IEEE SmartGridComm 2013 Symposium - Demand Side Management, Demand Response, Dynamic Pricing

Randomized Response Electric Vehicles for

Distributed Frequency Control in Smart Grid
Mohammad R. Vedady Moghadam1 , Rui Zhang1 , and Richard T. B. Ma2
1

ECE Department, National University of Singapore. E-mail: {vedady.m, elezhang}@nus.edu.sg

2
Advanced Digital Sciences Center, Singapore. E-mail: tbma@adsc.com.sg

AbstractFrequency control is essential to maintain the stability and reliability of power systems. Traditionally, generation
side controllers have been used to stabilize the system frequency
upon contingencies; however, they incur high operational cost.
Enabling demand response in next generation smart grids
is thus a promising alternative to reduce the power system
dependency on expensive controllers. In particular, demand
response of distributed electric vehicles (EVs) via controlled
charging/discharging power from/to the grid can be an effective
method to help stabilize the system frequency. In this paper, we
propose a new distributed frequency control algorithm for EVs
with randomized responses and characterize its performance in
a large-scale dynamic power system in terms of the mean of the
system frequency over time, the mean frequency recovery time,
and the expected number of responded EVs upon a contingency.
Finally, we validate our analysis via simulations under a practical
power system setup.

I. I NTRODUCTION
Integrating renewable sources such as wind and solar into
power systems offers both economic and environmental advantages by lowering operational costs and also reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. However, the massive deployment
of renewable sources as well as storage-capable loads such as
electric vehicles (EVs) results in power system frequency and
voltage fluctuations due to their intermittent characteristics.
Frequency and voltage fluctuations need to be stabilized in
a very short time in order to prevent catastrophic damages
such as blackouts. In next generation smart grids, distributed
EVs that can charge/discharge power from/to the grid provides
an effective method to restore the system frequency and
voltage [1], [2], when they deviate from their nominal values
due to e.g. unexpected outages of power plants, intermittent
characteristics of renewable generations, and sudden spikes in
demand power consumption. Practically, both generation and
demand sides can be used to restore the system frequency.
At the generation side, fast response units that are equipped
with automatic generation controllers provide reserve services
to regulate power imbalances between demand and supply for
restoring the system frequency. However, employing reserve
services are expensive and can increase the annual operation
cost of power systems up to ten percent [3]. On the other hand,
EVs at the demand side can help restore the system frequency
by controlling their charging or discharging power according
to the system frequency [4]. Using EVs to recover the system
frequency decreases the required amount of reserve services
and hence reduces the power system operational costs [5].

978-1-4799-1526-2/13/$31.00 2013 IEEE

Fig. 1. Linear frequency control algorithms proposed in [8], [9], where Kv

denotes the response coefficient of EV v, f (t) represents the locally measured
system frequency with the nominal value of f0 , and Av (t) represents the
power exchanged between the EV and the grid with the scheduled value of
max
max
Asch
v under f0 . Furthermore, AC,v 0 and AD,v 0 denote the charging
and discharging power limits, respectively.

It is worth noting that both centralized and distributed control paradigms for EV-based frequency control in smart grids
have been studied in the literature. Centralized algorithms for
the power system operator to optimally control the charging or
discharging power of individual EV according to the system
frequency have been proposed in [6], [7]. To implement centralized control algorithms, the system operator needs to rely
on an overlaid bidirectional communication network to collect
information from EVs and distribute commands to them,
which may not be available yet in todays power systems. The
complexity of solving the required optimization problems for
large-scale power systems is another challenge in centralized
control. On the other hand, distributed algorithms for EVs
to independently adjust their charging or discharging power
levels in response to the locally measured system frequency
have also been proposed in [8], [9]. As shown in Fig. 1, the
proposed power charging and discharging policy in [8], [9]
is a piece-wise linear function over the system frequency and
thus needs to be implemented continuously in time by varying
over a wide range of power values. As a result, designing
rechargeable batteries that are highly efficient for such wide
operational ranges is a practical challenge. The continuous
responses of EVs are also difficult to implement due to cost
considerations. Furthermore, although the prior studies have
shown promising aspects of utilizing EVs to replace traditional
reserve services for frequency control, there has been so far no
rigorous analysis available on characterizing the performance
of these algorithms in large-scale dynamic power systems.
In this paper, we propose a novel distributed frequency

