AOM 4932 Evaporation and Transpiration

Evaporation - change of water from its liquid to its vapor phase

Potential Evaporation - climatically controlled evaporation from a surface when the supply
water to the surface is unlimited
Transpiration - evaporation occurring from plants leaves through stomatal openings.
Function of stomata is to provide a place where CO2 can dissolve into water and enter
plant tissue. Evaporation unavoidable in this process - driven by same process as
evaporation. Ratio of water transpired to that used to form plant matter very large 800.
Potential transpiration - Transpiration which would occur if water supply to plant roots
and through vascular system to stomata was unlimited. Controlled by climate and plant
physiology.
Two main forces influencing evaporation rate are:
1. Supply of solar energy to provide the latent heat of evaporation.
2. Ability to transport evaporated water away from surface affected by wind velocity
and vapor gradient.
Transpiration affected by above plus ability of plant to extract and transmit water from soil
to stomata.
We will discuss four methods of estimating evaporation from free water surfaces (or
completely saturated soil)
1) energy balances methods
2) mass transfer or aerodynamic methods
3) combination of energy and mass transfer (Penman)
4) pan evaporation data
1) Energy Balance Method
Assumes energy supply the limiting factor.
Consider energy balance on a small lake with no water inputs or evaporation pan:
sensible heat
transfer to air
Hs

net
radiation
Rn

energy used in
evaporation
Qe

heat stored
in system
G
heat conducted to ground
(typically neglected)

Energy balance: inflows = outflows (assuming water temperature does not change. no
flow into or out of lake)
Rn Qe H s G
energy
Rn Rs (1 As ) Rl (1 Al ) Rb
area-time
Qe E w Le
energy/mass
density of water
(mass/volume)

evaporation rate
(depth/time or
volume/area-time)

Hs - sensible heat flux to atmosphere (by convection) and G - heat conducted to ground
are typically small and difficult to measure.
Neglect G and Hs , and substitute equation of Qe
Rn Qe E w Le
E

Note:

Assumes 1)
2)
3)
4)

Rn

w Le

evaporation rate
(depth/time)

no water inflow/outflow to lake

no change in water temperature of lake
neglects sensible heat transfer to ground and atmosphere
neglects heat energy lost with water which leaves system as
vapor

2) Mass Transfer or Aerodynamic Method

Mass transfer methods are based on the concept that rate of turbulent mass transfer of
water vapor from evaporating surface to atmosphere is limiting factor.

z
u

z
T

qv

Mass transfer is controlled by (1) vapor gradient and (2) wind

velocity
which determines
saturated
vapor
rate at which
vapor
is carried away.
pressure
vapor
transfer
measured vapor
coefficient

pressure

E B (u )(e s e( z ))
B (u )

0.102u
2

z2

ln
z o
u
B (u ) 0.0027(1
)
100

Alternative forms
of the vapor
transfer
coefficient

Many empirical vapor transfer coefficients have been developed by fitting this model to
local data.
3) Combination Methods
Evaporation can be computed by aerodynamic method when energy supply not limiting
and energy method when vapor transport not limiting Typically both factors limiting so
use combination of above methods. First proposed by Penman (1948):
E

Er
Ea

evaporation
computed from
aerodynamic
method

weighting
factor for Er
weighting
factor for Ea

evaporation
computed from
energy method

Weighting factors sum to 1. Deviation of weighting factors is based on physics.

es esz
Ts Tz
Called vapor pressure deficit. Tabulated or approximated by equation:
= gradient of saturated vapor pressure curve at air temperature =

saturated vapor
pressure at T in
Pascals

4098e s

237.3 T 2

Pascals/C
C
psychometric constant

66.8 Pa / C

Combination method is most accurate and most commonly used method if meteorological
information is available. Particularly good for small, well-monitored areas.
Need: net radiation
air temperature
humidity
wind speed
If all this information is not available can use Priestly-Taylor Approximation:

Er

1.3

Based on observations that second term in Penman equation typically 30% of first.
This is better for large areas.
All equations suitable for daily time intervals or longer.
4) Direct Measurement from Pan Evaporation
Since expensive to maintain weather stations required to use Penman equation,
evaporative pans are often used to directly measure evaporation.
Standard (Class A) Evaporative Pans are built of unpainted galvanized iron. 4 ft. diameter,
10 inches deep, set on a platform 12 inches above ground.
Water level in pan recorded daily with high precision micrometer. Evaporation determined
by mass balance.
S I 0
V2 V1 P E
E p P (V2 V1 )
precipitation
since last pan
reading

volume at
beginning t
volume at end

Pans measure more evaporation than natural water bodies because:

1) less heat storage capacity (because smaller volume water)
2) heat transfer through pan sides
3) wind effects caused by pan itself
Typically estimate

E KpEp
pan factor 0.7

Pan factor varies with season and location. Should be calibrated at each site. Set up
complete weather station calculate Penman E and Ep
Kp

E
Ep

Evapotranspiration
Same factors which govern water evaporation from water surfaces govern
evapotranspiration because essentially transpiration is mainly due to evaporation from
stomata. Also plant physiology (plants can control size of stomata and resistance to flow
reference potential
Evaporation

through roots and vascular systems) and soil moisture conditions (resistance of flow to
roots) play a role.
Recommended equation:
Et K s K c E
actual
evapotranspiration
soil coefficient
0 Ks 1
depends on soil
moisture and soil type

Blaney-Criddle
Empirical formula to estimate PET.

crop coefficient
0.2 Kc 1.3
depends on stage of
growth and type of crop

monthly crop
coefficient
PET Kf

monthly
consumptive use
factor

PET or
consumptive use
in inches
mean monthly
temperature (F)

tp
100

Consumptive use coefficients (K) for crops:

alfalfa
0.85
beans
0.65
corn
0.75
pasture
0.75

monthly fraction of daylight hours

(as % of yearly total) - depends on
latitude.
calculate as # hrs daylight in mth
# hrs daylight in yr