Class XI

Handbook
Of
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ALIEM

PHYSICS

CAREER INSTITUTE

FORMULAE

Basic Mathematics used in Physics

Unit and Dimension
Vectors

Kinematics

Newton's

Laws of Motion & Friction

Circular Motion

Work, Energy & Power

Centre of Mass and Collision
Rotational motion
Gravitation

Simple Harmonic Motion

Elasticity

Hydrostatics
Surface Tension

Hydrodynamics
Viscosity

Thermal Physics.
'

Wave Theory & Doppler s

Effect

(a) Some Fundamental Constants

(b) Conversions.

(c) Notations for units of measurements .

(d) Decimcal prefixes for units of measurements

Dictionary of Physics .

ALLEM

[TM

PHYSICS
FORMULAE

CAREER INSTITUTE
KOTA (RAJASTMAN

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(T Basic Mathematics used in Physics

Quadratic equation

fa
Roots of ax2 + bx + c=0 are x = _

2a

sum of roots = x: + x2

Pi

= ~
product of roots = x,x
1 *
Pi

'

Binomial theorem

n(n-l)

(l+x)" = 1 + nx +
%

x2+

n(n-l) 2

n(n - l)(n - 2)

x3 +

n(n - l)(n - 2)

(l-x)" = 1 - nx + ---x - --- x3 +

If xl then (1 +x)n ~ 1 + nx & (l-x)"=l-nx

Logarithm
m

log mn = log m + log n

log - =log m-log n

log m" = nlogm

log m = 2.3031og]0m

log2 = 0.3010

log3 = 0.4771

Componendo and dividendo theorem

pa

P+q

a+b

p-q

a-b

If - r then -- -r

Arithmetic progression-AP

a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, .a + (n - l)d here d = common difference

Sum of n terms S

Note :

=
n

- [2a+(n-l)d]

(i)l + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5..,. + n =

(ii) l2 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 =

n(n +1)

n(n + l)(2n + 1)

Geometrical progression-GP
I
a

ar,

ar

2
,

ar

here, r = common ratio

"

Sum of n terms S =

a(l-r )

Sum of * terms S

1-r
l

1-r

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sine law

sin A

sinB

sinC

cosine law

b2+c2--2
a

cosA=

2bc

y = x

"

"

-> - = nx

dx

- b

cosC =

dy

y =

dx

+P

"

dx

= ae

dy

y = f (g(x))

dx

Integration

'

+b2 -c;
2ab

dy

dx

. y = fnx - - = -

y = sin x -> - = cos x

->

+ a

2ca

Differentiation
.

cosB= -

For small 0
sin9

cosG~1 tanO=0 sinO=ta

c

a-

dy

y = cosx -

y = uv - - = u- + v dx
dx
dx

dx

= -sinx

dy

dv

df(gU') x r'3'"))
dg(x)

dx

+ C,n*-1
. Jf x dx = -n +1

. J[ -x dx = tnx + C

. J sin xdx = - cos x + C

. | cos xdx = sin x + C

"

du

n+,

r/
nyi ,
(ax + p)
. (ax + p) dx =

f e""X+"}dx = -eX+P + C
J

rv

Maxima & Minima of

a function y = f(x)

dy

. For maximum value ~r~ ~ U &

dx

. For minimum value

dy

d2y

-ve

dx2

g d2y

~ +V

Average of a varying quantity

X,

x2

J ydx

J ydx

If y = f(x) then < y >= y = -7:

x2

J dx
3

Xj

aln + 1)

+C

ALL EM

PHYSICS

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Formulae for determination of area

.

2
Area of a square = (side)

Area of rectangle = length * breadth

1

Area of a triangle = -

a$e X height

Area of a trapezoid
1
=

2 X (diStanCS between parallel sides) x (sum of parallel, sides)

Area enclosed by a circle = n r2

(r = radius)

Surface area of a sphere = 471 r2

(r = radius)

Area of a parallelogram = base * height

Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2n rC

(r = radius and C = length)

Area of whole surface of cylinder = 2nx (r + C)

[C = length)

Area of ellipse = n ab (a & b are semi major and semi minor axis respectively)

Surface area of a cube = 6(side)2

Total surface area of a cone = 7ir2+7ir where nxC = nr vr2 + h2 = lateral area

Formulae for determination of volume :

Volume of a rectangular slab = length * breadth * height

= abt

Volume of a cube = (side)3

Volume of a sphere = - n r:

(r = radius)

Volume of a cylinder = n r2C

(r = radius and C = length)

Volume of a cone = - n r2h

(r = radius and h = height)

PHYSICS
formulae

Unit and Dimension

Fundamental or base quantities : The quantities which do not depend

upon other quantities for their complete definition are known as

fundamental or base quantities.e.g. : length, mass, time, etc.

Derived quantities : The quantities which can be expressed in terms of the
fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities .e.g.
Speed (=distance/time), volume, acceleration, force, pressure etc
Units of physical quantities

The chosen reference standard of measurement in multiples of which, a physical

quantity is expressed is called the unit of that quantity.
Physical Quantity = Numerical Value x Unit
Systems of Units

(i)

Length
(m)

(i)

(ii)

Mass

(ii)

Length
(cm)
Mass (g)

(i)

Length
(ft)

(i)

Length
(m)

(>)

Length
(m)

(ii)

Mass

(ii)

Mass

(ii)

Mass

(iii)

(pound)
Time (s)

(iii)

(kg)
Time (s)

(iii)

Time

(kg)

(iii)

Time (s)

(iii)

Time (s)

MKSA

MKSQ

FPS

CGS

MKS

(kg)

(S)

(iv)

Charge
(Q)

(iv)

Current

(A)

Fundamental Quantities in S.I. System and their units

SN
.

Physical Qty.

Name of Unit

Symbol

kilogram

kg

meter

second

Mass

Length

Time

kelvin

Temperature
Luminous intensity

candela

Cd

Electric current

ampere

Amount of substance

mole

mol

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FORMULAE

KOlA (KAJA,M MAN

Supplementary Units

Radian - for measurement of plane angle

>

Steradian - for measurement of solid angle

Dimensional Formula

Relation which express physical quantities in terms of appropriate powers

of fundamental units

Use of-dimensional analysis

To find dimensions of derived physical quantities

To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation

.

To derive relationship between different physical quantities

To convert units of a physical quantity from one system to another

a

r\Uj=

n u
2

=>

fM0 fk]
l
<

( HT
,

T
>

where u = MfLtTC

*2 /

Limitations of this method :

In Mechanics the formula for a physical quantity depending on more

than three other physical quantities cannot be derived. It can only be
checked.

This method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication

type. The formulae containing exponential, trigonometrical and
logarithmic functions can,t be derived using this method. Formulae
containing more than one term which are added or subtracted like
s = ut + - at2 also can t be derived.
,

The relation derived from this method gives no information about the
dimensionless constants.

If dimensions are given

physical quantity may not be unique as many

physical quantities have the same dimensions.

It gives no information whether a physical quantity is a scalar or a vector

7

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FORMULAE

.
.

Vectors

Vector Quantities

A physical quantity which requires magnitude and a particular direction when

,

it is expressed is called vector quantity.

,

AB+D=AC RorA+B=R>=JA

Triangle law of Vector addition

R=

Va2

Bsin9

+ B2 + 2ABcos0

B sin 0

tana=-r---- If A = B then R = 2A cos

A + Bcos0

Parallelogram Law of Addition of Two Vectors

If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides

of a parallelogram which are directed away from

their common point then their sum (i.e. resultant
vector) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing away through that common point.

