch at the begin of the sub-section
and the topography.
6. The rest is an iterative process by trial and error, filling in the Internal Diameter. The best
result is reached if:
a. there is no point with less than 5 m residual head
b. there is no line with velocity between 0.2 and 3.0 m/s
c. there is no static pressure which is above the pipe pressure class
d. the residual head at the final point is as close as possible to 5 m*
7. Now, the reached Internal Diameters are translated to real pipe sizes of the required
quality and type. This needs another iterative round.
If the residual head at the final point is much higher than 5 meter, the system will react in a
way that it will increase the flow till the hydraulic losses have reached the situation that the
residual head at the final point becomes zero. This may result in a situation where the
optimum flow becomes higher than the inflow at the source. Then air will be attracted into the
system, which will provoke a lot of hydraulic problems. Therefore it is always required to burn
off the pressure in the last part of the section to reach almost zero residual head at the
outflow point.
In most cases it is desirable that, between an inlet and an outlet point, downstream pipe
sizes are smaller than upstream sizes.
Situation1:
A water pipe goes over a distance of 1 km from an
altitude of 1000 m to an altitude of 900 m. At 300 m,
there is valley at 940 m and at 750 m, there is a hill top of
960 m. Design flow is 5 l/s. Please make a choice of
plastic pipes, using the available pipes on the next page,
using the above spread sheet. (can be done manually).
Figuur 5

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(m)

1
2
3

0
300
750

300
750
1000

(m m)

(l/ s)

calculation design flow

300 PV
75
6
68,0
450 PV
75
6
68,0
250 PE
50 10
41,0

Qpipe
150
150
150

(l/s)

(l/s)

(m/s)

(m/km)

(m)

5,00 l/s

5,0

5,0
5,0
5,0

1,38
1,38
3,79

26,5
26,5
310,9

7,9
11,9
77,7

(m)

1000
992
980
902

(m )

1000
940
960
900

(m)

1000,00
52,06
20,16
2,44

(m)

1000
60
40
100

Table 3 Hydraulic calculation for situation 1

2.4 Pipes
In pipeline design, different materials and different pressure classes are used.

Ductile Iron is sturdy material and available in large sizes, but is extremely expensive. It
has been used where the large pipe is at the surface where cattle can damage it or it is
subject for vandalism. For sizes >6, costs are comparable to GI. The sockets can be put
under a minor angle.
Galvanised Iron is used where the pipes have to be above the surface: near structures,
on rocky soil, or at valley crossings. Galvanised iron is 5 to 10 times more expensive than
plastic materials. For sizes >4, fittings are difficult to obtain and very costly, as they have
to be made on request. GI is also indicated as Galvanized Steel (GS). Joints are
screwed.
PVC-pipes are used, where pipes can be laid under the ground in more than 60 cm deep
trenches. PVC is used for pipe sizes from 63 mm and above, but smaller sizes are
available, too. PVC should be transported and handled with care and should not be
exposed to sunrays during more than a few days. Imported PVC is often cheaper than
Poly-pipes. PVC can be obtained in different pressure classes. Class C can sustain up to
100 m of water pressure, Class B only 60 m. In the open system, Class C is used. Never
lay PVC in rocky trenches. There is UV-resistant PVC, but this is more expensive and still
vulnerable for physical damage. Joints are in rubber ring/sockets or in plain sockets that
need to be glued.
Poly-pipes (HDPE) are used where pipes can be laid under the ground in more than 60
cm deep trenches. Poly is mostly used for pipe sizes of 50 mm and smaller. However,
larger sizes may be available, but mostly as plain pipes and not as roles. The advantage
is that it is flexible and it comes in rolls of 100 - 150 m. Like PVC, Poly pipes are available
in several pressure classes. Class C being able to sustain 100 m of water pressure.
Class B 60 m only. Poly pipe may never be laid in rocky trenches. Joints can be plain
welding or as glued connectors or as pressure push connectors.

Local purchasing is preferred; not only to stimulate local economy, but also to have spares
available on the local market. Mind, that the size of GI is still given in inches and represents
more or less the internal diameter. The size of plastic pipes is in the metric system, but reflects
the outside diameter. The inner diameter of plastic pipes depends mainly on the pressure
class. In agriculture one normally uses PE of a much lower pressure class, which should not be
applied for drinking water schemes.

