Control System | Closed Loop

Open Loop Control System

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When a number of elements are combined together to form a system to
produce desired output then the system is referred as control system. As
this system controls the output, it is so referred. Each element connected to
the system has its own effect on the output.

Definition of Control System

A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages,
commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other device(s) or system(s)
to achieve desire results. In other words the definition of control system
can be rewritten as A control system is a system, which controls other
system. As the human civilization is being modernized day by day the
demand of automation is increasing accordingly. Automation highly requires
control of devices. In recent years, control systems plays main role in the
development and advancement of modern technology and civilization.
Practically every aspects of our day-to-day life is affected less or more by
some control system. A bathroom toilet tank, a refrigerator, an air
conditioner, a geezer, an automatic iron, an automobile all are control
system. These systems are also used in industrial process for more output.
We find control system in quality control of products, weapons system,
transportation systems, power system, space technology, robotics and many
more. The principles of control theory is applicable to engineering and
non engineering field both.

Feature of Control System

The main feature of control system is, there should be a clear mathematical
relation between input and output of the system. When the relation between
input and output of the system can be represented by a linear
proportionality, the system is called linear control system. Again when the
relation between input and output cannot be represented by single linear
proportionality, rather the input and output are related by some non-linear
relation, the system is referred as non-linear control system.

Requirement of Good Control System

Accuracy : Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument and

defines the limits of the errors made when the instrument is used in normal
operating conditions. Accuracy can be improved by using feedback elements.
To increase accuracy of any control system error detector should be present
in control system. Sensitivity : The parameters of control system are
always changing with change in surrounding conditions, internal disturbance
or any other parameters. This change can be expressed in terms of
sensitivity. Any control system should be insensitive to such parameters but
sensitive to input signals only. Noise : An undesired input signal is known as
noise. A good control system should be able to reduce the noise effect for
better performance. Stability : It is an important characteristic of control
system. For the bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if
input is zero then output must be zero then such a control system is said to
be stable system. Bandwidth : An operating frequency range decides the
bandwidth of control system. Bandwidth should be large as possible for
frequency response of good control system. Speed : It is the time taken by
control system to achieve its stable output. A good control system possesses
high speed. The transient period for such system is very small. Oscillation :
A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation of output tend to
system to be stable.

Types of Control Systems

There are various types of control system but all of them are created to
control outputs. The system used for controlling the position, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage and current etc. are examples
of control systems. Let us take an example of simple temperature controller
of the room, to clear the concept. Suppose there is a simple heating
element, which is heated up as long as the electric power supply is switched
on. As long as the power supply switch of the heater is on the temperature
of the room rises and after achieving the desired temperature of the room,
the power supply is switched off. Again due to ambient temperature, the
room temperature falls and then manually the heater element is switched on
to achieve the desired room temperature again. In this way one can
manually control the room temperature at desired level. This is an example
of manual control system. This system can further be improved by using
timer switching arrangement of the power supply where the supply to the

heating element is switched on and off in a predetermined interval to

achieve desired temperature level of the room. There is another improved
way of controlling the temperature of the room. Here one sensor measures
the difference between actual temperature and desired temperature. If there
is any difference between them, the heating element functions to reduce the
difference and when the difference becomes lower than a predetermined
level, the heating elements stop functioning. Both forms of the system are
automatic control system. In former one the input of the system is
entirely independent of the output of the system. Temperature of the room
(output) increases as long as the power supply switch is kept on. That
means heating element produces heat as long as the power supply is kept
on and final room temperature does not have any control to the input power
supply of the system. This system is referred as open loop control
system. But in the later case, the heating elements of the system function,
depending upon the difference between, actual temperature and desired
temperature. This difference is called error of the system. This error signal is
fed back to the system to control the input. As the input to output path and
the error feedback path create a closed loop, this type of control system is
referred as closed loop control system. Hence, there are two main types
of control system. They are as follow Open loop control system Closed
loop control system

Open Loop Control System

A control system in which the control action is totally independent of output
of the system then it is called open loop control system. Manual control
system is also an open loop control system. Fig - 1 shows the block diagram
of open loop control system in which process output is totally independent of
controller action.

Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System

1.
Electric Hand Drier Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep
your hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is
dried.

2.

Automatic Washing Machine This machine runs according to the

pre-set time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3.
Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective
of toasting is completed or not.
4.
Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker These machines also function for
pre adjusted time only.
5.
Timer Based Clothes Drier This machine dries wet clothes for pre
adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
6.
Light Switch lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of
light is required or not.
7.
Volume on Stereo System Volume is adjusted manually
irrespective of output volume level.
Advantages of Open Loop Control System
1.
Simple in construction and design.
2.
Economical.
3.
Easy to maintain.
4.
Generally stable.
5.
Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System
1.
They are inaccurate.
2.
They are unreliable.
3.
Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.

Closed Loop Control System

Control system in which the output has an effect on the input quantity in
such a manner that the input quantity will adjust itself based on the output
generated is called closed loop control system. Open loop control system
can be converted in to closed loop control system by providing a feedback.
This feedback automatically makes the suitable changes in the output due to
external disturbance. In this way closed loop control system is called
automatic control system. Figure below shows the block diagram of closed

loop control system in which feedback is taken from output and fed in to

input.
Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System
1.
Automatic Electric Iron Heating elements are controlled by output
temperature of the iron.
2.
Servo Voltage Stabilizer Voltage controller operates depending
upon output voltage of the system.
3.
Water Level Controller Input water is controlled by water level of
the reservoir.
4.
Missile Launched & Auto Tracked by Radar The direction of
missile is controlled by comparing the target and position of the missile.
5.
An Air Conditioner An air conditioner functions depending upon the
temperature of the room.
6.
Cooling System in Car It operates depending upon the
temperature which it controls.
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
1.
Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of
non-linearity.
2.
Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of
feedback signal.
3.
Bandwidth range is large.
4.
Facilitates automation.
5.
The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more
stable.
6.
This system is less affected by noise.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
1.
They are costlier.
2.
They are complicated to design.
3.
Required more maintenance.
4.
Feedback leads to oscillatory response.

5.
6.

Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.

Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a
stable closed loop system.
Comparison of Closed Loop And Open Loop Control System
Sr. No. Open loop control system

Closed loop control system

The feedback element is

absent.