Z + B2 + 2AB cosG

t3"C'"

B sin 0

A + Bcos0 3"d ta"P =

a Sin a

B + A cos 0

Vector subtraction

)1

R=A-B=A+ (~b

BsinQ

R=

Va2 + B2

2AB cos 0 . t3"t= A - Bcos0

0

If A = B then R = 2Asin-

BcosG /

op siteord. A

Addition of More than Two Vcctors (Law of Polygon)

c

R=A+B+C+D

If some vectors are represented by sides of a polygon in same order then

,

their resultant vector is represented by the closing side of polygon in the

Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly 1. It has no dimensions

and no unit. In rectangular coordinate system

i, j and k denotes unit vectors

along the x, y and z axes.

Rectangular component of a 3-D vector

A = A i+A
x

] + Azk

Angle made with x-axis

\
cosa =

a
=_

Angle made with y-axis

Angle made with z-axis

(,

m,

n are called direction cosines

t1 + m2 + n2 = cos2a + cos2P + cos2y =

Here sin2a + sin2 p + sin2y =2

10

(K+A;+ )

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FORMULAE

General Vector in x-y plane r - xi + yj - rlcosGi 4-sin

/

>
.

r = r (cos0i + sinOj)

Examples
1

Construct a vector of magnitude 6 units making an angle of 60with x-axis.

'

Sol. ? = r(cos60i + sin60j)h = 6

"

lr

73,

'+

T>

- 3i + 3%/3j

Construct an unit vector making an angle of 135 with positive x axis.

= l(cosl35 i + sinl35j) =

("j +

Sol.

Scalar product (Dot Product)

A B = ABcosG
.

If A = A i + A

j + Azk & B = Bxi + Byj + Bzk then

B = AJBX + AyBy + AZBZ and angle between A & B is given by

AXBX + A By + AZBZ

AB

cos0 =

AB

Ja

+A

+ A* fol + B + B|

i = 1 i j.j = 1 > k.k = 1 i.j = 0, i.k = 0 j.k = 0

Component of vector b along vector a

b= (b. a);
b
U

Component of b perpendicular to a bj

11

= b - b|i = b -|b.
_

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Cross Product (Vcctor product)

n

AxB = ABsinO n where n is a vector to A & B or th

eir p|a
and its direction given by right hand thumb nile.
'

j
a

AxB = A

A
,

k
v

A, = i(ABrABy)

-j(AB-B A) +k(ABy-BA)

AxB~-BxA

(A x B) A = (A x B).B = 0
.

ixi = 0>

j x j = 0 , kxk = 0

ixj = k

jxk = i,kxi = j,jxi=-k, k x j = -i , i x k = - j

Differentiation

d /

o\

dA -

v dB

-(A.B) = --B + A.dt

dt

dt

When a particle moved from (xp yv

d/X
dA D t dB
-(A xB) = - xB + Ax dt
dt
dt
z

) to (x2, y2, z2) then

its displacement vector

r = r2 -

= (x2i + y2j + z2k)-(x1i + yj + z,k)

U .7-

= (x2

x, )i + (y2 - yj )j + (z2

z, )k

Its magnitude : r=* |r| = yj{\2 - x )2 + (y2 -y,)2 -(z2 -z,)2

,

12

FM

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FORMULAE

K0TA (RAJAS THAN I

Lami,s theorem
A

sin A

sin B

sin C

* 3

sinG

Area =

Area of triangle

1A|M = |ABsin0

/
. BsinO

ft

BsinB

Area of parallelogram Area = |a x b| = ABsinG

For Parallel vectors A x B

=0

For perpendicular vectors a B

.

= 0

For caplanar vectors A (Bx C) = 0

.

Examples of dot products :

Work

Power

W = p d = FdcosG
,

where F -force, d - displacement

P - F.v = FvcosO

where F -> force, v -> velocity

Electric flux, <j>r /\ = EAcosO

where E -> electric field, A -> Area

Magnetic flux <j>H = b A = BAcosO

where B -> magnetic field, A - Area

Potential energy of dipole in uniform field U = - p.E

,

where p -> dipole moment, E -> Electric field

Examples of cross products :
Torque x = r x F where r -> position vector, F

force

Angular momentum J = r x p where r -position vector p -linear momentum

,

Linear velocity v = w x r where r -> position vector to -> angular velocity

,

Torque on dipole placed in electric field x = p x E

where p -> dipole moment E -> electric field
,

13

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FORMULAE

Kinematics

Distance and Displacement

Total length of path (ACB) covered by the particle in definite time interval is
called distance. Displacement vector or displacement is the minimum distance
(AB) and directed from initial position to final position.
,

C
*

Displacement in terms of position vector

From AOAB

Ar = rB - r

rB = x2i + y2j + z2k

and rA = xj + yj + ztk

Ar = (x2 - xji + (y2 - yjj + (z2 - zjk

Displacement
---r = v
I

Average
velocity =
a

lme interval

"

Ar
=At

Distance travelled

Average speed =

dr

Time interval

d i ~

c\

dx-r

dy-

dz,-

j + vzk
Velocity V = -j7
)' = 371
dt = dt-(X,
\ + y3 +
dt + 3rJ
dt + -Trk
dt = vxi + v
y

total change in velocity

Average Acceleration

Av

= a

total time taken

3U

At

Acceleration

dv d / ?
dT

? +" f\

s("-'+",

dvx r

dvy -

dvz

)"ir'+ir,+"dTf a.,+=.)+3-f
15

r , T-"
jB|iaB|(|)|(g||J|(g -w--jM--... .1

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In 1-D motion a

Graphical integration in Motion analysis

shaded area = change in

=> Change in velocity = area between

acceleration curve and time axis, from

shaded area = displaccnient

=> Change in position = displacement = area between velocity curve am

from t, to t2.
Important point about graphical analysis of motion
time axis

Velocity is the slope

of position time curve.

1V
'

dv

Slope of velocity-time curve = instantaneous acceleration

v-t curve area

gives displacement

Ax =

a t curve area gives change in velocity

16

Iav=H

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Different Cases

-t graph

-t graph

v=constant

Uniform motion

Uniformly accelerated

motion with u = 0 at t = 0
s =]/2 at

Uniformly accelerated

with u

0 at t = 0

/s = ut+1/2 at2
- t

->t

Uniformly accelerated motion

with u 7

0 and s = s0 at t = 0
2

s =s0+ut+V2 at
->t

15.

>t

Uniformly retarded motion

till velocity becomes zero

s

s=ut -1/2 at

Uniformly retarded then

accelerated in opposite direction

to

17

- t

PHYSICS

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Motion with constant acceleration : Equations of motion

a

In vector form :
v = li -f at
/

U+ V I
.

At = r2 - Fj = s =
2
v =u

sn

1 .,2

1 -.2

It = ut + -at = vt - - at
_

2+ 2a s
.

=u + |(2n-l)

In scalar form (for one dimensional motion)

v = u + at
'

u + v

v
v2

sn

t = ut + -at

s =

= vt-at

/
u2+2as

= u + -(2n-l)
Differentiation

Differentiation

Displacement

Velocity

Acceleration

Integration

Integration

Relative Motion

There is no meaning of motion without reference or observer. If reference is

not mentioned then we take the ground as a reference of motion. Generally

velocity or displacement of the particle w.r.t ground is called actual velocity
.

or actual displacement of the body. If we describe the motion of a particle

w r t
a object which is also moving w.r.t. ground then velocity of particle
.

w r
.

round is its actual velocity (v ) and velocity of particle w.r.t. moving

t. g

act

object is its relative velocity (v ) and the velocity of moving object (w.r.t.
rel

ground) is the reference velocity (vref) then vrel

V

i = V

actual

relative

18

-f V

reference

= v

acl

re(

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FORMULAE

CSESEK2 AJASIHANl
,
.
.