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IEEE SmartGridComm 2013 Symposium - Demand Side Management, Demand Response, Dynamic Pricing

control algorithm by designing the randomized responses of

EVs based on their locally measured system frequency. In this
algorithm, each EV independently monitors and responds to
any system frequency deviations in discrete time instants by
switching among its charging, idle, and discharging modes.
In order to avoid the synchronization problem due to the
simultaneous responses of EVs, which results in undesired
frequency oscillations in the power system [10], we propose to
randomize their responses by designing the inter-response time
of different EVs to follow independent exponential distributions with respective mean values. Furthermore, by extending
the results in our prior work [10] (with only distributed load
shedding considered for frequency control), we analyze the
performance of the proposed distributed frequency control
algorithm in terms of the system frequency mean function, the
mean of frequency recovery time, and the expected number of
responded EVs from each operational mode over time. The
analytical results developed in this paper will help the system
operator choose more appropriate system design parameters to
optimize the algorithm performance under practical considerations.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section
II presents the system frequency dynamics based on an aggregate model of the power system. Section III introduces
the randomized frequency control algorithm for distributed
EVs. Section IV characterizes the system frequency mean
function for the proposed algorithm, while Section V derives
the mean frequency recovery time and the expected number
of responded EVs. Section VI provides simulation results.
Finally, we conclude the paper in Section VII.
II. S YSTEM M ODEL AND F REQUENCY DYNAMICS
We consider a power system under the so-called synchronous operating regime where the system operates under
a single system-wide frequency. Let f (t) denote the system
frequency in Hz with the nominal value of f0 at time t = 0.
Based on the aggregate power system model proposed in
[10], we characterize the system frequency dynamics by the
following swing equation [11]:


f (t) f0
2H df (t)
= Pg (t) Pd (t)
Kf P0 ,
(1)
f0 dt
f0
where H denotes the stored energy in rotational masses of
generation units in Joule, Kf denotes the frequency damping
coefficient, Pg (t) and Pd (t) represent the aggregated generation power and demand power consumption in Watt (W),
respectively. Furthermore, P0 denotes the initial demand power
under the nominal system frequency at time t = 0.
Next, we characterize the system frequency upon a contingency when the aggregated generation power and demand
power become imbalanced. Without loss of generality, we
assume that the aggregated generation power deviates A0 from
its scheduled value at time t = 0. For example, A0 < 0
represents the case of energy deficit while A0 > 0 is for the
case of energy surplus. Suppose for the time being that all
loads (including EVs) do not respond and thus the aggregated

Fig. 2. Mode switching of EV v, where fmin f0 and fmax f0 denote

the lower and upper frequency thresholds, respectively. Furthermore, C,v ,
I,v , and D,v represent the response rates of the EV in the charging, idle,
and discharging modes, respectively.

demand power consumption is unchanged. Under this assumption, we have Pg (t) Pd (t) = A0 1{t>0} , where 1{} denotes
an indicator function. Therefore, the system frequency after a
contingency can be obtained by solving (1) as
f0
A0 (1 et ), t 0,
(2)
f (t) = f0 +
Kf P0
where = (Kf P0 )/(2H). In the above frequency equation,
we have assumed |A0 |/(Kf P0 )  1 to assure that the power
system remains in the synchronous operation regime.
III. D ISTRIBUTED F REQUENCY C ONTROL VIA
R ANDOMIZED R ESPONSE
We consider a power system consisting of M grid-connected
EVs, denoted in the set V = {1, . . . , M }, with a fixed charging
power AC,v 0 and a fixed discharging power AD,v 0 for
each v V. It is assumed that all EVs monitor the system
frequency locally and respond independently. As shown in Fig.
2, let Sv (t) {1, 0, 1} represent three operational modes of
EV v over time t, where 1 indicates the charging mode
when the EV draws AC,v amount of power from the grid,
0 indicates the idle mode when the EV has zero power
exchanged with the grid, and 1 indicates the discharging
mode when the EV delivers AD,v amount of power to the grid.
Our proposed threshold-based frequency control algorithm
with a given pair of lower and upper frequency thresholds,
denoted by fmin f0 and fmax f0 , respectively, is then
described by

0, if f (t) < fmin and Sv (t) = 1

0, if f (t) > fmax and Sv (t) = 1

1, if f (t) < fmin and Sv (t) = 0

Sv (t+ ) =
(3)

1, if f (t) > fmax and Sv (t) = 0

Sv (t), otherwise
where t+ denotes the time immediately after monitoring the
system frequency at time t. We assume that each EV can
charge or discharge its battery upon a contingency. This
assumption is justified in practice since contingencies do not
occur frequently in power systems and each contingency event
lasts at most for a couple of minutes before the system
frequency is restored by certain means. Define Av (t) as the
power exchanged between EV v and the grid, i.e.,

AC,v , if Sv (t) = 1
0, if Sv (t) = 0
Av (t) =
(4)

AD,v , if Sv (t) = 1
Accordingly, the power responses of each EV over time can
be characterized by Xv (t) , Av (t) Av (t+ ), which has five

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IEEE SmartGridComm 2013 Symposium - Demand Side Management, Demand Response, Dynamic Pricing

Fig. 3.