The feedback element is always present.

An error detector is not

present.

An error detector is always present.

It is stable one.

It may become unstable.

Easy to construct.

Complicated construction.

It is an economical.

It is costly.

Having small bandwidth.

Having large bandwidth.

It is inaccurate.

It is accurate.

Less maintenance.

More maintenance.

It is unreliable.

It is reliable.

10

Examples: Hand drier, tea

maker

Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer,

perspiration

Feedback Loop of Control System

A feedback is a common and powerful tool when designing a control system.
Feedback loop is the tool which take the system output into consideration
and enables the system to adjust its performance to meet a desired result of
system. In any control system, output is affected due to change in
environmental condition or any kind of disturbance. So one signal is taken
from output and is fed back to the input. This signal is compared with
reference input and then error signal is generated. This error signal is
applied to controller and output is corrected. Such a system is called
feedback system. Figure below shows the block diagram of feedback system.

When
feedback signal is positive then system called positive feedback system. For
positive feedback system, the error signal is the addition of reference input
signal and feedback signal. When feedback signal is negative then system is
called negative feedback system. For negative feedback system, the error
signal is given by difference of reference input signal and feedback signal.
Effect of Feedback
Refer figure beside, which represents feedback system where R = Input
signal E = Error signal G = forward path gain H = Feedback C = Output

signal B = Feedback signal

1.
Error between system input and system output is reduced.
2.
System gain is reduced by a factor 1/(1GH).
3.
Improvement in sensitivity.
4.
Stability may be affected.
5.
Improve the speed of response.
Block Diagrams of Control System
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The block diagram is to represent a control system in diagram form. In other words
practical representation of a control system is its block diagram. It is not always

convenient to derive the entire transfer function of a complex control system in a

single function. It is easier and better to derive transfer function of control element
connected to the system, separately. The transfer function of each element is then
represented by a block and they are then connected together with the path of
signal flow. For simplifying a complex control system, block diagrams are used.
Each element of the control system is represented with a block and the block is the
symbolic representation of transfer function of that element. A complete control
system can be represented with a required number of interconnected such blocks.
In the figure below, there are two elements with transfer function Gone(s) and
Gtwo(s). Where Gone(s) is the transfer function of first element and Gtwo(s) is the
transfer function of second element of the system.

In addition to that, the diagram also shows there is a feedback path through
which output signal C(s) is fed back and compared with the input R(s) and
the difference between input and output E(s) = R(s) C(s) is acting as
actuating signal or error signal.

In each block of diagram,

the output and input are related together by transfer function. Where,
transfer function

where, C(s) is the output and R(s) is the input

of that particular block.

A complex
control system consists of several blocks. Each of them has its own transfer
function. But overall transfer function of the system is the ratio of transfer
function of final output to transfer function of initial input of the system. This
overall transfer function of the system can be obtained by simplifying the
control system by combining this individual blocks, one by one. Technique of
combining of these blocks is referred as block diagram reduction
technique. For successful implementation of this technique, some rules for
block diagram reduction to be followed. Let us discuss these rules, one by
one for reduction of block diagram of control system.

If the transfer function of input of control system is R(s) and corresponding

output is C(s), and the overall transfer function of the control system is G(s),
then the control system can be represented as

Take off Point of Block Diagram

when we need to apply one or same input to more than one blocks, we use take
off point. A point is where the input gets more than one paths to propagate. This
to be noted that the input does not get divided at a point, hence input propagates
through all the paths connected to that point without affecting its value. Hence, by
take off point same input signals can be applied to more than one systems or
blocks. Representation of a common input signal to more than one blocks of control
system is done by a common point as shown in the figure below with point X.

Cascade Blocks
When several systems or control blocks are connected in cascaded manner, the
transfer function of the entire system will be the product of transfer function of all
individual blocks. Here it also to be remembered that the output of any block will
not be affected by the presence of other blocks in the cascaded system.
Now,
from the diagram it is seen that,

Where, G(s) is the overall

transfer function of cascaded control system.

Summing Point of Block Diagram

Instead of applying single input signal to different blocks as in the previous case,
there may be such situation where different input signals are applied to same block.
Here, resultant input signal is the summation of all input signals applied.
Summation of input signals is represented by a point called summing point which is
shown in the figure below by crossed circle. Here R(s), X(s) and Y(s) are the input
signals. It is necessary to indicate the fine specifying the input signal entering a
summing point in the block diagram of control system.

Consecutive Summing Point

A summing point with more than two inputs can be divided into two or more
consecutive summing points, where alteration of the position of consecutive

summing points does not effect the output of the signal. In other words - if there
are more than one summing points directly inter associated, then they can be easily
interchanged from their position without affecting the final output of the summing

system.

Parallel Blocks
When same input signal is applied different blocks and the output from each of
them are added in a summing point for taking final output of the system then over
all transfer function of the system will be the algebraic sum of transfer function of

all individual blocks.

Cthree are the outputs of the blocks with transfer function G

If Cone, Ctwo and

, Gtwo and Gthree, then

one

Shifting of Take off Point

If same signal is applied to more than one system, then the signal is represented in
the system by a point called take off point. Principle of shifting of take off point
is that, it may be shifted either side of a block but final output of the branches
connected to the take off point must be un-changed. The take off point can be

shifted either sides of the block.

In the

figure above the take off point is shifted from position A to B. The signal R(s) at
take off point A will become G(s)R(s) at point B. Hence another block of inverse of
transfer function G(s) is to be put on that path to get R(s) again.

Now let us examine the situation when

take off point is shifted before the block which was previously after the block.

Here the output is C(s) and input is R(s)

and hence

Here, we have to put one block of

transfer function G(s) on the path so that output again comes as C(s).

Shifting of Summing Point

Let us examine the shifting of summing point from a position before a block to a
position after a block. There are two input signals R(s) and X(s) entering in a
summing point at position A. The output of the summing point is R(s) X(s). The
resultant signal is the input of a control system block of transfer function G(s) and
the final output of the system is

Hence, a
summing point can be redrawn with input signals R(s)G(s) and X(s)G(s)

In the above block

diagrams of control system output can be rewritten as
The above equation can be
represented by a block of transfer function G(s) and input R(s)X(s)/G(s) again
R(s)X(s)/G(s) can be represented with a summing point of input signal R(s) and

X(s)/G(s) and finally it can be drawn as below.

Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System

In a closed loop control system, a

fraction of output is fed-back and added to input of the system. If H (s) is the
transfer function of feedback path, then the transfer function of feedback signal will
be B(s) = C(s)H(s). At summing point, the input signal R(s) will be added to B(s)
and produces actual input signal or error signal of the system and it is denoted by
E(s).

Signal Flow Graph of Control

System
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Signal flow graph of control system is further simplification of block diagram
of control system. Here, the blocks of transfer function, summing symbols
and take off points are eliminated by branches and nodes. The transfer
function is referred as transmittance in signal flow graph. Let us take an
example of equation y = Kx. This equation can be represented with block

diagram as below
The same equation
can be represented by signal flow graph where x is input variable node, y is
output variable node and a is the transmittance of the branch connecting
directly these two nodes.

Rules for Drawing Signal Flow Graph

1.

The signal always travels along the branch towards the direction of
indicated arrow in the branch.
2.
The output signal of the branch is the product of transmittance and
input signal of that branch.

3.

Input signal at a node is summation of all the signals entering at that

node.
4.
Signals propagate through all the branches, leaving a node.

Simple Process of Calculating Expression of Transfer Function for

Signal Flow Graph

First, the input signal to be calculated at each node of the graph. The

input signal to a node is summation of product of transmittance and the

other end node variable of each of the branches arrowed towards the
former node.
Now by calculating input signal at all nodes will get numbers of

equations which relating node variables and transmittance. More

precisely, there will be one unique equation for each of the input variable
node.
By solving these equations we get, ultimate input and output of the
entire signal flow graph of control system.

Lastly by dividing inspiration of ultimate output to the expression of

initial input we calculate the expiration of transfer function of that signal
flow graph.

If P is the
forward path transmittance between extreme input and output of a signal
flow graph. L1, L 2. loop transmittance of first, second,..loop of
the graph. Then for first signal flow graph of control system, the overall
transmittance between extreme input and output is

Then for second signal

flow graph of control system, the overall transmittance between extreme
input and output is

Here in the figure above, there are two

parallel forward paths. Hence, overall transmittance of that signal flow graph
of control system will be simple arithmetic sum of forward transmittance of
these two parallel paths.
As the each of the parallel paths having one loop associated with it, the
forward transmittances of these parallel paths are
Therefore overall transmittance of
the signal flow graph is

Mason's Gain Formula

The overall transmittance or gain of signal flow graph of control system is

given by Masons Gain Formula and as per the formula the overall
transmittance is
Where, Pk is the forward path transmittance of
kth in path from a specified input is known to an output node. In arresting P k

no node should be encountered more than once. is the graph determinant

which involves closed loop transmittance and mutual interactions between
non-touching loops. = 1 - (sum of all individual loop transmittances) +
(sum of loop transmittance products of all possible pair of non-touching
loops) - (sum of loop transmittance products of all possible triplets of nontouching loops) + () - () k is the factor associated with the
concerned path and involves all closed loop in the graph which are isolated
from the forward path under consideration. The path factor k for the k th
path is equal to the value of grab determinant of its signal flow graph which
exist after erasing the K th path from the graph.
By using this formula one can easily determine the overall transfer function
of control system by converting a block diagram of control system (if given
in that form) to its equivalent signal flow graph. Let us illustrate the below

given block diagram

Transient State and Steady State

Response of Control System
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When we study the analysis of the transient state and steady state
response of control system it is very essential to know a few basic terms
and these are described below. Standard Input Signals : These are also
known as test input signals. The input signal is very complex in nature, it is
complex because it may be a combination of various other signals. Thus it is
very difficult to analyze characteristic performance of any system by
applying these signals. So we use test signals or standard input signals
which are very easy to deal with. We can easily analyze the characteristic

performance of any system more easily as compared to non standard input

signals. Now there are various types of standard input signals and they are
written below:
Unit Impulse Signal : In the time domain it is represented by (t). The
Laplace transformation of unit impulse function is 1 and the corresponding
waveform associated with the unit impulse function is shown below.

Unit Step Signal : In the

time domain it is represented by u (t). The Laplace transformation of unit
step function is 1/s and the corresponding waveform associated with the unit
step function is shown below.

Unit Ramp signal : In the

time domain it is represented by r (t). The Laplace transformation of unit
ramp function is 1/s2 and the corresponding waveform associated with the
unit ramp function is shown below.

Parabolic Type Signal : In the

time domain it is represented by t / 2. The Laplace transformation of
parabolic type of the function is 1 / s3 and the corresponding waveform
associated with the parabolic type of the function is shown below.
2

Sinusoidal Type Signal : In the time

domain it is represented by sin (t).The Laplace transformation of sinusoidal
type of the function is / (s2 + 2) and the corresponding waveform
associated with the sinusoidal type of the function is shown below.

Cosine Type of Signal :

In the time domain it is represented by cos (t). The Laplace transformation
of the cosine type of the function is / (s2 + 2) and the corresponding
waveform associated with the cosine type of the function is shown below,

Now are in a position to describe

the two types of responses which are a function of time.

Transient Response of Control System

As the name suggests transient response of control system means
changing so, this occurs mainly after two conditions and these two
conditions are written as follows-

 Condition one : Just after switching on the system that means at the
time of application of an input signal to the system.
Condition second : Just after any abnormal conditions. Abnormal
conditions may include sudden change in the load, short circuiting etc.