Relative velocity of Rain w r t the Moving Man :

.

A man walking west with velocity v

m,

represented by OA .

be falling vertically downwards with velocity v

shown in fig The relative velocity of rain w r t

man

represented by OB

be represented by diagonal OD of rectangle OBDC

V

= VV

+ Vm + 2v

cos90 = /vf + V

If 0 is the angle which v

Let the rain

vrm = vr

will

Vertically up

makes

with the vertical direction then

/

BD
v
, v
tan 0 =-= -!- => 0 = tan
OB
v
vVry
_

Swimming into the River

A man can swim with velocity v , i.e. it is the velocity of man w.r.t. still

water. If water is also flowing with velocity vR then velocity of man relative to

ground vm = v + vR
.

If the swimming is in the direction of flow of water or along the downstream

then
-*v

*vu

Vm = V + VRK

If the swimming is in the direction opposite to the flow of water or along

the upstream then
v *-

= v- V

v
m
m

If man is crossing the river as shown in the figure i.e. v and vR not
collinear then use the vector algebra

= W + V

r (assuming v > vR)

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For shortest path :

To reach at B, vsin 0 = vF

sin 0 = v

For minimum displacement

V

Note : If v > v then for minimum drifting sinO =

For minimum time

B
*

"

then

(for minimum time)

PROJECTILE MOTION
u cos 0

Horizontal Motion
u cosO = u
X

x = 0

x = u
x

t or x = (u cos0)t

Vertical Motion :

Net acceleration = a = a

= u y - gt where u y = u sinO

y = uV t - gt
Z

=
y

i + a
x

j = -gj

At any instant
v

x = ucos0

vy

= usin9 - gt

OA

- us

inGt g gt

"

Velocity of particle at time t :

A

v = v

i + v j = u i + (u - gt)j = ucosOi + (usinO - gt)j

If angle of velocity y from horizontal is a then

,

tana =

=
V

= "&i"e-S*=tan0-U

U COS 0

At highest point v

=0 v =ucosO
,

Time of flight T =

U COS 0

2uy

2usin0

Horizontal range R = (ucos9)T = 2"ZSi"8ES8

"
=

Si"28

It is same for 0 and (90 - 0) and maximum for 0 = 45'

Maximum height

l_j _

u sin 0 _ u

2g

Equation of trajectory

y = x tan 0 -

2g

g*

2u2 cos2 0

Horizontal projection from some height

Time of flight T =

2h

Horizontal range R = uT = u

2h

2g

= x tan0

--

Ry

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Projectile motion on inclined plane- up motion

(ucosG)T

Time of flight

T =

2ux

2usin(9-a)

9j

gcosa
2

u
*

Maximum height

Range on inclined plane

R = OA =

Maximum range

2(0 a)

sin

29i

2g cos a

2u2 sin (0 - a)cos0

gcos a

g(l + sina) at 3"S1 = | + f

Projectile motion on inclined plane - down motion

(put a=-a in above)

Time of flight :