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Plastic pipes should be put in trenches

of at least 60 cm deep. The bottom of
the trench should be smooth and refilled with some sand, before the pipe
is laid. Back-filling should be done with
soil without stones. Markers should
indicate the position of the trench and
specific points, like TEES and changes
of diameter or pipe-material. Special
devices like valves should be put in
(drained and covered) valve
chambers. During construction, the
trenches should stay open at the pipeconnectors, to check the water
tightness during pressure tests. Pipes
in sharp bends should be anchored.
This is also valid for vertical bends.
GI and DI pipes that lay above the
surface should be well anchored or
supported.

Tabel 4

2.5 Storage tanks

The function of a Storage Tank is to buffer between the permanent low inflow or intermittent
flow from the source and the very fluctuating demand from the village. Users do rarely use
water during night time. In case of kiosks or public water vending points, opening hours do
provoke peak demand at certain periods during the day.
For a permanent supply, the Storage Tank should at least be able to store the inflow during
night time, which is half the total inflow.
One could design higher volumes to buffer water for situations of repair and failure. This is
rarely effective.

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Storage tanks need a wash-out at the bottom (for cleaning), an overflow at the top (to spill
excess water) a ventilation opening and a manhole. Tanks need roofs to prevent dust, leaves,
animals and insects from entering and to avoid algae bloom.
Some details for the design:
the wash-out should be at the lowest point
distribution lines should have their own outlet (and valve) each
Tanks should be roofed. In case of circular design, supporting columns might be required
(for both concrete and metal sheet roofs).
there should be a man-hole in one of the walls for entering, or a manhole on top, in which
drainage water is prevented from entering.

2.6 Other Devices

In pipe line design, four more devices are important.
The intake structure has to be specifically designed for the natural situation. Natural springs
are the best, but still need a good protection. Surface water intakes in streams need specific
attention to minimize the inflow of mud, sands and debris. Both need a strainer, which is to be
inspected (and cleaned) on a daily basis.
One needs to make a pre-survey of the minimum flow in a source. Mostly, the once in 10 or 20
years minimum flow should be above the required design flow (mostly the mean demand over
20 years). The determination of the minimum flow is to be based on at least three
measurements during the same dry season. (see further in Bouman, January 2013a)
In both cases, a nearby collection or pre-sedimentation tank is recommended. In case of risk of
contamination, further treatment is required. For turbid water, treatment is done close to the
source to avoid clogging in the main. For water that is contaminated with pathogens, various
treatments can be applied from sedimentation and filtration to chlorination. It is beyond the
subject of this reader to deal with this issue.
A break pressure tank can interrupt the pressure and break it down to zero. This is important,
when pressure would come too high. Care should be taken not to design the capacity of the
downstream pipe to be (much) higher than that of the upper pipe. In that case, the pipe will
suck air and the downstream part will get problems with air locks (see later). Break pressure
tanks are mostly made along main lines. Their use in distribution systems is not recommended,
as they will counteract the effect of a storage tank. Except when a float valve is used, but these
float valves need a lot of maintenance and are very costly. One might also Break Pressure
Valves or other devices, but these are vulnerable for clogging.
Automatic air release valves. It is difficult to avoid the entrance of air into a pipe line. Natural
water contains air, which is released under certain pressure circumstances. Furthermore, overcapacity of the pipe may suck air at the entrance point. Air may accumulate in the course of the
pipe-line, especially at the highest points, at reducers, or deflections. In mains, air valves are
mostly placed at these critical spots. Or at least one in 1.5 km, especially where the terrain is
(semi-) horizontal. Generally it is recommended to try to change the slope of the pipe line once
in a while, instead of maintaining its slope equal for a long time. Also break pressure tanks and
well positioned standposts may function as air release devices. Or one may bring up a branch
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higher up to an adjacent hill slope (if available). The latter and break pressure tanks, may also
suck air into the pipe in case of under pressure, which is a disadvantage.
Wash outs are positioned at each lower point of a pipe line, or where one can expect the
accumulation of sediment. Wash outs are gate valves, mounted on the TEE-branch to a main.
It is regularly opened to clean the pipe.