Steady State Response of Control System

Steady state occurs after the system becomes settled and at the steady
system starts working normally. Steady state response of control
system is a function of input signal and it is also called as forced response.
Now the transient state response of control system gives a clear description
of how the system functions during transient state and steady state
response of control system gives a clear description of how the system
functions during steady state. Therefore the time analysis of both states is
very essential. We will separately analyze both the types of responses. Let
us first analyze the transient response. In order to analyze the transient
response, we have some time specifications and they are written as follows:
Delay Time : This time is represented by td. The time required by the
response to reach fifty percent of the final value for the first time, this time
is known as delay time. Delay time is clearly shown in the time response
specification curve. Rise Time : This time is represented by tr. We define
rise time in two cases:
1.
In case of under damped systems where the value of is less than
one, in this case rise time is defined as the time required by the
response to reach from zero value to hundred percent value of final
value.
2.
In case of over damped systems where the value of is greater than
one, in this case rise time is defined as the time required by the
response to reach from ten percent value to ninety percent value of final
value.
Peak Time : This time is represented by tp. The time required by the
response to reach the peak value for the first time, this time is known as
peak time. Peak time is clearly shown in the time response specification
curve.
Settling Time : This time is represented by ts. The time required by the
response to reach and within the specified range of about (two percent to
five percent) of its final value for the first time, this time is known as settling
time. Settling time is clearly shown in the time response specification curve.

Maximum Overshoot : It is expressed (in general) in percentage of the

steady state value and it is defined as the maximum positive deviation of the
response from its desired value. Here desired value is steady state value.
Steady State Error : It can be defined as the difference between the actual
output and the desired output as time tends to infinity.
Now we are in position we to do a time response analysis of a first order
system.

Transient State and Steady State Response of First Order

Control System
Let us consider the block diagram of the first order system.

From
this block diagram we can find overall transfer function which is linear in
nature. The transfer function of the first order system is 1/((sT+1)). We are
going to analyze the steady state and transient response of control system
for the following standard signal.
1.
Unit impulse.
2.
Unit step.
3.
Unit ramp.
Unit impulse response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is
1. Now let us give this standard input to a first order system, we have
Now taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above
equation, we have
It is clear that the steady state
response of control system depends only on the time constant T and it is
decaying in nature.

Unit step response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1/s.
Now let us give this standard input to first order system, we have
> With the help of partial fraction, taking the inverse
Laplace transform of the above equation, we have
It is
clear that the time response depends only on the time constant T. In this
case the steady state error is zero by putting the limit t is tending to zero.
Unit ramp response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is
1/s2. Now let us give this standard input to first order system, we have
With the help of partial fraction, taking the inverse
Laplace transform of the above equation we have
On plotting the exponential function of time we
have T by putting the limit t is tending to zero.

Transient State and Steady State Response of Second Order

Control System
Let us consider the block diagram of the second order system.

Fro
m this block diagram we can find overall transfer function which is nonlinear
in nature. The transfer function of the second order system is ( 2) / ( s ( s +
2 )). We are going to analyze the transient state response of control
system for the following standard signal. Unit impulse response : We
have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1. Now let us give this
standard input to second order system, we have

Where is natural frequency in rad/sec and is damping ratio.

Unit step response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1/s.
Now let us give this standard input to first order system, we have

Laplace transform of the above equation we have

Now we will see the

effect of different values of on the response. We have three types of
systems on the basis of different values of .
1.

Under damped system : A system is said to be under damped

system when the value of is less than one. In this case roots are
complex in nature and the real parts are always negative. System is
asymptotically stable. Rise time is lesser than the other system with the
presence of finite overshoot.
2.
Critically damped system : A system is said to be critically damped
system when the value of is one. In this case roots are real in nature
and the real parts are always repetitive in nature. System is
asymptotically stable. Rise time is less in this system and there is no
presence of finite overshoot.
3.
Over damped system : A system is said to be over damped system
when the value of is greater than one. In this case roots are real and
distinct in nature and the real parts are always negative. System is
asymptotically stable. Rise time is greater than the other system and
there is no presence of finite overshoot.
4.
Sustained Oscillations : A system is said to be sustain damped
system when the value of zeta is zero. No damping occurs in this case.
Now let us derive the expressions for rise time, peak time, maximum
overshoot, settling time and steady state error with a unit step input for
second order system. Rise time : In order to derive the expression for the
rise time we have to equate the expression for c(t) = 1. From the above we

have
above equation we have expression for rise time equal to

On solving

Peak Time : On differentiating the expression of

c(t) we can obtain the expression for peak time. dc(t)/ dt = 0 we have

expression for peak time,

Maximum overshoot : Now it

is clear from the figure that the maximum overshoot will occur at peak time
tp hence on putting the valye of peak time we will get maximum overshoot
as

Settling Time : Settling time is given by

the expression
Steady state error : The steady state error is
diffrerence between the actual output and the desired output hence at time
tending to infinity the steady state error is zero
Transfer Functions Examples Part 1
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1) The impulse response of a system is

What

will be the transfer function of the system? Answer For impulse response, the
output C(s) of the system is equal to transfer function of the system.

Therefore, transfer function of the system is

2) Find the poles and zeros of the function

Answer

3) The poles and zeros are plotted on the is plain as shown below

Find the transfer function. Answer

Here, the poles are s= - 3, - 1, 0. Therefore, denominator of the function
would be,
the zeros are, -4, - 2. Therefore, numerator of the
function would be,
Therefore, transfer function would be,
Where, K is the gain factor of the control system.
4) Find the gain factor K of a transfer function whose value is 2 at s = 2 and
the transfer function is given as
Now, as per condition of the problem,

Answer

5) Find the transfer function of the

following network.
get,

Answer From the circuit we

Now applying Laplace transformation at both

sides we get,
As the applied
voltage is cause and the corresponding charging current is the effect, the
applied voltage can be considered as input and charging current can be
considered as output.

6) Find the transfer function of the

network given below,

Answer In the
above figure the input is applied voltage v(t) and the output is measured as
the voltage appears across the capacitor C that is vc(t).

Laplace transformation of the transfer function is

7) A shaft of innertia J is rotated for

an angle due to applied torque T against a bearing friction f. Find the
transfer function of the system. Answer The differential equation form of
the above statement is

Taking Laplace transformation of

both sides of the system,

As the applied torque is input and the output angular displacement is output
of the system.
8) The impulse response of the system is given by c(t)=1-te-2t+sin3t. Find
that transfer function of the system Answer

the impulse response of a system given by

Time Domain Analysis of Control System

9) Find the transfer function of

Answer

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In a control system, there may be some energy storing elements attached to it.
Energy storing elements are generally inductors and capacitors in case of electrical
system. Due to presence of these energy storing elements, if the energy state of
the system is disturbed, it will take certain time to change from one energy state to
another. The exact time taken by the system for changing one energy state to
another, is known as transient time and the value and pattern voltages and currents
during this period is known as transient response. A transient response is normally
associated with an oscillation, which may be sustained or decaying in nature. The
exact nature of the system depends upon the parameters of the system. Any
system can be represented with a linear differential equation. The solution of this
linear differential equation gives the response of the system. The representation of
a control system by linear differential equation of functions of time and its solution
is collectively called time domain analysis of control system. Figure 2.1, page
80.