2u
T
* = 2t

Maximum height

H =

Range on inclined plane

2d ,

2usin(0 + a)

~~~
a

gcosa

u2 sin2 (0 + ot)
2gcosa

2u2 cos 0 sin (0 + a)

K = OA --2g cos a

Maximum range

g(l - sina)
22

at angle e =

!*

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PHYSICS
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Newton,s Laws of Motion and Friction

Force

A push or pull that one object exerts on another.

Forces in nature

There are four fundamental forces in nature :

1 .Gravitational force
3

Electromagnetic force
4. Weak force
.

Strong nuclear force

Types of forces on macroscopic objects

(a)

Field Forces or Range Forces :

These are the forces in which contact between two objects is not
necessary.

Ex.

Gravitational force between two bodies

(ii) Electrostatic force!

between two charges.

(b)

Contact Forces :

Contact forces exist only as long as the objects are touching each
another.

Ex.

(c)

(i) Normal forces.

(ii) Frictional force

Attachment to Another Body :

Tension (T) in a string and spring force (F = kx) comes in this group.;
Newton"s first law of motion (or Galileo's law of Inertia)

Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled by an external force to change that state.

Inertia : Inertia is the property of the body due to which body oppose the
change of itself state. Inertia of a body is measured by mass of the body.
inertia mass

Newton,s second law

~
_

dp _ d .

dv

dpmV' ~ m d7
"

~~

~~

_ dm

+ V~

dT linear

For constant mass system F = ma

24

momentum p = mv)

PHYSICS
FORMULAE
Momentum

It is the product of the mass and velocity of a body i.e. momentum p = mv

SI Unit : kg m s 1 Dimensions : [M LT 1]
Impulse

Impulse = product of force with time

For a finite internal of time from t1

2

to t

then the impulse = J Fdt

impulse - area under curve

If constant force acts for an interval At then

Impulse = FAt

Impulse - Momentum theorem

Impulse of a force is equal to the change of momentum

;F At =

Newton,s third law of motion

Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B B simultaneously

exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction.
,

Spring Force

(According to Hooke,s law) :

In equilibrium F = kx
k is spring constant

Natural Icnglh

Note : Spring force is

X-

non impulsive in nature

Ex. If the lower spring is cut, find acceleration of the blocks,

immediately after cutting the spring.
Sol. Initial stretches

iimiiiiiiri

mg

x.

"

upper

lower

lower

On cutting the lower spring, by virture of non-impulsive

m
~~

nature of spring the stretch in upper spring remains same

immediately after cutting the spring. Thus,

Lower block :

( gj" ) J,

2k

i
2m

2mg= 2ma=> a = g

2mg
!\

Upper block

) t
-

T
mg
25

mg = ma => a = 2g

SSI ALLEN

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Frame of reference
Inertial frames of reference :

A reference frame which is either at rest or in uniform motion along th

straight line. A non-accelerating frame of reference is called an inertia]
frame of reference.

All the fundamental laws of physics have been formulated in respect

inertial frame of reference.

of

Non-inertial frame of reference :

.
.

An accelerating frame of reference is called a non-inertial frame of reference

'

Newton s

laws of motion are not directly applicable in such frames before

,

application we must add pseudo force

Pseudo force

/
/

ma

/
,

'

mg

|u

ZIP

smooth surface

For observer O on ground train is moving with acceleration

a for observer O, in side the train there is pseudo force
in opposite direction shown in figure.
"

"

The force on a body due to acceleration of nori-inertial frame is callcd

fictitious or apparent or pseudo force and is given by F = -ma0, where

a0 is acceleration of non-inertial frame with respect to an inertial

frarrtfi

and m is mass of the particle or body. The direction of pseudo force must

be opposite to the direction of acceleration of the non-inertial frame.

,
When we draw the free body diagram of a mass, with respect to an inertia
frame of reference we apply only the real forces (forces which are actually
acting on the mass).

But when the free body diagram is drawn from a non-inertia! frame of refcre

a pseudo force (in addition to all real forces) has to be applied to n1J
,

hc equation F = ma to be valid in this frame also.

ALLEN

PHYSICS

*
..

" > .

******

CAREER INSTITUTE
(ssxaKSESEBUSQZi)

FORMULAE

Motion in a Lift

(a)

If the lift moving with constant velocity v upwards or downwards. In

this case there is no accelerated motion hence no pseudo force
experienced by observer

inside the lift

So apparent weight W' = Mg = Actual weight

If the lift is accelerated upward with constant acceleration a
Then net forces acting on the man are
.

(b)

(i) weight W = Mg downward (ii) fictitious force FQ=Ma

So apparent weight
(c)

downward

W' = W + F0 = Mg + Ma = M(g + a)

If the lift is accelerated downward with acceleration a < g

fictitious force F0

Then

= Ma acts upward while weight of man W = Mg

always acts downward.

So apparent weight

W'=W+F0 = Mg - Ma = M(g-a)

Spccial Case :

If a = g then W' = 0 (condition of weightlessness).Thus in a freely falling

lift the man will experience weightlessness.
,

(d)

If lift accelerates downward with acceleration a > g . Then as in Case

c . Apparent weight W =M(g-a) is negative i.e., the man will be
accelerated upward and will stay at the ceiling of the lift.
'

Pulley system

A single fixed pulley changes the direction of force only and in general
assumed to be massless and frictionless.
SOME CASES OF PULLEY
Case - 1
Acceleration =

net pulling force

total mass to be pulled

2 x Pr oduct of masses
Tension = -----g =
_

Sum of two masses

(m1 - m2)
(mx + m2)

2m1m2
(mt + m2

Reaction at the suspension of pulley K -

4m,m2 g

1 - --(m1 + m2)

Case - II

Acceleration a =

m2g

(m, + m2)

m,m2

and T =

(irij + m,

27

fiirt n 5aw

fiSSUKKIM2MI

Friction

Friction is the force of two surfaces in contact, or the force of a mediur

acting on a moving object, (i.e. air on aircraft.)

Frictional forces arise due to molecular interactions. In some eases frictj0r

acts as a supporting force and in some cases it acts as opposing force

Cause of Friction

Friction is arises on account of strong atomic or molecular forces of attractior

between the two surfaces at the point of actual contact.
Types of friction
Friction

__

r
3t.C fr"C*|"

i
|
Dynamic friction (Kinetic friction)

/k.

(No relative motion between objects)

is relative

motion between objects)

Graph between applied force and force of friction

Limiting friction

f = f

Dynamic friction

spy

cfy
X45
F={

Static friction coefficient Ms = y~j"

Applied force F

0 < f5 < fisN

f = -F
3

applied

fk =-(KN)0

Sliding friction coefficient Hk = 77

N

relative

Angle of Friction (X)

contact

""

"

force

fs

tank - N

9Q

MN
N

For smooth surface A.

= 0

Angle of Repose (0)

If a body is placed on an inclined plane and if its angle of inclination is

gia ually increased then at some angle of inclination 0 the body will just
on t e point to slide down. The angle is called angle of repose (0)
,

~~

So = tan0 :

m9 sin0 and N = mg cos0

Ex. The coefficient of friction between

p = tanO

and surface
,
and the coefficient of friction between m, and
m
2 "S M2 What should be the minimum value of F
so that there is no relative motion between mt and
m

rn,

is Hj

m,

Sol.

. For nij

. For m

N,

U,N, +

[n2

ti

P2N;

*F
y

m,g

m2g

F - jit. (m, + m?)g

. For system acceleration : a =--j + m2

rri

F-ji
.

For

m2

p2 (m2g) = m2a = m2
=> Fmin

mj +m2)g

m, + m2

= K + m2) (Mi + M2)S

Dependent Motion of Connected Bodies

Method I : Method of constraint equations

Zx = constant => Sxi = 0 =>

-0

For an moving bodies we have xv x2,...xn

No. of constraint equations = no. of strings

Method II : Method of virtual work

The sum of scalar products of forces applied by connecting

links of constant