2.7 Valves
There are several types of valves:
Air-valves have been installed at points where air may accumulate.
Float valves in tanks, which automatically regulate the inflow of water. The closing
mechanism is a pin, which enters into the pipe. It is linked to a ball, which floats on the
water. But dont mix them up with ball valves. Float valves are expensive and need regular
replacement. Critical element is the spindle.
Ball valves. These valves have a ball inside with a drilled hole. The valve is open, when
this drilled hole is in line with the pipe. Turning the handle one quarter, which brings the
drilled hole perpendicular to the pipe, can close the valve. This type of valve is used near
standposts, or at the inlet or as a bib-cock. It can be recognised by a handle. It is not used
in mains, because they close pipes abruptly, which may cause the damaging of pipes by
pressure waves.
Gate valves. These valves have a metal plate inside, which can slowly shut off the flow,
when the wheel (held by a spindle) is (slowly) turned clock-wise. These valves may be
used as control valves at the back of standposts and in the mains. They are also used in
wash-outs. To a limited extend they can be used to control the quantity of flow. Gate
valves need to be opened and closed regularly, to keep them operational.
Globe valves. These are used to control the flow more accurately and to burn down the
pressure. The water is lead in a very complicated way through the valve. Stopcocks are
mostly globe valve types.

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April 2014

3. Specific Issues
There are 4 main problems with pipe-lines: too high pressure, air locks, water hammer and
distribution of flow at TEES.

3.1 Too high pressures

As indicated before, too high pressures can be responded by applying pipes with higher
pressure class, inclusion of Break Pressure Tanks, mechanical Pressure Reducers, burning
down pressure with valves or applying an open system without valves in part of the main.
BPTs and pressure reducer valves are not very effective in case of low flow, while Break
Pressure Tanks are preferably not applied in distribution mains.
An alternative solution is the use of an open system, or at least a minimum outflow at the
lower end or at certain overflow points. This can only be done with sufficient water.
In some cases it might be a solution to place a flow limiting device instead of a real pressure
reducer. This device will prevent that too much water is lost in case of failure. An orofice can
be such a flow limiting device (see figure). It is a simple plate with a small hole of a predetermined diameter. However, they are sensitive for clogging and might need frequent
cleaning.

Figure 6 Example of a Break Pressure Tank

(http://ewbgreateraustin.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/07/BreakPressureTank_I
mpTripI.png)

Figure 7 Two possible locations for flow

controlling orifices

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April 2014

3.2 Air locks

Despite of the installation of air-release valves, air locks can occur. It is recognised by a
fluctuation of the outflow of a pipe. The oscillations can be short or long (even days) and of
different amplitude (even running dry). Finally the pressure upstream of the air-lock is built up
to such a level, that it will push the air-lock away.
The following measures can be taken to prevent air-locks:

Have sufficient air-release valves, especially on semi-horizontal lines

Design your system in such a way, that the upstream capacity is higher than the
downstream capacity; everywhere. e.g. the intake should have more water than the pipe
can take; the pipe-line upstream of a break pressure tank should be able to carry more
water than the outgoing pipe. Or in other words: overflows should always be running
Make flow reducers or almost closed valves at the downstream end to avoid higher flows
than the design flow. This can be done just before each stand post or tank. Orifices can be
locally made. Diameter is purely dependent on the allowable flow.
Over design your system as if it were an open channel (Agua del Pueblo option). This
sounds contradictory to the measures above. But the wide dimensioning of the pipes does
allow the inefficiency of water pockets in the high areas. It is, however, a very costly
solution.

3.3 Water hammer

Water hammer is a pressure shock through the pipe, when a pipe is closed abruptly. It can be
damaging the pipes. Therefore, the valves in mains may never be opened or closed too
abruptly. A way to prevent this is to make an air-inlet through a TEE downstream of a valve at
the outlet of tank. However, this may cause the entrance of air, which should not be promoted
if your system is sensitive for air-locks. In pumped schemes, certain buffer reservoirs (surge
tanks) can be included.