In this figure it is seen that transient response is initiated from zero and
oscillates for a certain period and then becomes steady after transient has
died. If the steady-state response does not match with the input, then the
system is said to be have a steady-state error. For time domain analysis of
control system, the following input signals are used.
Step Function
Let us take an independent voltage source or a battery which is connected across a
voltmeter via a switch, s. It is clear from the figure below, whenever the switch s is
open, the voltage appears between the voltmeter terminals is zero. If the voltage
between the voltmeter terminals is represented as v (t), the situation can be
mathematically represented as
Now let us consider
at t = 0, the switch is closed and instantly the battery voltage V volt appears across
the voltmeter and that situation can be represented as,
Combining the above two equations we get
In
the above equations if we put 1 in place of V, we will get a unit step function which
can be defined as
Now let us examine the Laplace
transform of unit step function. Laplace transform of any function can be obtained
by multiplying this function by e-st and integrating multiplied from 0 to infinity. Fig

6.2.1

If input is R(s), then

Ramp Function
The function which is represented by an inclined straight line intersecting the origin
is known as ramp function. That means this function starts from zero and increases
or decreases linearly with time. A ramp function can be represented as,
Here in this above equation, k is the slope of the line.
Fig 6.2.2 Now let us examine the Laplace transform of ramp function. As we told
earlier Laplace transform of any function can be obtained by multiplying this
function by e-st and integrating multiplied from 0 to infinity.

Parabolic Function
Here, the value of function is zero when time t<0 and is quadratic when time t>0. A

parabolic function can be defined as,

Now let us
examine the Laplace transform of parabolic function. As we told earlier Laplace
transform of any function can be obtained by multiplying this function by e -st and
integrating multiplied from 0 to infinity. Fig 6.2.3

Impulse Function
Impulse signal is produced when input is suddenly applied to the system for
infinitesimal duration of time. The waveform of such signal is represented as
impulse function. If the magnitude of such function is unity, then the function is
called unit impulse function. The first time derivative of step function is impulse
function. Hence Laplace transform of unit impulse function is nothing but Laplace
transform of first-time derivative of unit step function. Fig 6.2.4

Time Response of First Order Control Systems

When the maximum power of s in the denominator of a transfer function is one, the
transfer function represents a first order control system. Commonly, the first order
control system can be represented as

Time Response for Step Function

Now a unit step input is given to the system, then let us analyze the expression of

output Fig 6.3.1

Fig 6.3.2 It is
seen from the error equation that if the time approaching to infinity, the output
signal reaches exponentially to the steady-state value of one unit. As the output is
approaching towards input exponentially, the steady-state error is zero when time

approaches to infinity.
the output equation and then we get,

Let us put t = T in

This T is defined as the time

constant of the response and the time constant of a response signal is that time for

which the signal reaches to its 63.2 % of its final value. Now if we put t = 4T in the
above output response equation, then we get,
When actual value of response,
reaches to the 98% of the desired value, then the signal is said to be reached to its
steady-state condition. This required time for reaching the signal to 98 % of its
desired value is known as setting time and naturally setting time is four times of
the time constant of the response. The condition of response before setting time is
known as transient condition and condition of the response after setting time is
known as steady-state condition. From this explanation it is clear that if the time
constant of the system is smaller, the response of the system reaches to its steadystate condition faster.
Time Response for Ramp Function

Fig 6.3.5 In this case during

steady-state condition, the output signal lags behind input signal by a time equal to

the time constant of the system. If the time constant of the system is smaller, the
positional error of the response becomes lesser.
Time Response for Impulse Function

Fig 6.3.4 In the above

explanation of time response of control system, we have seen that the step function
is the first derivative of ramp function and the impulse function is the first
derivative of step function. It is also found that the time response of step function is
first derivative of time response of ramp function and time response of impulse
function is first derivative of time response of step function.

Final Value Theorem of Laplace

Transform
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In solution of Networks, Transient and Systems sometimes we may not be
interested in finding out the entire function of time f(t)from its Laplace
Transform F(s), which is available for the solution. It is very interesting to
find that we can find the first value or last value of f(t) or its derivatives
without having to find out the entire function f(t). We will be interested in
finding out final values and its derivatives in this article. For the sake of
example If F(s)is given, we would like to know what isF(), Without
knowing the function f(t), which is Inverse Laplace Transformation, at
timet. This can be done by using the property of Laplace Transform
known as Final Value Theorem.

Definition of Final Value Theorem of Laplace Transform If f(t) and

f'(t)both are Laplace Transformable and sF(s)has no pole in jw axis and in
the R.H.P. (Right half Plane) then,
Proof of Final
Value Theorem of Laplace Transform We know differentiation property of

Laplace Transformation:
Note Here the limit 0- is taken to take care of the impulses present att=0
Now we take limit ass0. Thene-st1 and the whole equation looks like

Points to remember:
For applying FVT we need to ensure that f(t)and f'(t)are transformable.
We need to ensure that the Final Value exists. Final value doesnt exist

in the following cases

IfsF(s) has poles on the right side of s plane. [Example 3] IfsF(s) has
conjugate poles on jw axis.[Example 4] IfsF(s)has pole on origin.[Example
5]

Then apply

Examples of Final Value Theorem of Laplace Transform Find the final

values of the given F(s) without calculating explicitly f(t)

Answer

Answer

Note See here Inverse

Laplace Transform is difficult in this case. Still we can find the Final Value

through the Theorem.