length and displacement of corresponding contact points equal

y F . Si; = 0 => F, v,==>XF a, =

29

to zero.

Examples
1

Find relation between a, and a2

iniiiiiiiiillllllllllllllltlltllllllillllllillliiiiiiiiiii

ummmiiuLniiiiiiiiiiiiininii

x,

x,

3.i c] m K

a,

Sol.

Here x}

2 = constant

Differentiating with time xi+2x2 =0

Again differentiating with time

xi + 2x2 =0

But xi = ax and X2 = -a2 therefore al-2a2 = 0 => a3 = 2a

2
or

aj

= 0 => 2Ta2- Ta = 0 => a =2a

:
2
j

If block A is moving with uniform veloicty vA upwards then find out

velocity of block B.

UUU\\UU\U\UU\\\U\U\\tt\\\\\\\\UUtt\U\U\U\\

Sol.

For string (1) : 2xA + d-xp=j =>2xa-Xp =0

For string (2) xp

x -x
p

=f

2 => 2xp-xb =0

=> 4xa-xb

But xa = -4va so xb=-4va

,

Therefore velocity of block B will be 4vA down the incline plan1

or

XF

= = <4TK-TvB " = "=4Va

Definition of Circular Motion

When a particle moves in a plane such that its distance from a fixed (or
moving) point remains constant then its motion is called as circular motion

with respect to that fixed point. That fixed point is called

centre and the

distance is called radius of circular path.

Radius Vector : The vector joining the centre of the circle and the center
of the particle performing circular motion is called radius vector. It has constant magnitude and variable direction.

Small Angular displacement dQ is a vector quantity but large angular

displacement 0 is scalar quantity.
Frequency (n): No. of revolutions describes by particle per sec is its frequency.
Its unit is revolutions per second (r.p.s ) or revolutions per minute (r.p.m.)
,

Time Period (T) :

It is time taken by particle to complete one revolution T = .

A0

Average angular velocity

w = - (a scalar quantity)
d0

Instantaneous angular velocity

co =

For uniform angular velocity

co = - =2rrf or 2 Tin

(a vector quantity)
2n

Angular displacement
0 = cot
co ->. Angular frequency n or f = frequency
,

Relation between co and v co = - . JIn

n vector
vector form velocity v = co x r
r

Relative Angular Velocity

Relative angular velocity of a particle 'A' w r t
.

other

moving particle B is the angular velocity of the

position vector of A w.r.t. B. That means it is the
r>te at which position vector of ,A, w r t
.

at that instant

B rotates

C0AB ~
-

(Var)i _ Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B perpendicular to line AB

seperation between A and B

AB

here (vAB)L

= v

A sin ()|

+ v

R sin 0,

"

vA sinG, + vB sin02
AB

dv
d
dto
dr
- _
_
_
_
Acceleration a = - = Tio)xrj = -- x r + co x - = axr + toxv = a
-

dt

dt

dt

dt

+a,

dv

Tangential acceleration at

= -- =ar [a = component of a along v=(a v)v]

,

Centripetal acceleration ac

= cov =

co r

or

+ a2

\(y2\* /j..>2
dv

,-

Magnitude of net acceleration a = y]ac

ac = a - a

V r y

v dt/

Maximum and minimum speed of circular motion of car

4

On unbanked road v

= Ju Rg

max

V r s

?,

vmm. = 0

tan 0 + |is

On banked road V max

1 - |i tanG
/

miri

tan 0 - j_i

1 + (i tanG

Rg = tan(G + <J))Rg

Rg = tan(G - <J>) Rg

where <}> = angle of friction, 0 = banking angle

Circular motion in vertical plane

Suppose a particle of mass m is attached to an inextensible light string of

length R. The particle is moving in a vertical circle of radius R about a fixed

point O. It is imparted a velocity u in horizontal direction at lowest point A.

Let v be its velocity at point B of the circle as shown in figure.
Here, h = R (1 -cos0)

...(i)

From conservation of mechanical energy

m(u2- v2)=mgh => v2

= u

-2gh

(ii)

....

mocosO

The necessary centripetal force is provided by the resultant of tension

mv

T and component of mg so T-mg cosG -

(iii)

Since speed of the particle decreases with height, hence tension is maximum at the bottom, where cosG=l (as 0=0 )
33

9
mv
"

=> T max =-+mg; T

J

mv

/2

= --nig at the top.

mm

Here, v' = speed of the particle at the top.

Condition of Looping the Loop (u > V gRj

The particle will complete the circle if the string does not slack even at the
highest point (0 = rc). Thus, tension in the string should be greater than or
equal to zero (T > 0) at 0 = tt. In critical case substituting T=0 and 0 = n in
mv

Eq. (iii), we get mg= -=> vmin

= JgR (at highest point)

9-Tf0

v5R

v=

Umin= 5gR

T=6mg
-*u

Substituting 0 = ti in Eq. (i), Therefore, from Eq. (ii)

uL = VL + 2gh = gR + 2g(2R) = 5gR => u = figR

mjn

Thus, if u > yj5gR , the particle will complete the circle.

At u= j5qR , velocity at highest point is v = /gR and tension in the string is

zero.Substituting 0=0

and v = 5gR in Eq. (iii), we get T =6mg or in the

critical condition tension in the string at lowest position is 6mg. This is

shown in figure. If u< >/5gR , following two cases are possible.

Condition of Leaving the Circle (\/2gR < u < V5gR j

If u < j5qR , the tension in the string will become zero before reaching the
highest point. From Eq. (iii), tension in the string becomes zero (T=0)
2
2gh - u2
where, cos0 = - - = -5-v

Rg

Rg

Substituting, this value of cos9 in Eq. (i),

.

we get

2gh - u2

=1 -- =>h

---

u2 + Rg

3g =h, (say)..(iv)

or we can say that at height h. tension in the string becomes zero. Further,

if u < yJbgR . velocity of the particle becomes zero

u

h = - =h (say)...(v)
2g
at height h2 velocity of particle becomes zero.

when 0 = u2 - 2gh
i

e.,

Now

the particle will leave the circle if tension

in the string becomes zero but velocity is not

h > R

zero or

T = 0 but v; 0. This is possible only when ht

u

2 + Rg

< h

< -- => 2u2 + 2Rg < 3u2 =>u2 > 2Rg =>u > J2Rg

3g

2g

Therefore, if yj2gR <u < 5gR the particle leaves the circle.
,

From Eq. (iv) we can see that h > R if u2

,

> 2gR.

Thus, the particle, will

leave the circle when h > R or 90 < 0 < 180. This situation is shown in

2gR < u < /5gR or 90< 0 <180

the figure

Note .-That after leaving the circle the particle will follow a parabolic path.
,

Condition of Oscillation (O < u < j2gR j

The particle will oscillate if velocity of the particle becomes zero

but tension in the string is not zero or v = 0, but T * 0 .

This is possible when
u

h <h
2

2 + Rg

=> 2q<

3g

3u2 < 2u2 + 2Rg

-U T

[h< R

u2 < 2Rg => u < 2Rg

Moreover

if ht = h2, u= J2Rg and tension and velocity both becomes zero

simultaneously
Thus

Further

from Eq. (iv), we can see that h < R if u < 2Rg

for 0 < u < yj2gR , particle oscillates in lower half of the circle

(0 < 0 < 90)

This situation is shown in the figure 0 < u < 2gR or O<0 < 90
.

CP

Work, Energy and Power

Work done W = JdW = jF.dr = |Fdrcos0

For constant force W = F d = FdcosO
.

For Unidirectional force

W

=JdW = |Fdx = Area between F-x curve and x-axis

Calculation of work done from force-displacement graph

r1

total work done

W=

dr

r2

dW =

= Area of PjP2NM

Nature of work done

Although work done is a scalar quantity yet its value may be positive, negative
,

or even zero

Zero work

Negative work

Positive work

1
(0 >90")
(H < 901

I mg
S*

f
Work done by
friction force

Motion of particle

(8 = ISOe)

on circular path
(e = 90T

! mg

Motion under gravity

(e 0")

S
N

t mg

-* F=2 5 N
.

=10N
f=friction force

Work done by gravity

( = 1801

mg 100 N

Work done by friction

As f - F. hence S = 0

If F is a conservative force then V x F = 0

force on block A

(e = 0)

Conservative Forces

Work done does not depend upon path.

Work done in a round trip is zero.

.
.

Central forces, spring forces etc. are conservative

forces

When only a conservative force acts within a system, the kinetic energy

and potential energy can change.

However, their sum, the mechanical

'

energy of the system, doesn t change.

Work done is completely recoverable.

Non-conservative Forces

Work done depends upon path.

Work done in a round trip is not zero.

Force are velocity-dependent & retarding in nature e.g. friction, viscous

force etc.

Work done against a non-conservative force may be dissipated as heat energy.