3.4 Preferential flow in TEES

At TEES, the practice of hydraulic flow is sometimes different from theory. With low pressure,
water has the preference to flow in a straight direction, instead of making the bend into the
TEE-branch. This problem can be counteracted in the following way:

Obstruction with an orifice in the downward direction (raising the pressure)

Use of a distribution box (a break pressure tank with different outlets, which can be
regulated at the inflow point)
Different outlets from tanks, in case a TEE (or a tap) is close to a tank

4. Final Remarks
Water supply schemes need to be managed professionally. Simple schemes in one village with
a few public taps might be managed and operated by a community water committee. More
complex schemes, however, require a well thought management structure with legal status
and service contracts for the more complicated aspects. More information can be found in
another Aqua for All Shareware product (D.Bouman (2013c) Institutional models ).
Maintenance requirements of gravity schemes are limited, but should not be overlooked. In
case of treatment plants, operation and maintenance is demanding. Scheme attendants are
also required for intake inspection, management of valves and tanks, maintenance of the
distribution system and for the water meter reading and fee collection.
Costs include investment (and replacement), repair/maintenance and operation costs.
Preferably, one includes the cost for replacement, extension and upgrading in the unit price.
Other issues:

By bringing water to homes (or to inhabited places) one creates a drainage problem.
Sanitation should make an integral part of a water supply project.
Water supply is often a new technology. Hygiene, water storage at home, regulations about
irrigation etc. should be discussed and communicated with the (future) users. Education is
often required. Contracts may define the details.
Users have to be considered as clients or owners of the system, not as beneficiaries.
Improvement of the ownership can be reached by involving the users in project planning
and management and by asking an initial financial contribution. Water utilities need to see
the users as clients, and proper communication is required. For example on tariffs, billing,
planned maintenance routines etc. A proper complaints procedure should be in place.
There is a need for a decision on contracting out or doing everything internally.
There are several systems for fee collection. Fee collection in mixed private and public tap
systems is very problematic.

There is a separate AquaShareware product on institutional models for rural water supply
schemes.

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References
Dick Bouman (2013) Determination of the potential of natural springs for water schemes (an
AquaShareware product)
Dick Bouman (2014) Institutional models for rural water schemes (an Aquashareware
product; still to be published)
Thomas Jordan (1980) Handbook of gravity flow water systems (Nepal)
Corcos, Gilles (1992) Air in Water Pipes, (Aqua para la Vida)

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April 2014

Appendix A - Example of a hydraulic calculation

C
3

4
5

A. Design flow
1. The village Heikuyu in the Pare Mountai ns in Tanzani a has 1.000
inhabitants and an annual growth rate of 3,5%. What is the population
in 20 years time?
2. Design i s made for Public Standposts, onl y, where peopl e use 20
l/c/day. What is the dai ly use of the vi llage in 20 years time?
3. Family size is 5,3 people and half of families have 2 cows for zero
grazing; using 45 l/day/cow. What is use in 20 years ti me?

4. What is total daily use in m3/day?

5. What is this in l/s?

6. For the mains a risk factor of 1,15 i s appli ed. What is the requi red
flow at the source i f the distributi on is from a storage tank?
6b. If no storage tank was applied, the system needs to be designed for
paek use. If the peak factor is 3,0; please indi cate the mi nimum flow at
the source.

8
9

1000 0,035

1.990 peopl e

20
45

1 5,3

C3*(1+D3)^20

40 m3/d

F3*C4/1000

17 m3/d

F2*D5/E5*C5/1000

57 m3/d

F4+F5

0,656 l/s

F6/86,400

1,15

0,755 l/s

F7*C8

1,968 l/s

C9*F7

250

8,0 PS

10
11 B. Distribution
12 1. If the number of people per Publi c Standpost (PS) i s 250 at max in 20
years ti me; how many PS are required?
13 2. What is the average daily flow (l/s) per PS i f populati on evenly
spread? Please mind the cows!
14 3.If one uses a peak factor of 2,5 for rush hours, what is the requi red
design flow per PS if popul ation evenly spread? (l/s)
15 4. If one uses a speci al tap, linked toa small tank (Pscum or ki osk);the
peak factor can be reduced to 1,15. What is the design flow of a PSCum?
16 5. If in a distribution there are 3 normal PS and 1 PSCum; what is the
design outflow from the tank?
17 6. What is the requi red desi gn infl ow into this tank? Mind the required
risk factor!
18

F3/C12

0,082 l/s

F6/F12/86,4

2,5

0,206 l/s

F13*C14

1,15

0,095 l/s

C15*F13

0,713 l/s

C16*F14+D16*F15

1,15

0,379 l/s

C17*F13*D17

19 C. Make a full flow scheme

20 1. In the drawi ng below, B is a division box (simple chamber), B21 and
C are Storage Tanks; both tanks have a PS nearby (C1 and B22); the other
PS are B11, B12, E, D1, B2 and B3. E is a PSCum. Please fi ll in all the
flows for each sub-section.
21 2. What is the requi red desi gn flow at the source? Compare thi s to the
values calcul ated under question A6a and A6b; why is it different?
22 3. If the minimum flow of the source is 1,0 l/s; what measures can you
take in the design that thi s minumum is suffi cient?
23 4. What is the requi red vol ume of each tank?