Answer Note In Example 1 and
2 we have checked the conditions too but it satisfies them all. So we refrain
ourselves of showing explicitly. But here the sF(s) has a pole on the R.H.P as
the denominator have a positive root. So, here we cant apply Final Value

Theorem.
Answer Note In this example
sF(s)has poles on jw axis. +2i and -2i specifically. So, here we cant apply
Final Value Theorem as well.
Answer Note In this example
sF(s)has pole on the origin. So here we cant apply Final Value Theorem as
well. Final Trick Just check that sF(s) is unbounded or not. If unbounded,
then it is not fit for Final Value Theorem. And the final value is simply
infinite.
Transfer Function of Control System
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A control system consists of an output as well as an input signal. The output is
related to the input through a function call transfer function. This function is
represented by a block and the complete diagram of control system using these
blocks which represent transfer function and arrows which represent various
signals, is collectively known as block diagram of a control system. For any control
system there exists a reference input termed as excitation or cause which operates
through a transfer operation termed as transfer function and produces an effect
resulting in controlled output or response. Thus the cause and effect relationship
between the output and input is related to each other through a transfer function.
In Laplace Transform, if the input is

represented by R(s) and output is represented by C(s), then the transfer function
will be

That is, transfer function of the system

multiplied by input function gives the output function of the system.

Why input, output and other signals are represented in Laplace form in a control
system?
It is not necessary that output and input of a control system are of same category.
For example, in electric motors the input is electrical signal whereas the output is
mechanical signal since electrical energy required to rotate the motors. Similarly in
an electric generator, the input is mechanical signal and the output is electrical
signal, since mechanical energy is required to produce electricity in a generator. But
for mathematical analysis, of a system all kinds of signals should be represented in
a similar form. This is done by transforming all kinds of signal to their Laplace form.
Also the transfer function of a system is represented by Laplace form by dividing
output Laplace transfer function to input Laplace transfer function. Hence a basic
block diagram of a control system can be represented as

Where, r(t) and c(t) are

time domain function of input and output signal respectively.
Definition of Transfer Function
The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ration of the
Laplace transform of the output variable to Laplace transform of the input
variable assuming all initial conditions to be zero.
Procedure for determining the transfer function of a control system are as follows
1.

We form the equations for the system

2.

Now we take Laplace transform of the system equations, assuming initial

conditions as zero.

3.

Specify system output and input

4.

Lastly we take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and the
Laplace transform of the input which is the required transfer function

Methods of obtaining a Transfer function: There are major two ways of obtaining a
transfer function for the control system .The ways are

Block diagram method : It is not convenient to derive a complete transfer

function for a complex control system. Therefore the transfer function of each
element of a control system is represented by a block diagram. Block diagram
reduction techniques are applied to obtain the desired transfer function.

Signal Flow graphs : The modified form of a block diagram is a signal flow
graph. Block diagram gives a pictorial representation of a control system .
Signal flow graph further shortens the representation of a control system.

Poles and Zeros of Transfer Function

Generally a function can be represented to its polynomial form. For example,
Now similarly
transfer function of a control system can also be represented as

Where, K is
known as gain factor of the transfer function. Now in the above function if s = z 1, or
s = z2, or s = z3,....s = zn,the value of transfer function becomes zero. These z1, z2,
z3,....zn, are roots of the numerator polynomial. As for these roots the numerator
polynomial, the transfer function becomes zero, these roots are called zeros of the
transfer function. Now, if s = p1, or s = p2, or s = p3,....s = pm, the value of transfer
function becomes infinite. Thus the roots of denominator are called the poles of the
function. Now let us rewrite the transfer function in its polynomial form.

Now, let us consider s approaches to infinity as the roots are all finite
number, they can be ignored compared to the infinite s. Therefore
Hence, when s and n > m, the function will have
also value of infinity, that means the transfer function has poles at infinite s,

and the multiplicity or order of such pole is n - m. Again, when s and n

< m, the transfer function will have value of zero that means the transfer
function has zeros at infinite s, and the multiplicity or order of such zeros is
m - n.
Concept of Transfer Function
The transfer function is generally expressed in Laplace Transform and it is nothing
but the relation between input and output of a system. Let us consider a system
consists of a series connected resistance (R) and inductance (L) across a voltage

source (V).

In this circuit, the current 'i' is the

response due to applied voltage (V) as cause. Hence the voltage and current of the
circuit can be considered as input and output of the system respectively. From the
circuit, we get,

Now applying Laplace Transform, we get,

The transfer function of

the system, G(s) = I(s)/V(s), the ratio of output to input. 1) Let us explain the
concept of poles and zeros of transfer function through an example.
Answer The zeros of the
function are, -1, -2 and the poles of the functions are -3, -4, -5, -2 + 4j, -2 - 4j.
Here n = 2 and m = 5, as n < m and m - n = 3, the function will have 3 zeros at s
. The poles and zeros are plotted in the figure below

2) Let us take another example of transfer

function of control system
Answer In the above
transfer function, if the value of numerator is zero, then
These are the location of zeros of the function. Similarly, in the above transfer
function, if the value of denominator is zero, then
These are the location of
poles of the function.

As the number of
zeros should be equal to number of poles, the remaining three zeros are located at
s .

Example of Transfer Function of a Network

3)

Answer In the above network it is obvious

that

Let us assume,

Taking the
Laplace transform of above equations with considering the initial condition as zero,

we get,
The Effect of Impulse Signal

The unit impulse signal is defined as

Laplace transform of unit impulse function is 1.

Now if input signal is unit impulse signal then,

The output function is same as

its transfer function.

Root Locus Technique in Control

System | Root Locus Plot
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The root locus technique in control system was first introduced in the
year 1948 by Evans. Any physical system is represented by a transfer
function in the form of
We can find poles and
zeros from G(s). The location of poles and zeros are crucial keeping view
stability, relative stability, transient response and error analysis. When the
system put to service stray inductance and capacitance get into the system,
thus changes the location of poles and zeros. In root locus technique in
control system we will evaluate the position of the roots, their locus of
movement and associated information. These information will be used to
comment upon the system performance.
Now before I introduce what is a root locus technique, it is very essential
here to discuss a few of the advantages of this technique over other stability
criteria. Some of the advantages of root locus technique are written below.

Advantages of Root Locus Technique

1.

Root locus technique in control system is easy to implement as

compared to other methods.
2.
With the help of root locus we can easily predict the performance of
the whole system.
3.
Root locus provides the better way to indicate the parameters.
Now there are various terms related to root locus technique that we will use
frequently in this article.

1.