Work done is not completely recoverable.

Kinetic energy

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic

energy.

K
.. - - mv2 = - m(v.v)
2

Potential
>ntial energy

The energy which a body has by virtue of its position or configuration in a

conservative force field

Potential energy is a relative quantity Reference is essential for PE

Potential energy is defined only for conservative force field
.

Relationship between conservative force field and potential energy

P

V7I 1

m\ n

9U -

F = -VU = -grad(U) = - -- 1 - -- j-k

ox

dy

dz

If force varies only with one dimension (along x-axis) then

dU
F

> U = - | Fdx

=-

dx

Potential energy may be positive or negative

.

Repulsion forces

;+ve

U-ve

Attraction forces

(i) Potential energy is positive if force field is repulsive in nature

(ii) Potential energy is n. jative if force field is attractive in nature
,

If r ! (separation between body and force

centre) U f force fiP|H

,

is attractive or vice-versa

Ifr i

U v, force field is repulsive in nature

Potential energy curve and equilibrium

position of particle ->

It is a curve which shows change in potential energy with postion of a particle.

Stable Equilibrium :

When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and it tends to

come back towards equilibrium then it is said to be in stable equilibrium
dU

At point C : slope

is negative

so F is positive

is positive

so F is negative

dU

At point D : slope

At point A : it is the point of stable equilibrium.

*

. t A

,,

IT

dU

At point
A : U = U r,". , - = 0
1
dx

and

d2U
-5- = positive
dx2

Unstable equilibrium :

When a particle is slightly displaced from equilbrium and it tends to move

away from equilibrium position then it is said to be in unstable equilbirum
dU

At point E : slope

is positive so F is negative

At point G : slope - is negative so F is postive

dx

At point B : it is the point of unstable equilibrium.

At point
B : U=U
"

dU

, d2U

, - = 0 and

m3< dx

dx

r = negative

"

Neutral equilibrium :

When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and no force

acts on it then equilbirum is said to be neutral equilibrium
dU

neutral equilibrium => U = constant ;

=0,

d2U

=U

point H is at

Work energy theorem W = AKE

Change in kinetic energy = work done by all force

Law of conservation of Mechanical energy

Total mechanical (kinetic + potential) energy of a system remains constam

if only conservative forces are acting on the system of particles or the wort
done by all other forces is zero. From work energy theorem W = AKE
= -AU

For internal conservative forces Wi

Ilt

So W = Wext + Winl = 0 + W nl= - AU

.

=> (KE + U)) =0

=> -AU = AKE

KE + U = (constant)

dU

For conservative force F(x) =-

dx

change in potential energy AU = -F(x)Ax

Spring force F=-kx

Elastic potential energy stored in spring U(x) = -Vx2

Mass and energy are equivalent and are related by E = mc2

Power

. Power is a scalar quantity with dimension MJL2!

. SI unit of power is J/s or watt
. 1 horsepower = 746 watt = 550 ft lb/sec.
Average power P = W/t

av

dW

Instantaneous power P =

F.dr

= Fv
.

dt

dt

_' i

fig(a)
fig(c)

Hg(b)
1

dt

time

-=

time

time

W-JPdt

instantaneous power
p

(a)

For a system of varyin

(b)

average power

-f-tone

(0 P=P-= 1TT =
dv

dm

dt

dt

g mass F= (mV) =m - +v
dm

If v = constant then F = v- +hpn

dt

In rotatory motion : P =

t - =

dt

W,

P- p r,
- v
v-v

r-|

dm

AW
-

(T

Centre of Mass and Co,,,s,on

Centre of mass : For a system of particles centre of mass is that point a;

which its total mass is supposed to be concentrated.
Centre of mass of system of discrete particles
y

m,(x y z,)
f
m,(x2, y2, z2)
0

y3. z3)

V 7

V-*
y,
.

2,)

7,
x

(0,0,0)

Total mass of the body : M = m, + m2 + . + mn

T-.

Then R

m r

+ m,r, + m,r, +...

- _U-Li-3j-= -m r
.

+ m2 + m3 + ...

co-ordinates of centre of mass :

1

1
an

= TtE.*.
M

, ym =

771m,yi and zcm = - Im,z

m

"" """"

""

Centre of mass of continuous distribution of particles

Rpw

cm

= - f rdm
MJ

= />dm

'

dm

and z cm

The centre of mass after removal of a part of a body

Original mass (M) - mass of the removed

part (m)

= {original mass (M)} + { - mass of the removed part (m)j

The formula changes to : xCT

M*~,
. VcM
M - m

. 2

M -m

Mz-mz
CM

M -m

MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS

For a system of particles velocity of centre of mass
,

cm

Similarly acceleration

dRCM

dt

nijV, + m2v,, + ...

in

d lr.
CM

+ m2 +....

dt

a,+m2a,+...

m, + mz

+ ....

Law of conservation of linear momentum

Linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of mass of

the system with velocity of its centre of mass

From Newton,s second law Fcxt

d(W0cM)
dt

If Fext = 0 then Mv

= constant

If no external force acts on a system the velocity of its centre of mass remains
constant, i.e., velocity of centre of mass is unaffected by internal forces

Impulse - Momentum theorem

Impulse of a force is equal to the change of momentum

force time graph area gives change in momentum (AP)
Collision of bodies

The event or the process, in which two bodies either coming in contact
with each other or due to mutual interaction at distance apart, affect each
others motion (velocity, momentum, energy or direction of motion) is defined
as a collision.
In collision

The particles come closer before collision and after collision they either
stick together or move away from each other.
The particles need not come in contact with each other for a collision.

The law of conservation of linear momentum is necessarily conserved in a

collision, whereas the law of conservation of mechanical energy is not.

TYPE OF COLLISIONS
_

On the basis of direction

One-dimensional collision

Two dimensional collision

or

or

Head on collision

Oblique collision

The collision, in

which the particles move

along the saiiu> straight
line More and after the
collision, is defined as one
dimensional collision

On the basis of kinetic energy

The collision, in which

the particles move in the

same pbr.e at different
angles before and after
collision, is defined

as oblique collision.

1
Elastic
collision

A collision is
said to be

In-elasticcollision

elastic, it the
total Kinetic

A collision is
said to be
inelastic, if the
total kinetic

energy before

energy docs not

and after collision

remains the same

remains constant

Perfectly inelastic
collsion

The collision in which

,

particles gets slicked together

atter the collision is called
,

perfectly inelastic collision.

In this type of inelastic collision

loss of energy is maximum

Coefficient of restitution

velocity of separation along line of impact

velocity of approach along line of impact

e = -

u,

Yl
u.

Value of e is 1 for elastic collision, 0 for perfectly inelastic collision

0 < e < 1 for inelastic collision.
Head on collision
V,

jL
A .+- ft
B ?'. .
,

'

vjr

'

B
v.

mP

m,

After collision

Collision

Before collision

<

m,

m,

>

,.

Head on inelastic collision of two particles

Let the coefficient of restitution for collision is e

(i) Momentum is conserved

+ m2v2 . (i)

+ m2u2 = m

(ii) Kinetic energy is not conserved.

(iii) According to Newton's law

V2~V1

U2-Ul

By solving eq. (i) and (ii)

V

m, + em2
m, + m"

(1 + e) m

"

v mi +m2 j

2 /

u2

v2 =

m2 + em,
mi + m2

(1 + e

u2 +

u,

+ m2 j

Elastic Collision (e=l)

.

If Khe two bodies are of equal masses : m

x
Thus

then

= m

= m,

v, = u2 and v2 = u,

if two bodies of equal masses undergo elastic collision in one dimension

after the collision the bodies will exchange their velocities
,

If the mass of a body

If m

is negligible as compared to other

and u2 = 0 then v

= u

t ,

2 = 2u:

When a heavy body A collides against a light body B at rest, the body *
should keep on moving with same velocity and the body B will move vvid1
velocity double that of A

If m m

and u = 0 then v = 0, v, = - u
,

*-

When light body A collides against a heavy body B at rest the body A sho