24 5. What is the requi red vol ume of the tank at a PSCum?

25
26 D. Hydraukic design A-B and B-C and distribution from C
27 1. Please make a desi gn for above part. Use the calculated outflows
for B-B3 and B-B21 and the data below sketch, the calc sheet and
pipe table with PE for < 60 mm and PVC for >60 mm

B1

B21

B3

B2

B12

1a. First make as many l ines as the number of chainages you need.
1b. Fill in the yell ow parts; ID first for PN6 wi th values as i n lower tabl e.
1c If you i nsert l ines; please check formul ae in orange parts
1d. Do this al so for stati c pressure formulae each time you switch tank.

B22
C

B11

1e. Check design flow wi thin 0,5-2,0 range

1f. Check resi dual head >5 (but not too hi gh

C1

D1

1g. Check pressure class with Static Pressure

E

1h. Adapt if not sati sfactory

Chain Altitude
2. To control the right flow i n the mai n AB, it is better to use a wider

0 1425

pipe on top and a small er pi pe downward. Please make a suggesti on

900 1388

by splitting the l ine in two parts

B2

1020 1371

2a. Add an extra line by copying

1410 1310

2b Check the formulae in the yellow part (esp ref cell s i n flow and

2410 1270

D1

3550 1187

2910 1235

dynami c head.

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Example of the start of the Heikuyu calculation central part

Heikuyu SCHEM E
Version:

decentral

Chain end
d

(m)

Q DP
l/s
Q spring min
1,00 l/s
Q day demand
m3
j
k
l

h i

(mm)

(l/s)

(l/s)

0,00 l/s
m
n

(l/s)

(m/s)

(m/km)

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m)

From Heikeyu Intake to M ain Division Box

A-B
0
0
0

150

intake 1425
0,00 #### ##### ##### ####

#####

From DBox to new Ntambwe T ank at C

BB2
0
0
0

150

box
0,00 #### ##### ##### ####

#####

From T ank C to point E

C-

150

tank
0,00 #### ##### ##### ####

#####

Branch Ntambe D to D1
D-D1

150

tank
0,00 #### ##### ##### ####

#####

0,000

0
USE ID as in table below!

A
GS
PE
PE

3"
75
75

6
10

ID
78
66
68

LENGTH EURO
0 14
0
0 3,8
0
0 4,5
0

PE

63

56

PE

63

10

51

0 2,5

PE

50

44

0 1,1

PE

50

10

41

0 1,5

PE

40

35

0 0,7

PE

40

10

33

PE

32

28

0 0,4

PE

32

10

26

0 0,6

PE

25

22

0 0,3

PE

25

10

20

0 0,4

PE

18

15,5

0 0,2

PE

18

10

14,5

0 0,3

PE

18

15

13,5

0 0,4

B1

B21

B2

B3

B12

B22
B11

C1

D1

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Example of the result of the Heikuyu calculation central part

Heikeyu S CHE ME
Version:

decentral

Chain end
d

(m)

Q DP
l/s
Q spring min
1,00 l/s
Q day demand
m3
j
k
l

h i

(mm)

(l/s)

(l/s)

0,00 l/s
m
n

(l/s)

(m/km)

1,00
1,00

1,04

34,2

0,43
0,30

0,28
0,79

35,0

150

From DBox to new Ntambwe T ank at C

BB2
900
1020
120
B2-C
1020
1410
390

6
10

44,0
22,0

150
150

From T ank C to point E

C-D
1410
2410
D-E
2410
2910

1000
500

6
10

44,0
41,0

150
150

0,125

0,35
0,13

Branch Ntambe D to D1
D-D1
2410
3550

1140

10

20,0

150

0,125

0,13

0,23

(m/s)