Illustration of threshold-based frequency control algorithm.

possible values in {AC,v , 0, AD,v }. Notice that each EV

can help increase the system frequency by either discharging
power to the grid or stoping its ongoing power charging from
the grid, or reduce the system frequency by charging from the
grid or stopping its ongoing discharging operation. Denote VC
and VI as the two subsets of EVs that are in the charging and
idle modes at time t = 0, respectively, with |VC | = MC ,
|VI | = MI , and MC + MI = M . For simplicity, we assume
that initially there are no EVs in the discharging mode.
If all EVs monitor and respond simultaneously when the
system frequency reaches one of the two thresholds, it will
result in frequency oscillations between fmin and fmax upon
a contingency [10]. In order to tackle this so-called synchronization problem, we need to desynchronize responses
of EVs. To achieve this goal, we design each EV v V
to monitor and respond to the system frequency in discrete
time instants tv = (t1,v , t2,v , ), where tn,v represents the
nth monitoring time of the EV. Therefore, we can track the
number of responses
EV v by a continuous-time counting
Pof

process: Nv (t) =
n=1 1{tn,v <t} . We then define the nth
inter-response time of EV v as Tn,v = tn,v tn1,v , with
t0,v = 0 by default. Furthermore, we design the inter-response
time {Tn,v : n = 1, 2, } of EV v as independent exponentially distributed random variables with mean of 1/C,v
when Sv (t) = 1, 1/I,v when Sv (t) = 0, or 1/D,v when
Sv (t) = 1. This implies that the counting process Nv (t)
becomes a Poisson process with variable rates over time.
In practice, we can set I,v C,v D,v for each v
to minimize the number of responses of each EV for cost
reduction. In Fig. 3, we illustrate our proposed threshold-based
algorithm for one particular EV that is assumed to be initially
in the idle mode for a given system frequency function and a
set of frequency monitoring time instants. Consequently, the
frequency equation given in (2) is modified as
f0
f (t) = f0 +
A0 (1 et )+
K f P0
M Nv (t)
f0 X X
X(tn,v )(1 e(ttn,v ) ), t 0. (5)
Kf P0 v=1 n=1

In the rest of this paper, we focus on the case of generation

power shortfalls, i.e., A0 0. Based on (5), we discuss in
the following the impacts of the power shortage A0 and the
aggregated
power
P
P responses by all EVs, denoted by Aa =
A
+
C,v
vVC
vV AD,v , on the system frequency. First,
we consider the impact of A0 on f (t) by defining the following
power threshold:
Kf P0
(fmin f0 ).
(6)
A0,min =
f0
From (5), it follows that if A0,min A0 0, then all EVs
do not need to respond since fmin f (t) f0 for t 0 and
thus f (t) is given in (2). On the other hand, if A0 < A0,min ,
then EVs will respond based on the proposed control algorithm
after the system frequency drops below the lower frequency
threshold fmin at time t0 given by


A0,min
1
.
(7)
t0 = ln 1

A0
In this case, f (t) is given by (5) for t t0 . Next, we consider
the impact of Aa on f (t) by defining the following power
threshold:
Kf P0
Aa,min =
(fmin f0 ) A0 .
(8)
f0
From (5), it follows that if Aa < Aa,min , then f (t) does not
recover back to fmin even though all EVs respond after t t0 .
However, if Aa Aa,min , then f (t) recovers back to fmin at
a certain time Tr , which is termed frequency recovery time
and defined as the smallest t > t0 which solves f (t) = fmin ,
with f (t) given by (5).
IV. F REQUENCY M EAN A NALYSIS
With the introduced frequency control algorithm, the system frequency given in (5) becomes a random process.
To characterize the system frequency dynamics, we derive
its mean function over time for given EVs response rates
{C,v , I,v , D,v } in the following proposition.
Proposition 4.1: Given A0 < A0,min and Aa Aa,min , the
mean of the system frequency over t0 t Tr is given by

f0
E[f (t)] = f0 +
A0 (1 et )+
Kf P0
X
h (AC,v , AD,v , C,v , I,v , s)+
vVC


h (AD,v , 0, I,v , 0, s) ,

(9)

vVI

where s = t t0 0 and h (AC , AD , C , I , s) under C 6=

I is given by
h (AC , AD , C , I , s) = AC (1 u(, C , s)) +


AD
I (1 u(, C , s)) C (1 u(, I , s)) ,
I C
(10)
with u(, , s) defined as

es es
, if 6=
u(, , s) =
(11)

s
(s + 1)e
, if = .