,

start moving with same velocity just in opposite direction while

should practically remains at rest
.

the body $

Loss in kinetic energy in inelastic collision

m,m2

AK =

2(m, + m.,)

(l-e2) (u, -uz)Z

Oblique Collision

Before
collision

Conserving the momentum of system in directions along normal (x axis in our

case) and tangential (y axis in our case) m1u1cosa1
cosp2 and m2u2sina2

m
Since no force is acting on mx
+ rn v
2

+ m u cosa
2

= m

and m2 remains conserved.

nri V SinPj & m u sina = m v sinP
2
2
2
;

Sincij

By using Newton's experimental law along the line of impact

v2cosp2 -v osp,
U

cosocj

sinc = m2v2sinp2 nrijVjSinPj

and m2 along the tangent (i.e. y-axis) the

individual momentum of m
m U

cosp

u2 cosa2

Rocket propulsion
dm

Thrust force on the rocket = Vr

mo

=> v= u-gt + v fn

dt

At t=0

At t=t

v=u

m=m

m=m,

v=v

exhaust velocity =v.

(9A

Py

"

; '
-

*>:

:" .' '

, 'v .<..- f%

-:

Rotational Motion

d9

Angular velocity

od =

Angular acceleration

a=

Angular momentum

L = r x p = 1(6

Torque

- - e dL
x= rxF=dt

dt

dto

d20

dt

dt2

l2

Rotational Kinetic energy K = -loo = Rotational Power

P = xxb

For constant angular acceleration

1

to

0 +at, 0=aot + -at2, o)2 = co02 +2a0,

to

OC

- (2n

-co +

1)

Moment of Inertia

A tensor but for fixed axis it is a scalar

For discrete distribution of mass I=m1r12

+ m

2 +

For continuous distribution of mass I = J dl = J dmr

Radius of gyration k=

2 2

>

Theorems regarding moment of inertia

Theorem of parallel axes Iaxis =-- Icm + md

where d is the perpendicular distance between parallel

Theorem of perpendicular axes I = Ix + \

Rod

Mf2
I = -r
vjj
12

\A o1

vU51
M

= Xr" 1i

axes.

Rectangular Lamina
Nl/'7

vU
A

45-M(

12

r , _

12

1
'

--

<

-/J--

Disc

Ring

vjj

I = MR.

; (Geometrical axis)

i (Geometrical axis)
Circular Hollow Disk

T1f1+fi
2
t

45T
:

I = MR'

vjj

Hollow cylinder

I
R =

v45 i
k

MR"
2

\\

Solid cylinder

. .

>12 2)

Solid & Hollow sphere

S,ir .1.'.HollowRolling motion

Total kinetic energy = 4mv m + 2 lco2

'

/TTTTTTTTTT TTTaTTTTTTTTZ

Total angular momentum = MvcmR + Ico

Pure rolling (or rolling without slipping) on stationary

n

Condition :v

= Rco
cm

In accelerated motion a
If vcin
If vrm

= Ra

cm

> Rco then rolling with forward slipping

< Rco then rolling with backward slipping
,

Total kinetic energy in pure rolling

K total

T
2

Mv2 + - (Mk2)

vn

lw ? f
1 +
= - Mv
2
2
;
V

k21
RJ

Pure rolling motion on an inclined plane

gsinG

Acceleration a = +

/ p2
tan0

Minimum frictional coefficient pmin

.

Torque x

dco

d(lco)

dL

dJ

dt

dt

dt

dt

ja _ J- =--or

Change in angular momentum

Work done by a torque W = j x

= xAt
d9

surface

tfcT
Newton,s

law of gravitation

m,

Force of attraction between two point masses

-r-rn2

F=
r

. It is a conservative force field

. It is a central force field

=> mechanical energy is conserved.

angular momentum is conserved.

Gravitational field due to spherical shell

GM

Outside the shell

E = -o-

On the surface

E = -=75-

Inside the shell

where r > R

GM

9
g

where r = R

R2 '

=0 where r < R
'
,

Gravitational field due to solid sphere

GM

Outside the sphere

Eg

On the surface

where r > R

where r = R

GM

R;

GMr

Inside the sphere

Eg

where r< R

GM

Acceleration due to gravity g= -j r

GM
(
2
If
h

R
;
gh
g
At height h gh = R+hj
'
GM(R - d)
1 ?
R,
o At depth d gd=- 3-= 9
,

2h

Effect of rotation on g g = g-(o2Rcos2X where X is angle of latitude

"

Gravitational potential

Due to a point mass at a distance

GW

V=- --

Gravitational potential due to spherical shell

GM

Outside the shell

V=- -

r > R

Inside/on the surface the shell

V= -

GM
R

r< R

Potential due to solid sphere

GM
, r > R

V =

Outside the sphere

GM

On the surface

V =

Inside the sphere

V =

r = R

GM(3R2-r2)
2R3
GM

V =

Potential on the axis of a

VrW

thin ing at a distance x

(2GM

Escape velocity from a planet of

mass M and radius R

Orbital velocity of satellite

IGM

GM

(R + h)

For nearby satellite

"

V2

2nr

Time period of satellite

Ve

2nr2/Z
~

Vgm

Energies of a satellite

Potential energy

U =

Kinetic energy

K =

GMm

..

-mv

GMm

=-

2r

Mechanical energy

E = U + K =

Binding energy

BE= -E =

2T

GMm
~

2r

Kepler"s laws

GMm
"

I41 - Law of orbitals

Path of a planet is elliptical with the sun at a focus

dA
II"- - Law of areas Area! velocity dt

III,t - Law of periods T2 cc a3 or T2

For circular orbits T2 oc R5

L
con5tant .

oc

rnax

*min |

2m

(if

Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic Motion

Any motion which repeats itself after regular interval of time (i.e. time period)
is called periodic motion or harmonic motion.
Ex. (i) Motion of planets around the sun.

(ii) Motion of the pendulum of wall clock.

Oscillatory Motion

The motion of body is said to be oscillatory or vibratory motion if it moves

back and forth (to and fro) about a fixed point after regular interval of time.
The fixed point about which the body oscillates is called mean position or
equilibrium position.
'

Ex.: (i) Vibration of the wire of Sitar'.

(ii) Oscillation of the mass suspended from spring.
Note : Every oscillatory motion is periodic but every periodic motion is not
oscillatory.

Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.)

Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form of vibratory or oscillatory motion.

Some Basic Terms in SHM
.

Mean Position

The point at which the restoring force on the particle is zero and potential
energy is minimum is known as its mean position.
,

Restoring Force

The force acting on the particle which tends to bring the particle towards
its mean position, is known as restoring force

Restoring force always acts in a direction opposite to that of displacement.

Displacement is measured from the mean position

. Amplitude

The maximum (positive or negative) value of displacement of particle from

mean position is define as amplitude

. Time period (T)

The minimum time after which the particle keeps on repeating its motion
is known as time period.

The smallest time taken to complete one oscillation or vibration is also

define as time period.

It is given by T - - - - where to is angular frequency and n is frequency

One oscillation or One vibration

When a particle goes on one side from mean position and returns hack and
then it goes to other side and again returns back to mean position then
,

this process is known as one oscillation

one

Frequency

one

(n or f)

The number of oscillations per second is define as frequency

1

CO

It is given by n = - = I

Phase

Phase of a vibrating particle at any instant is the state of the vibrating

particle regarding its displacement and direction of vibration at that particular
instant.

In the equation x = A sin (cot + 0) (cot + 0 ) is the phase of the particle.

The phase angle at time t = 0 is known as initial phase or epoch.
The difference of total phase angles of two particles executing SHM with
respect to the mean position is known as phase difference.
Two vibrating particles are said to be in same phase if the phase difference
between them is an even multiple of n, i.e. A<j> = 2nn where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,....
,

Two vibrating particle are said to be in opposite phase if the phase difference
between them is an odd multiple of n i.e., A(J> = (2n + 1)tt where n = 0, 1,
2 3.
,

Angular

frequency (co) :The rate of change of phase angle of a particle

with respect to time is define as its angular frequency, w =

For linear SHM (F oc - x) :

F = m dt2r= -kx = -mco2x where co=

For angular SHM (t = -0 ) :
cl 0

x = I -jp- = la = - k0 = - mco20

where co =

Differential equation of 5HM

d20

d2x

Linear SHM:~jpr +co

Angular SHM:

+26

Displacement
x = A sin (cot + <j>)
Angular displacement 0 =0O sin(cot+ <j>)
dx

Velocity V = " ~ = Aco C$(rt + <}>) = wx/A

'

- x

de

Angular velocity

= 0O

4 ({))

co

d2x
