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CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONICS
THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C.R.O)
Thermionic emission is the process of emission of electrons from a heated metals surface.
Metal consists of a large number of electrons which are free to move.
At room temperature, the electrons are free to move but remain inside the metal.
The electrons cannot escape at the surface because they are held back by the attractive forces of the
atomic nucleus.
If the metal is heated at a high temperature, some of the free electrons may gain sufficient energy to
escape from the metal.
Chapter 4: Electronics
Exercise:
1. In a cathode ray tube, an electron with kinetic energy of 1.32 10-14 J is accelerated. Calculate the
potential difference, V between the cathode and the accelerating anode. [ e = 1.6 x 10 -19 C]
2. In a vacuum tube, a cathode ray is produced and accelerated through a potential difference of
2.5kV. Calculate:
(a) The initial electric potential energy of the cathode ray.
(b) The maximum velocity of the electron.
[ e = 1.6 x 10 -19 C; m= 9 x 10 -31 kg]
3. If the potential difference between the cathode and the anode in a CRO is 3.5 kV, calculate the
maximum speed of the electron which hit the screen of CRO.
[ e = 1.6 x 10 -19 C; m= 9 x 10 -31 kg]
4. The mass of an electron is 9x10-31 kg and its charge 1.6x10-19 C. For an accelerating voltage of 3000 V,
calculate the speed of the electron.
Chapter 4: Electronics
Procedure
Connect only the 6.3 V power supply to
the filament
Connect the 6.3 V and EHT to the
electrodes
Bring a pole of a bar magnet near to the
neck of the tube.
Reverse the pole of the bar magnet
Figure 2
Observation on the fluorescent screen
A dark shadow of the Maltese Cross is formed on the
screen.
A darker shadow of the Maltese Cross is seen on the
screen. The shadow is surrounded by green light
Two shadow are seen on the screen. The light shadow
remains at the centre of screen while the dark one is shifted.
The light shadow remains at the centre of screen while the
dark one is shifted to the opposite direction.
Discussion
1. When the 6.3 V power supply is switched on, the filament is heated. The Maltese cross shadow is
formed on the screen due to the light from the filament.
2. When the EHT power supply is switched on, a high voltage is applied between the cathode and
anode causing electrons to accelerate at high speeds from cathode to anode. These electrons are
the cathode rays.
3. The cathode rays blocked by the Maltese Cross causing a shadow to form on the screen. The cathode
rays travel in straight lines.
4. The green screen formed around the shadow when the EHT power supply is switched on shows that the
kinetic energy of the electron is converted into light energy when the electrons hit the fluorescent screen.
5. When a strong magnet is placed at the side of the Maltese Cross tube, the shadow formed is moved and
distorted. This shows that cathode rays are deflected by a magnetic field.
Investigate the properties of cathode rays in an electric field ( Figure 2 )
Observation:
No voltage connected to the deflecting plates
No deflection
Top plate is connected to EHT (+) and lower plate is
The electron beam will deflect upward
connected to EHT (-)
The electron beam will deflect downward
Top plate is connected to EHT (-) and lower plate is
connected to EHT (+)
Discussion:
1. The cathode ray is negatively charge.
2. It will deflect in an electric field.
3
Chapter 4: Electronics
Main Part
Electron gun
Component
Function
Filament
Cathode
Control grid
Focusing Anode
Accelerating Anode
Y- plates
Deflection system
X plates
Fluorescent screen
Application of CRO
1. Measuring potential difference
2. Measuring short intervals
3. displaying wave forms
Chapter 4: Electronics
.
Control Knob
Function
Power Switch
Focus
X-input
Y-input
AC/DC
switch
Brightness
X-shift
Y-shift
Y gain
(volts / div)
Time-base
(time/div)
Earth
Chapter 4: Electronics
Display wave forms and measuring voltage from a DC source using a CRO
Exercise:
1.
If the CRO in figure uses Y-gains of 1.5 Vcm-1, calculate the value of voltage.
2.
The figure shows a trace on a CRO set at 5 Volt per division on the vertical axis. What is
the maximum voltage (peak voltage) indicated?
3.
Diagram 2 shows a trace produced by an a.c power supply connected to a CRO with the time base is
switched of. The Y-gain is set to 20 V/div. Find the peak voltage.
Chapter 4: Electronics
4.
Figure shows a trace on an oscilloscope for an a.c source. If the Y-gain is set to 1.5 Vcm-1 and the timebase is 2 ms cm-1.
(a) Calculate the peak voltage, Vp of the a.c source.