Characteristic Equation Related to Root Locus Technique : 1 + G(s)H(s)

= 0 is known as characteristic equation. Now on differentiating the
characteristic equation and on equating dk/ds equals to zero, we can get
break away points.
2.
Break away Points : Suppose two root loci which start from pole and
moves in opposite direction collide with each other such that after
collision they start moving in different directions in the symmetrical way.
Or the break away points at which multiple roots of the characteristic
equation 1 + G(s)H(s)= 0 occur. The value of K is maximum at the
points where the branches of root loci break away. Break away points
may be real, imaginary or complex.
3.
Break in Point : Condition of break in to be there on the plot is written
below : Root locus must be present between two adjacent zeros on the
real axis.
4.
Centre of Gravity : It is also known centroid and is defined as the point
on the plot from where all the asymptotes start. Mathematically, it is
calculated by the difference of summation of poles and zeros in the
transfer function when divided by the difference of total number of poles
and total number of zeros. Centre of gravity is always real & it is denoted
by A.
Wher
e, N is number of poles and M is number of zeros.
5.
Asymptotes of Root Loci : Asymptote originates from the center of
gravity or centroid and goes to infinity at definite some angle.
Asymptotes provide direction to the root locus when they depart break
away points.
6.
Angle of Asymptotes : Asymptotes makes some angle with the real
axis and this angle can be calculated from the given formula,
Where, p = 0, 1, 2 ....... (N-M-1)
N is the total number of poles M is the total number of zeros.
7.
Angle of Arrival or Departure : We calculate angle of departure when
there exists complex poles in the system. Angle of departure can be

calculated as 180-{(sum of angles to a complex pole from the other

poles)-(sum of angle to a complex pole from the zeros)}.
8.
Intersection of Root Locus with the Imaginary Axis : In order to find
out the point of intersection root locus with imaginary axis, we have to
use Routh Hurwitz criterion. First, we find the auxiliary equation then the
corresponding value of K will give the value of the point of intersection.
9.
Gain Margin : We define gain margin as a by which the design value of
the gain factor can be multiplied before the system becomes unstable.
Mathematically it is given by the formula

10. Phase Margin : Phase margin can be calculated from the given
formula:
11. Symmetry of Root Locus : Root locus is symmetric about the x axis or
the real axis.
How to determine the value of K at any point on the root loci ? Now there
are two ways of determining the value of K, each way is described below.
1.
Magnitude Criteria : At any points on the root locus we can apply
magnitude criteria as,
Using this formula we can
calculate the value of K at any desired point.
2.
Using Root Locus Plot : The value of K at any s on the root locus is
given by

Root Locus Plot

This is also known as root locus technique in control system and is used for
determining the stability of the given system. Now in order to determine the
stability of the system using the root locus technique we find the range of
values of K for which the complete performance of the system will be
satisfactory and the operation is stable. Now there are some results that one
should remember in order to plot the root locus. These results are written
below:

1.

Region where root locus exists : After plotting all the poles and
zeros on the plane, we can easily find out the region of existence of the
root locus by using one simple rule which is written below,
Only that segment will be considered in making root locus if the total
number of poles and zeros at the right hand side of the segment is odd.

2.

How to calculate the number of separate root loci ? : A number

of separate root loci are equal to the total number of roots if number of
roots are greater than the number of poles otherwise number of separate
root loci is equal to the total number of poles if number of roots are
greater than the number of zeros.

Procedure to Plot Root Locus

Keeping all these points in mind we are able to draw the root locus plot for
any kind of system. Now let us discuss the procedure of making a root locus.
1.
Find out all the roots and poles from the open loop transfer function
and then plot them on the complex plane.
2.
All the root loci starts from the poles where k = 0 and terminates at
the zeros where K tends to infinity. The number of branches terminating
at infinity equals to the difference between the number of poles &
number of zeros of G(s)H(s).
3.
Find the region of existence of the root loci from the method described
above after finding the values of M and N.
4.
Calculate break away points and break in points if any.
5.
Plot the asymptotes and centroid point on the complex plane for the
root loci by calculating the slope of the asymptotes.
6.
Now calculate angle of departure and the intersection of root loci with
imaginary axis.
7.
Now determine the value of K by using any one method that I have
described above.
By following above procedure you can easily draw the root locus plot for
any open loop transfer function.
8.
Calculate the gain margin.
9.
Calculate the phase margin.
10. You can easily comment on the stability of the system by using Routh
array.

Nyquist Plot
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The stability analysis of a feedback control system is based on identifying
the location of the roots of the characteristic equation on s-plane. The
system is stable if the roots lie on left hand side of s-plane. Relative stability
of a system can be determined by using frequency response methods like
Nyquist plot and Bode plot. Nyquist criterion is used to identify the
presence of roots of a characteristic equation in a specified region of s-plane.
To understand Nyquist plot we need to know about some of the
terminologies. Contour : Closed path in a complex plane is called contour.

Nyquist path or Nyquist contour

The Nyquist contour is a closed contour in the s-plane which completely
encloses the entire right hand half of s-plane. In order to enclose the
complete RHS of s-plane a large semicircle path is drawn with diameter
along j axis and centre at origin. The radius of the semicircle is treated as
infinity.

Nyquist Encirclement
A point is said to be encircled by a contour if it is found inside the contour.

Nyquist Mapping
The process by which a point in s-plane transformed into a point in F(s)
plane is called mapping and F(s) is called mapping function.

Steps of drawing the Nyquist path

Step 1 - Check for the poles of G(s) H(s) of j axis including that at

origin.
Step 2 - Select the proper Nyquist contour a) Include the entire

right half of s-plane by drawing a semicircle of radius R with R tends to

infinity.
Step 3 - Identify the various segments on the contour with reference

to Nyquist path
Step 4 - Perform the mapping segment by segment substituting the
equation for respective segment in the mapping function. Basically we
have to sketch the polar plots of the respective segment.

Step 5 - Mapping of the segments are usually mirror images of

mapping of respective path of +ve imaginary axis.

Step 6 - The semicircular path which covers the right half of s plane

generally maps into a point in G(s) H(s) plane.

Step 7- Interconnect all the mapping of different segments to yield the

required Nyquist diagram.