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IEEE SmartGridComm 2013 Symposium - Demand Side Management, Demand Response, Dynamic Pricing

Fig.
4.
Frequency
h (AC,v , AD,v , C,v , I,v , s).

mean

characterization

function,

Proof: Please see Appendix A.

The two summation terms on the right-hand side (RHS)
of (9) represent the mean contributions of EVs from each
of the two initial modes (charging and idle) to restore the
system frequency. From (10), it follows that the contribution of a particular EV v to the mean of the system frequency is linearly proportional to both the charging power
AC,v and discharging power AD,v . Furthermore, it can be
shown that h (AC,v , AD,v , C,v , I,v , s) is upper-bounded by
(AC,v + AD,v )(1 es ) when (C,v , I,v ) (, ),
which corresponds to that the EV continuously responds to the
system frequency deviations and thus its resulting contribution
is deterministic. Fig. 4 plots the frequency mean characterization function h (AC,v , AD,v , C,v , I,v , s) with AC,v = 1.5
and AD,v = 1. It is observed that the frequency mean
characterization quickly reaches to the first level of AC,v and
then it increases smoothly to the second level of AC,v + AD,v .
This result can be understood by considering the fact that we
have set I,v  C,v . As a result, an EV quickly responds
by switching from the charging mode to idle mode upon
detecting a system frequency drop below fmin , but waits a
longer time before switching from the idle mode to discharging
mode. It is also observed that under the same value of , the
frequency mean characterization function is more pronounced
with higher values of response rates (C,v , I,v ). Finally, the
response rate D,v does not affect the mean contribution of
EV v when f (t) < fmin , as expected from Fig. 2.
V. M EAN F REQUENCY R ECOVERY T IME AND E XPECTED
N UMBER OF R ESPONDED EV S
In this section, we investigate how the response rates
{(C,v , I,v , D,v )}cC impact on the frequency recovery time
and the expected number of responded EVs from each operational mode upon a contingency. These results help the system
operator to plan ahead for designing appropriate response rates
of EVs to meet a given requirement on the frequency recovery
time, and yet minimize the amount of service interruptions.
We define T r = E[Tr ] as the mean frequency recovery time.
Due to the fact that characterizing the distribution of Tr is not
feasible given the large number of random factors, we use the
system frequency mean function in Proposition 4.1 to obtain
an approximation for T r . This approximation is justified since
the variance of the system frequency is usually very small
in practice due to the fact that the charging and discharging

power of each EV is much smaller than the aggregated demand

power. We will verify this approximation later by simulation
results (see Fig. 6). Thus, we have the following proposition.
Proposition 5.1: Given A0 < A0,min and Aa Aa,min , the
mean frequency recovery time T r can be effectively approximated by the smallest t > t0 which solves E[f (t)] = fmin ,
where E[f (t)] is given in (9).
Next, we characterize the expected number of responded
EVs from each operational mode over t0 t Tr . We
assume that the power system consists of different classes
of EVs, denoted by C = {1, . . . , C}. Let AC,c , AD,c , and
(C,c , I,c , D,c ) be the charging power, discharging power,
and response rates of each EV from Class c C. Furthermore,
we define NC,c (t), NI,c (t), and ND,c (t) as the number of EVs
from Class c which are in the charging, idle, and discharging
modes, respectively, at time t. Clearly, we have
NC,c (t) + NI,c (t) + ND,c (t) = MC,c + MI,c ,