From Heikeyu Intake to Main Division Box

A-B
0
900
900
6

0,125
0,300

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m)

intake
30,8

1425
1394

1388

37

2,3
35,4

box
0,3
13,8

1388
1388
1374

1371
1310

17
64

17
78

0,23
0,09

1,6
0,3

tank
1,6
0,2

1310
1308
1308

1270
1235

38
73

40
75

0,40

11,1

tank
12,7

1310
1297

1187

110

123

4050
US E ID as in table below!

A
GS
PE
PE

3"
75
75

6
10

ID
78
66
68

LENGTH EURO
0 14
0
0 3,8
0
0 4,5
0

PE

63

56

PE

63

10

51

0 2,5

PE

50

44

1120 1,1

1232

PE

50

10

41

500 1,5

750

PE

40

35

900 0,7

630

PE

40

10

33

PE

32

28

0 0,4

PE

32

10

26

0 0,6

PE

25

22

390 0,3

117

PE

25

10

20

1140 0,4

456

PE

18

15,5

0 0,2

PE

18

10

14,5

0 0,3

PE

18

15

13,5

0 0,4
4050

B1

B21

B2

B3

B12

B22
B11

C1

D1

0
3185

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Appendix B - Explanation of terms in design of water schemes

Adapter

Connecting fitting between different types of pipes

Air valve

A valve, mounted on a TEE to the main line, which may let

escape air from the pipe-line. Is mostly placed at high points

Altitude

Elevation above a certain reference level (e.g. sea level)

Apron

Concrete floor (or slab)

Ball valve

Valve, with an inside ball with an opening. Flow is topped when

turned perpendicular on flow. Ball valves are very abrupt and
not meant to regulate the flow or velocity. It is merely an on/off
with. Too abrupt closure may lead to shock waves in the pipe
and water hammer problems. (see also floating ball valve)

Base flow

Flow during the dry season, which is coming from the drainage
of ground water; also meant to indicate the minimum flow

Bend

A smooth change in direction of pipe line (see also elbow)

Bottom intake

A submerged inlet in a weir. Was first designed in Austria as a

Thyrolean weir, and proves to be very effective in rough
mountain stream with highly variable flow, and a lot of bed load

BOQ

Bill of Quantities. List of materials and their numbers which are

required for the planned works. Quotations are mostly based on
a BOQ

Break Pressure Tank

Chamber which interrupts the flow in a pipe line. Because the

water runs into an open basin the pressure is reduced to
atmosphere. A BPT is used to reduce the pressure. Problems
with BPTs occur, when in inflow capacity is lower than the
outflow capacity, which attracts air in the pipe line

Bush

Fitting with inner and outer screw above each other (used as a
reducer)

Coli or E-Coli

Temperature sensitive bacteria. E-Coli are an indicator of fecal

contamination of the water. Drinking water may not contain any
E-coli bacteria

Collection chamber

See screening box

Domestic Point

A public stand post (or stand pipe), used for domestic purposes

Domestic use

Water use for the household and not for economic purposes,
gardening or livestock

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Dynamic grade line

A line in a cross section along a pipe line, which represents the

pressure when the flow in the pipe line is according to design
flow. The line is expressed in meters above a reference level
and should stay at least 5 m above the pipe line

Dynamic pressure

The pressure in a pipe line (mostly expressed in meter water

column above a reference line) when the flow in the pipe line is
according to the design capacity (see also residual head and
static pressure). Residual head is the dynamic head, expressed
as meter water column above the pipe line

Elbow

Bend in a pipe with a sharp corner. A bend is smooth. Mind the

sharp point of a human elbow

Electrical Conductivity

Variable, which is a measure for the salt content of the water.

EC is expressed in micro Siemens per cm

Female

Terminology, used for fittings, in which other fittings or pipes

penetrate (see male)

Flange

a circular device, perpendicular on the pipe line, which is meant

to join pipes or fittings. Bolds, nuts and gaskets are required to
tighten the connection

Floating ball valve

Closing device in a water tank, in which the opening and

closure of the valve is regulated by a floating ball on the water
(as in a toilet). It is not a ball valve

Galvanized Iron (GI)

Iron pipes, which are protected against rusting by being

galvanized

Gate valves

(or sluice valves); a valve which closes through the movement

of a sluice perpendicular on the pipe. Are merely meant to
slowly open/close the pipe, but can also be used for flow control

Gravity main

The water conduct from the source to the Storage Tank, from
where the water is distributed

Gravity scheme

A water scheme, where water is not pumped, but only flows

because of gravity (the attractive force to earth, which may
make things to fall down)