Step 8 - Note the number of clockwise encirclement about (-1, 0) and
decide stability by N = Z P

is the Open loop transfer function (O.L.T.F)

is the Closed loop transfer function (C.L.T.F)
N(s) = 0 is the open loop zero and D(s) is the open loop pole From stability
point of view no closed loop poles should lie in the RH side of s-plane .
Characteristics equation 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0 denotes closed loop poles .
Now as 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0 hence q(s)
should also be zero.
Therefore ,
from the stability point of view zeroes of q(s) should not lie in RHP of splane. To define the stability entire RHP (Right Hand Plane) is considered. We
assume a semicircle which encloses all points in the RHP by considering the
radius of the semicircle R tends to infinity. [R ]. The first step to
understand the application of Nyquist criterion in relation to determination
of stability of control systems is mapping from s-plane to G(s) H(s) - plane.
s is considered as independent complex variable and corresponding value of
G(s) H(s) being the dependent variable plotted in another complex plane
called G(s) H(s) - plane. Thus for every point in s-plane there exists a
corresponding point in G(s) H(s) - plane. During the process of mapping the
independent variable s is varied along a specified path in s - plane and the
corresponding points in G(s)H(s) plane are joined. This completes the
process of mapping from s-plane to G(s)H(s) - plane. Nyquist stability
criterion says that N = Z - P. Where, N is the total no. of encirclement
about the origin, P is the total no. of poles and Z is the total no. of zeroes.
Case 1:- N = 0 (no encirclement), so Z = P = 0 & Z = P If N = 0, P must be
zero therefore system is stable. Case 2:- N > 0 (clockwise encirclement), so

P = 0 , Z 0 & Z > P For both cases system is unstable. Case 3 :- N < 0

(counterclockwise encirclement), so Z = 0, P 0 & P > Z System is stable.

Bode Plot Gain Margin and Phase

Margin
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Bode plots were first introduced by H.W. Bode, when he was working at Bell
labs in the United States. Now before I describe what are this plots it is very
essential here to discuss a few advantages over other stability criteria. Some
of the advantages of this plot are written below:

Advantages of Bode Plot

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple

method to plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer
function can be treated as an addition, while division can be treated as
subtraction as we are using a logarithmic scale.
With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability
of the system without doing any calculations.
Bode plots provides relative stability in terms of gain margin and
phase margin.
It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.

Now there are various terms related to this plot that we will use frequently in
this article.
1.

Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the
stability of the system. It refers to the amount of gain, which can be
increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually
expressed in dB.
2.
Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the
stability of the system. It refers to the phase which can be increased or
decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in
phase.
3.
Gain Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which
magnitude curve cuts the zero dB axis in the bode plot.

4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.

Phase Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which

phase curve cuts the negative times the 180 degree axis in this plot.
Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts
or meet each other is known as break frequency or corner frequency.
Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus
of G (j) has a peak value is known as resonant frequency.
Factors: Every loop transfer function (i.e. G(s) H(s)) product of
various factors like constant term K, Integral factors (j), first order
factors ( 1 + jT)( n) where n is an integer, second order or quadratic
factors.
Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope for
each factor is expressed in the dB per decade.
Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and angle for
each factor is expressed in the degrees.

Bode Plot
These are also known as logarithmic plot (because we draw these plots on
semi-log papers) and are used for determining the relative stabilities of the
given system. Now in order to determine the stability of the system using
bode plot we draw two curves, one is for magnitude called magnitude curve
another for phase called Bode phase plot.
Now there are some results that one should remember in order to plot the
Bode curve. These results are written below:
Constant term K: This factor has a slope of zero dB per decade. There
is no corner frequency corresponding to this constant term. The phase angle
associated with this constant term is also zero.
Integral factor 1/(j)n: This factor has a slope of -20 n (where n is
any integer)dB per decade. There is no corner frequency corresponding to
this integral factor. The phase angle associated with this integral factor is -90
n here n is also an integer.
First order factor 1/ (1+jT): This factor has a slope of -20 dB per
decade. The corner frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per
second. The phase angle associated with this first factor is -tan- 1(T).

 First order factor (1+jT): This factor has a slope of 20 dB per

decade. The corner frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per
second. The phase angle associated with this first factor is tan- 1(T) .
Second order or quadratic factor : [{1/(1+(2/)} (j) +
{(1/2)} (j)2)]: This factor has a slope of -40 dB per decade. The
corner frequency corresponding to this factor is n radian per second. The
phase angle associated with this first factor is - tan-1{ (2 / n) / (1-( /
n)2)} .
Keeping all these points in mind we are able to draw the plot for any kind of
system. Now let us discuss the procedure of making a bode plot:
1.
2.
3.

Substitute the s = j in the open loop transfer function G(s) H(s).

Find the corresponding corner frequencies and tabulate them.
Now we are required one semi-log graph chooses a frequency range
such that the plot should start with the frequency which is lower than the
lowest corner frequency. Mark angular frequencies on the x-axis, mark
slopes on the left hand side of the y-axis by marking a zero slope in the
middle and on the right hand side mark phase angle by taking -180
degrees in the middle.
4.
Calculate the gain factor and the type or order of the system.
5.
Now calculate slope corresponding to each factor.
For drawing the Magnitude curve :

Mark the corner frequency on the semi log graph paper.

Tabulate these factors moving from top to bottom in the given

sequence.
Constant term K.
Integral factor 1/(j)n.
First order factor 1/ (1+jT).
First order factor (1+jT).
Second order or quadratic factor : [{1/(1+(2/)} (j) +
2
{(1/ )} (j)2)]
Now sketch the line with the help of corresponding slope of the given

factor. Change the slope at every corner frequency by adding the slope of
the next factor. You will get magnitude plot.
Calculate the gain margin. For drawing the Bode phase plot :

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1.

Calculate the phase function adding all the phases of factors.

2.

Substitute various values to above function in order to find out

the phase at different points and plot a curve. You will get a phase
curve.
3.
Calculate the phase margin.

Stability Conditions of Bode Plots

Stability conditions are given below :
1.
For Stable System : Both the margins should be positive. Or phase
margin should be greater than the gain margin.
2.
For Marginal Stable System : Both the margins should be zero. Or
phase margin should be equal to the gain margin.
3.
For Unstable System : If any of them is negative. Or phase margin
should be less than the gain margin.