(12)

where MC,c and MI,c denote the number of EVs from Class c
that are initially in the charging and idle modes at time t = 0,
respectively.
To be consistent
PC
PC with our previous notation, let
M
=
M
and
C,c
C
c=1
c=1 MI,c = MI . We then state our
result in the following proposition.
Proposition 5.2: Given A0 < A0,min and Aa Aa,min ,
the expected number of EVs from Class c C that are in the
charging, idle, or discharging mode at time t, t0 t Tr , is
given by
E[NC,c (t)] = MC,c q1 (C,c , I,c , s),
(13)
E[NI,c (t)] = MC,c q2 (C,c , I,c , s) + MI,c q1 (I,c , 0, s),
(14)
E[ND,c (t)] = MC,c q3 (C,c , I,c , s) + MI,c q2 (I,c , 0, s),
(15)
where s = t t0 0, and q1 (C , I , s) is given by
q1 (C , I , s) = 1 q2 (C , I , s) q3 (C , I , s),

(16)

with q2 (C , I , s) and q3 (C , I , s) defined under C =

6 I
as
C (1 eC s ) C (1 eI s )
q2 (C , I , s) =
, (17)
C I
I (1 eC s ) C (1 eI s )
q3 (C , I , s) =
.
(18)
I C
Proof: Please see Appendix B.
VI. S IMULATION R ESULTS
We simulate the frequency dynamics of the Western Systems Coordinating Council (WSCC) power system, which
consists of 3 generators and 9 buses with the initial steady
state as shown in Fig. 5. The aggregate model of this power

142

TABLE I
PARAMETERS OF THE WSCC POWER SYSTEM FOR SIMULATIONS .
System
WSCC

Parameters
P0 (MW)

f0 (Hz)

Kf

500

60

1.5

0.1

IEEE SmartGridComm 2013 Symposium - Demand Side Management, Demand Response, Dynamic Pricing

Fig. 6.

Fig. 5.

Simulated frequency dynamics of the WSCC power system.

Schematic of the WSCC power system.1

system is characterized by the parameters given in Table I.

We assume that approximately 5% of the aggregated demand
power consumption is due to the charging power of one
single class of EVs, with AC,1 = 16KW and AD,1 = 4KW.
Furthermore, we assume MC,1 = 1500 and MI,1 = 4500 EVs
at time t = 0, which are equally distributed among Buses 5,
6, and 8 as shown in Fig. 5. The lower and upper frequency
thresholds in the proposed frequency control algorithm are
set as fmin = 59.8Hz and fmax = 60.2Hz, respectively. We
simulate the power system frequency upon a contingency of
A0 = 20MW due to a demand power consumption spike
in Bus 8. This setting results in Aa = 48MW, Aa,min =
17.5MW, and A0,min = 2.5MW.
First, we compare the frequency dynamics obtained by
simulating the WSCC power system given in Fig. 5 with that
by our anlytical results based on the (simplified) aggregate
power system model. We set the response rates of EVs as
(C,1 , I,1 , D,1 ) = (0.05, 0.01, 0.02) or (0.03, 0.01, 0.02),
and simulate the system frequency under each setting for 100
times. Accordingly, the experimental system frequency mean
as well as its upper and lower envelopes over time are plotted
in Fig. 6. It is observed that the analytical mean tightly fits to
the experimental mean, while the small discrepancy observed
is due to the transient behavior of the power system which is
not captured in our aggregate model. Furthermore, the variance
of the system frequency is observed to be very small, which is
in accordance with our assumption made in Proposition 5.1.
Next, we compare the experimental and analytical results for
the frequency recovery time as well as the expected number of
EVs that are in each operation mode over time t in Fig. 7 by
setting (C,1 , I,1 , D,1 ) = (0.05, 0.01, 0.02). It is observed
that simulation results closely match our analytical results
given in Propositions 5.1 and 5.2. Furthermore, it is observed
that EVs smoothly switch from the charging mode to idle
mode and then from the idle mode to discharging mode to
recover the system frequency.

Fig. 7. Mean frequency recovery time T r and the expected number of

responded EVs from each operational mode.

grids via randomized responses of EVs by switching among

the charging, idle, and discharging modes. The proposed
algorithm is completely distributed in a smart grid and thus
does not require any centralized control or communication
infrastructure. Furthermore, each EV independently monitors
and responds to the system frequency over randomized time
instants to avoid simultaneous responses and hence frequency
oscillations. We provide a rigorous analysis on the performance of the proposed algorithm in a large-scale power
system in terms of the system frequency mean function, mean
frequency recovery time, and expected number of responded
EVs from each operational mode. The simulation results based
on the WSCC power system validate our analytical results
and demonstrate that the system frequency can be recovered
quickly and reliably by our proposed algorithm.
A PPENDIX
A. Proof of Proposition 4.1
First, consider the case of MI = 0. Based on (4), for
t0 t Tr , each EV in the charging mode responds by first
switching to the discharging mode and then to the discharging
mode after its first and second frequency monitoring after t0 ,
respectively. By defining (x)+ , max{0, x}, (5) is simplified
as

f0
f (t) = f0 +
A0 (1 et )+
Kf P0
X
+
AC,v (1 e(sT1,v ) )+
vVC

VII. C ONCLUSION

In this paper, we developed a distributed threshold-based

control algorithm to help restore the system frequency in smart
1 This

figure is captured from the PowerWorld simulator [12].