Hardness

A chemical expression, which indicates how much carbonate

would deposit in case of boiling (kettle stone). It is also a
measure for the effectiveness of soap

Hazen Willams

Author of a formulae to calculate the friction loss in pipes. To

express the roughness of the wall of the pipe, the Hazen
William coefficient is used

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HDPE

(also poly pipe). High density Poly-Ethylene pipe, which is

normally black and comes in long rolls. Poly pipe is flexible and
not very hard

Hydraulic calculations

The calculation of pressure and flow in a water scheme in

relation to water consumption and pipe sizes and types.
Hydraulic calculations are mostly done to determine the size of
the pipes

Hydraulic gradient

The decrease of the pressure along a pipe line (as a function of

pipe size, flow and altitude)

Hydrostatic water pressure The pressure of water at a certain depth below the water level.
Intake

An inlet of raw water (see bottom intake and spring intake)

Karoo

A geological period, in which the African and Australian

continent broke apart and in which sediments were deposited in
a shallow wet environment

Male

Terminology, used for fittings which penetrate into other fittings

or pipes and have screw on the outside (see female)

Nipple

Fitting with two male sides

Nominal Diameter

Diameter of reference

Orifice

A device in a pipe line to control the flow. The device consists of

a ring with a pre-determined central hole. The diameter of the
hole defines the maximum flow through the pipe

Overflow

Outlet pipe of a tank, which evacuates excessive water and

avoids the tank from over flowing through its roof

PE

See HDPE

Peak factor

A factor, used in hydraulic calculations to determine the

maximum required flow in a scheme. The peak factor in the
distribution is used to compensate for the uneven distribution of
demand during the day. Mostly it is assumed, that people fetch
only during 8 or 10 hours water during the day, which correlates
with a peak factor of 3 or 2.5 respectively. In the gravity (feeder)
mains, mostly a safety factor is used, to compensate for hours
of non-service. In Luwuchi a factor 1.4 is used for the first part
to the BPT, to enable a higher flow to wash the roughing filters

pH

A chemical expression for the acidity of water . pH 7 means

neutral; lower is acid and higher is basic

PN

Nominal Pressure (normally expressed as 10 m water column)

Poly

See HDPE pipe

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PVC

Poly-Vinyl Chloride; a plastic, used for many purposes, among

which are pipes. When burned, PVC has a very negative
environmental impact. PVC pipes are mostly made of recycled
PVC

Residual pressure/head

The internal pressure in a pipe when water is flowing,

expressed as meter water column above the pipe (see also
dynamic pressure)

Roughing filter

A pre-treatment tank, filled with coarse material (gravels), which

is meant to reduce the turbidity of the water to facilitate the real
treatment process afterwards

Screening box

Chamber which collects raw water from one or more sources

and has the function to remove the coarser particles from the
water by stilling the water in a basin and having a deep
storage in which the particles can settle

Slow sand filter

A treatment tank, filled with different layers of sand, through

which water percolates from the top to the bottom to reduce the
level of contamination of the water. The treatment process is
most effective in the upper active layer

Socket

A connector between two pipes, which is wider than the pipe

(female); see also spigot

Spigot

Plain end of a pipe (Male), which joins to a socket

Static Pressure

The pressure in a pipe line in case of absence of flow. The

static pressure is mostly expressed in meters water column
above the pipe line and is equal to the difference in height
between the pipe line and the elevation of the nearest upward
tank or intake

Storage Reservoir

Tank, used to store water. The purpose of storage is, that it

balances between a constant inflow from a source and a highly
variable demand from the distribution. Storage is mostly half of
the daily consumption

Strainer

A device at a pipe inlet, which sieves the coarse materials from

the water

Suspended particles

Particles that are suspended in the water

TEE

Fitting which represents a main pipe and a branch (equal or

reducing TEE)

Turbidity

Degree of mud content of the water, mostly expressed in

Nominal Turbidity Units

Union

Fitting of which both sides are female; used to facilitate

dismantling of pipes
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Washing Basin

One or more slabs meant to do the laundry

Wash Out

A device, in which a TEE branches from the main line. The

branches has a plug or a valve. When opened, the speed of the
water will take all the deposited particles with it. A Wash-out can
also be found at the bottom of a tank, where it may drain the
dirt, settled at the bottom, if opened

Weir

Structure in the water bed to obstruct the flow

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