(b) Calculate the frequency, f of the a.c source
1
(c ) Sketch the trace displayed on the screen if the settings are changed to 1 Vcm-1 and 1 ms cm-
5. The diagram shows the trace on the screen of a CRO when an a.c voltage is connected to the Y-input. The
Y-gain control is set at 2V/div and the time base is off. Calculate the value of:
a ) Peaktopeak voltage, Vpp
b ) Peak voltage , Vp
c) root-mean-square voltage, Vr.m.s
6.
When two claps are made close to a microphone which is connected to the Y-input and earth terminals,
both pulses will be displayed on the screen at a short interval apart as shown in figure below. Measure the
time lapse between the two claps.
Chapter 4: Electronics
7. Figure shows the trace displayed on the screen of a CRO with the time-base is set to 10 ms/div. What is the
frequency, f of the wave?
8. An ultrasound signal is transmitted vertically down to the sea bed. Transmitted and reflected signals are
input into an oscilloscope with a time base setting of 150 ms cm-1. The diagram shows the trace of the two
signals on the screen of the oscilloscope. The speed of sound in water is 1200 ms-1. What is the depth of
the sea?
9. Diagram 3 shows a wave produced by an audio generator displayed the screen of a CRO. The length
between the two crests is 3 cm.
a) If the time-base is set to 5 ms/div, find the frequency.
b) What is the period of the wave?
c) When the frequency of the wave is double, what is the length between the two crests?
.
10. Diagram 1 shows a trace produced by an ac power supply which is connected to Y-input of an CRO setting
at 20 V/div and 5 ms/div. Calculate:
(a) Period
(b) Frequency
(c) Peak voltage
Chapter 4: Electronics
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
A material that has an electrical conductivity that is between that of a conductor and an insulator.
The resistance of semiconductors is between that of conductors and insulators.
At 0 Kelvin it behaves as an insulator. When the temperature increases, the conductivity of the electricity
will increase because its resistance will be lowered
Electricity conductivity in semiconductors occurs because there is two type of charge carriers:
Electron which is negatively charge
Hole which is positively charge
An intrinsic semiconductor is made of pure materials such as silicon or germanium.
1.
Doping is a process of adding a certain amount of specific impurities called dopants to a pure
semiconductor to increase its electricity conductivity.
An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has a certain amount of impurities added into it,
such as gallium or arsenic.
Doping process produces two groups of semiconductors. They are the n-type ( negative charge
conductor) and p-type (positive charge conductor) semiconductor.
9
Chapter 4: Electronics
n- type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor
Semiconductor Diodes
A semiconductor diode is a device made from p-n junction.
A p-n junction is formed when a n-type and p-type semiconductors are joined together.
At the junction of a p-type and an n-type semiconductors, a region called the depletion layer
formed.
At the depletion layer, some free electrons from the n-type diffuse across the junction into the ptype and fill up the holes. The holes from the p-type appear to move across the junction to the ntype.
The nature of the depletion layer is that it will block the current flow from the n-type region to the
p-type region, but will allow the current to flow from the p-type region to the n-type region.
A diode is a device that allows current flow in one direction only.
10
Chapter 4: Electronics
There are two ways a diode can be connected in series to a battery, in forward bias or reverse bias.
Forward bias
Reverse bias
Diode as a Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current to direct current.
Rectification is a process to convert an alternating current into a direct current by using a diode.
Two type of rectification: (a) Half-wave rectification (b) Full-wave rectification
Half-wave rectification
Full-wave rectification
Chapter 4: Electronics
Capacitor Smoothing
Both half-wave and full-wave rectifications do not provide a steady direct current like the battery. To
provide an uniform d.c output, the varying rectified output needs to be smoothen. This can be done by
using a capacitor.
When the current pass through the resistor and capacitor, the capacitor is charged and stores energy.
When there is no current pass through the resistor and capacitor, the capacitor discharge and the
energy from it is used to produce voltage across the resistor. As a result it produces a smooth dc
output.
Exercise:
Figure 9. 47 shows a full wave bridge rectifier. The a.c supply has a frequency of 50 Hz.
Figure 9.47
(a) When the polarity of the a.c supply voltage is positive at A, state the two diodes which are forward
biased.
(b) When the polarity of the a.c supply voltage is negative at A, state the two diodes which are forward
biased.
(c) Using the axes in figure 9.48, sketch the voltage-time graph across the resistor, R.
(d) On the figure 9.49, sketch the voltage-time graph across the resistor if a capacitor is connected across
the resistor if a capacitor is connected across the resistor R parallel with the resistor.
12
Chapter 4: Electronics
TRANSISTOR
A transistor has three leads connected to the emitter, base and collector.
The emitter emits or sends charge carriers through the thin base layer to be collected by the collector.