AD,v (1 e

(sT3,v )+


) , (19)

vVC

where s = t t0 0 and T3,v = T1,v + T2,v . Furthermore,

T1,v = t1,v t0 and T2,v = t2,v t0 represent the time

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IEEE SmartGridComm 2013 Symposium - Demand Side Management, Demand Response, Dynamic Pricing

durations between t0 and the first and second responses (at

time t1,v and t2,v ) of EV v after t0 , respectively. Since all EVs
respond independently, the mean value of the given system
frequency in (19) is expressed as

f0
A0 (1 et )+
E[f (t)] = f0 +
Kf P0
X
+
AC,v (1 E[e(sT1,v ) ])+
vVC


+
AD,v (1 E[e(sT3,v ) ]) . (20)

vVC

Due to the memoryless property of Poisson processes [13],

both T1,v and T2,v are exponentially distributed with respective
rates C,v and I,v for v VC . Furthermore, the distribution
function of T3,v under C,v 6= I,c is given by
fT3,v (x) =

C,v I,v
(eC,v x eI,v x ), x 0.
I,v C,v

(21)

Now, we simplify (20) by showing

h
i Z
+
(sT1,v )+
E e
=
e(sx) C,v eC,v x dx
0
Z s
Z
(sx)
C,v x
=
e
C,v e
dx +
C,v eC,v x dx
0
s

C,v es eC,v s
if C,v 6= ;
=
(22)
C,v

s
C,v s
C,v se
+e
if C,v = .
For our convenience, u(, , s) is defined in (11) to represent
the result in (22). Furthermore, we have
h
i
+
E e(sT3,v )
Z
+
C,v I,v
=
e(sx)
(eC,v x eI,v x )dx

I,v
C,v
0
C,v
I,v
u(, C,v , s) +
u(, I,v , s).
=
I,v C,v
C,v I,v
(23)
By substituting (22) and (23) into (20), the proof is thus
completed fo the case of MI = 0. The above proof can be
easily extended to incorporate the case of MI 6= 0, for which
the details are omitted due to the space limitation. Proposition
4.1 is thus proved.
B. Proof of Proposition 5.2
Consider first the case of MI,c = 0. Let q2 (C,c , I,c , tt0 )
and q3 (C,c , I,c , t t0 ) represent the probabilities that each
EV from Class c switches from the charging mode to idle and
discharging modes by time t, t0 t Tr , respectively. By
assuming C,c 6= I,c and defining s = t t0 0, we have
q2 (C,c , I,c , s) = Pr{T1,v < s T1,v + T2,v > s}
Z s Z +
=
C,c eC,c x I,c eI,c y dy dx
0

sx

C,c (1 eC,c s ) C,c (1 eI,c s )

,
=
C,c I,c

(24)

and
q3 (C,c , I,c , s) = Pr{T1,v < s T1,v + T2,v < s}
Z s Z sx
C,c eC,c x I,c eI,c y dy dx
=
0

I,c (1 eC,c s ) C,c (1 eI,c s )

=
.
(25)
I,c C,c
The probability that each class c EV remains in the charging
mode by time t can be similarly shown to be
q1 (C,c , I,c , s) = 1 q2 (C,c , I,c , s) q3 (C,c , I,c , s).
(26)
Next, we show the expected number of EVs from Class c that
remain in the charging mode at time t, t0 t Tr , as
MC,c
X MC,c 
m
z m (1 z)MC,c m
E[NC,c (s)] =
m
m=1


MC,c
X
MC,c 1 m
MC,c
z (1 z)MC,c m
=
m

1
m=1

MC,c 1
= MC,c z z + 1 z
= MC,c z,
(27)
where z = q1 (C,c , I,c , s). Then the expected number of EVs
from Class c that are in the idle and discharging modes can be
shown similarly. The above proof can also be applied similarly
for the case of MI,c 6= 0. The proof of Proposition 5.2 is thus
completed.
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