There is two-type of transistor: n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor.
13
Chapter 4: Electronics
Example:
Application of transistor
Current Amplifier
14
Chapter 4: Electronics
15
Chapter 4: Electronics
Logic Gates
Security lamps, alarm systems, and washing machines can make some simple decisions.
The switching on and off operations are controlled by electronic switches made up of logic gates.
Logic gates work using tiny transistors as switches.
They are manufactured as integrated circuit (IC), with each chip holding several gates.
A logic gate is a circuit that has one or more input signals but only one output signal.
For each gate, the input or inputs are on the left of the symbol. The output is on the right.
Each input and output can be either high (logic 1) or low (logic 0).
A binary 0 represents 0 V, and a binary 1 represents a non-zero voltage.
Truth table
A truth table lists all input possibilities and the corresponding output for each input.
Gates
1. AND gate
Truth table
Action
For the input to be ON, both inputs
must be ON.
Output in ON only when both
inputs A and B are ON.
2. OR gate
3. NOT gate
4. NAND gate
16
Chapter 4: Electronics
5. NOR gate
It is equivalent to an OR gate
with its output inverted by a NOT
gate.
Output Q is ON when both input
A and input B are OFF
Boolean algebra can be used to describe the switching functions of logic gates. The operation of the Boolean
algebra can be shown as in Table below.
OR
AND
NOT
(+)
(.)
( )
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1
0.0=0
0.1=0
1.0=0
1 . 1 =1
17
0=1
1 =0
Chapter 4: Electronics
18
Chapter 4: Electronics
2.
Chapter 4: Electronics
Exercise:
Figure shows a logic gate system which switches on an air-conditioner automatically.
Output
(b) Based on the truth table in (a), state the conditions in which the air-conditioner conditions in which
the air-conditioner will operate and function normally.
20
Chapter 4: Electronics
Reinforcement
Part A: Objective questions
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
2.5 V
5.5 V
7.5 V
12.5 V
15.0 V
5. In p-type semiconductor
A. The number of holes are equal to the
number of electrons.
B. The number of the holes are more
than the number of electrons.
C. The number of the holes are less than the
number of electrons.
Figure 9.35
Which of the following is not true?
A. The conductivity of the
semiconductor increases.
B. The semiconductor becomes an ntype.
C. The majority charge carrier is
electron.
D. Atom P is a trivalent atom.
Figure 9.34
21
Chapter 4: Electronics
P
Q
Figure 9.36
A. A rectifier changes d.c to a.c.
B. Device P allows current to flow in any
directions.
C. Device Q acts as a rectifier.
D. The rectifier circuit would still work if
device P is reversed.
9. The figure 9.37 shows a circuit consisting of
two diodes and a bulb. When the switch is
on, the bulb does not light up.
What needs to be done to light up the
bulb?
Figure 9.37
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Figure 9.38
Figure 9.38 shows four identical bulbs, P,
Q, R and S, and four electronic
22
Chapter 4: Electronics
Figure 9.41
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Figure 9.39
3 k
4 k
5 k
6 k
7 k
IC
Figure 9.42
Which of the following is not correct
about the circuit?
A. T is an npn transistor
B. The capasitor prevents d.c current
but allows a.c current to pass through it.
C. Speaker amplifies the sound.
D. R1 and R2 act as potential divider.
Figure 9.40
Which of the following is correct?
A. IB > IC
B. IB = IC
C. IB < IC
17. The figure 9.43 shows a logic gate circuit with input
signals, X and Y.
Figure 9.43
Which of the following is the output signal?
23
Chapter 4: Electronics
Figure 9.43
Which of the following is the output
signal Z?
A. 0110
B. 1010
C. 1110
D. 0101
19. The figure 9.44 shows the combination of three
logic gates.
Figure 9.44
The truth table for the combination of
tree logic gates is as follows.
J
K
Figure 9.45
J
AND
NAND
OR
NOR
What is gate X?
A. AND
B. NOR
C. OR
D. NAND
Figure 9.46
24
K
NOR
NOR
AND
AND
Chapter 4: Electronics
(c) Determine the time for one complete oscillation on the screen.
(e) With the same a.c voltage applied to the oscilloscope, the time-base setting is altered to
2.5 ms/cm and the Y-gain setting is altered to 2 V/cm. On the space below, sketch the new trace would
appear on the oscilloscope.
2. A student wants to build a simple lift motor control system which operates using two buttons, A and B
for a two-storey building.
A: Up button
B: Down button
The lift motor only activates when someone presses any one of the buttons. Figure 9.50 shows
the circuit that can be used to activate the motor.
25
Chapter 4: Electronics
26