Acceleration a= -rrr = - AZ sin(a)t + <j)j = -co x
at

d20

Angular acceleration jpr= ~ 0ooo2sin(cot+<j))=-co20

Kinetic energy

K = - mv2 = - mco2 A2cos2 (cot + <j))

W

Cm*

Potential energy U = - kx2 = mco2A2sinZ (cot + <|>)

Total energy

E = K + U = - mco2A2

TE

- kA

= constant

TE

kA

time

displacement

cot

Note : (i) Total energy of a particle in S H M is same at all instant and at a

displacement (ii) Total energy depends upon mass amplitude an<
.

frequency of vibration of the particle executing S H M

.

Average energy in S

HM
.

(i) The time average of P.E. and K E over one cycle is

.

. <K>t = - kA2

.<PE>( = --kA2 + u
0

. < TE>

|kA2 + U0

(ii) The position average of P.E. and K.E. between x = -A to x=A

. <K> = -kA2 < pe> = U0+y kA2 . <TE> = kAZ + U0

.

The frequency of oscillation of potential energy and kinetic energy is twice as

that of displacement or velocity or acceleration of a particle executing S.H.M.
mmm

T=

Spring block system

da
(nTTI- (KkWOOtfM TI

T=2tt

V k

2,.If ,

T = 2k

777777777777777777777777777

where p= reduced mass = m

1 + m2

Limmw
m,

When spring mass is not negligible

lm + -7T

T = 271.1

03

Series combination of springs

m

1
_

T - 271 Jr
where k CI!
V Keff

k2

k3

Parallel combination of springs

T = 27r
L

Jl- where keff = k2 + k2 + k3

KWeff

Spring cut into two parts :

Ci =

m 4- n

'
m

rowtrcRrtRr\__

2 ~

C But k =kj

m+n)

= k

-Jtffltftn-nnnnmu
k>

K t2

(m + n) k

(m + n)

Time period of compound

Time period of
simple pendulum

(Physical) pendulum

U1UM1LU

T=2tt

T=2n

mg

= 2n

U11L

Time period of Conical pendulum

T = 2n

l/?cos0

0
= c

Ti

h
-

vs

Time period of Torsional pendulum T =2n

where k =
I=moment

torsional constant of the wire

of inertia of the body about the vertical axis

Ba pendulum

Centre

(distance from orve end)

IP

Q]

At four points P Q, R and S, the time period is the same T

,

The time period is minimum when

I = K

The minimum period is T> = 2k ~

v g

/R

SHM of a particle in a tunnel inside the earth T= 2n J.

Vg

- + e,
t

Internal restoring forcc _

Stress = rea 0f cross _ section
A

There are three types of stress

Longitudinal Stress

...

..

.ii

tensile stress

(a) Tensile Stress:

tensile stress

(b) Compressive Stress :

Compressive
Stress

(c)
(d)

Volume Stress
Tangential Stress or Shear Stress

Change in size of the body

Original size of the body

..

..

change in length of the body

Longitudinal strain = ---71-1,

, ,

initial length of the body

.,

change in volume of the body

original volume of the body

Volume strain--,

---

AV
V

- =_

AL

,-- = -

rv=

--

Shear strain
C

tan <}> = or

displacement of upper face

distance between two faces

Relation between angle of twist (0) & angle of shear (<}>)

Relation Between angle of twist and Angle of shear
AA, = rO

and

Arc AA, =

so r0 = <j>

ft

where 0 = angle of twist,

= angle of shear

CL

Stress - Strain Graph

Breaking

strength
Elastic
Limit

Strain

within elastic limit [Stress

Hooke,s Law

straj3

Longitudinal stress

Fl

Young,s modulus of elasticity Y - j origjtudinal strain

A AC

.1

.U

u/irp r is radius and

C is the increase in length of the

by sending a weight Mg a. its one end then Young

/

O \

% jT

'

s modulus of

(Mg/nx2) _ MgL

elasticity of the material of wire

Y~ (/ L)

Increment in length due to own weight AI-

2C

Ttr

MgC

pg

2AY

2Y

Volume stress _ F/A

ticity

Bulk modulus of elas

K =

Volume strain

AV
V

AV
V

Bulk modulus of an ideal gas is process dependence.

.

For isothermal process PV = constant => PdV + VdP = 0

-dP
=>

P=

dV/V

So bulk modulus = P

For adiabatic process PVY = constant :=>yPV?

=* yPdV + VdP = 0 =*
.

-dP

7P =

"

n"1

=> nPV

So bulk modulus = yP

dV/V

For any polytropic process PV

]dV + VYdP -0

= constant

-dP

dV + V"dP = 0 => PdV + VdP = 0 => nP =

dV/V

So bulk modulus = nP

Compressibility = C =

Bulk modulus

shearing stress

Modulus of rigidity n - shearing strain

( tangential)/A
~

lateral strain

Poisson,s ratio (a)=i

:~T i 7-r~
Longitudinal strain
Work done in stretching wire
W = - x stress x strain x volume

F
*

AC
*

XAX,

Fx

Rod is rigidly fixed between walls

a

Thermal Strain =

cxAQ

Thermal stress = YaAO

Thermal tension = YaAAO

Effect of Temperature on elasticity

When temperature is increased then due to weakness of inter molecular force
the elastic properties in general decreases i e elastic constant decreases.
Plasticity increases with temperature For example at ordinary room
.

carbon is elastic but at high temperature, carbon becomes plastic.

Lead is not much elastic at room temperature but when cooled in liquid nitrogen
temperature

exhibit highly elastic behaviour.

For a special kind of steel elastic constants do not vary appreciably temperature,

This steel is called 'INVAR steel,.

Effect of Impurity on elasticity

Y is slightly increase by impurity The inter molecular attraction force inside
.

wire effectively increase by impurity due to this external force can be easily
opposed.

/j

A-.-v

("j 0

Hydrostatics

mass

Density

volume

weight
. .
Specific weight =-;

volume

= pg

density of given liquid

Relative density -

density of pure water at 4C

Density of a Mixture of substance in the proportion of mass

M, +M2 + M3
....

the density of the mixture is P -

i + -2- + -1 +
Pi
P2
P3

Density of a mixture of substance in the proportion of volume

Pl l + P2 2 + P3V3

the density of the mixture is P = -77---77

+ V2 + V
_

Pressure =

....

normal force
area

Variation of pressure with depth

Pressure is same at two points in the same horizontal level

= P

(P0-Pj)

= hpg which is the difference of pressure between two points separated b

(i)

a depth h.
Pressure in case of accelerating fluid
Liquid placed in elevator :
When elevator .accelerates upward with

acceleration aQ then pressure in the fluid,

at depth

'

'

may be given by, P = hp[g + a0]

(ii) Free surface of liquid in case of horizontal acceleration :

tan0 =
mg

If P3 and P2 are pressures at

point 1 & 2 then

P _P, = pg (hr h2) = pgr tan 0 = pf.a0

{Hi) Free surface of liquid in case of rotating cylinder

S

toV

29
Pascal,s Law

. The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all the points if gravity is ignored.
. A liquid exerts equal pressures in all directions.

. It the pressure in an enclosed fluid is changed at a particular point, the

change is transmitted to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container without being diminished in magnitude
.

Types oil Pressure : Pressure is of three types

(i) Atmospheric pressure (P0)

(ii) Gauge pressure (P

gauqe

(iii) Absolute pressure (Pab )

s

Atmospheric pressure

: Force exerted by

air column on unit cross-section area of sea

up to top of

level called atmospheric pressure (P )

atmosphere
air

area=lnY

column
sea

p = - = 101.3 kN/m*
A

level
v

P = 1.013 xlO& N/m2

o

Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Which was discovered by Torricelli.

Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place and at a particular place

from time to time.

Gauge Pressure :

Excess Pressure ( P- Patm) measured with

the help of pressure measuring instalment
called Gauge pressure.
P gauge = hog

or

OC h
gauge

Gauge pressure is always measured witl i nelp

of

"

"

manometer

Absolute Pressure :

Sum of atmospheric and Gauge pressure

is called absolute pressure.
p=p
abs

atm

+p

gau<jo

=> P

abs

= P + hpg
o

The pressure which we measure in our automobile tyres is gauge pressure.

Buoyant force = Weight of displaced fluid = Vpg
Apparent weight = Weight - Upthrust
Rotatory - Equilibrium in Floatation :

for rotational equilibrium of floating body the meta-centre must always be

higher than the centre of gravity of the body.
Density of body
.

Relative density of body =

Density of water

Floatation

(i)

Weight of the body W = Mg = Vpg (directed vertically downwards through

CG
.

(ii)

of the body).

Buoyant force or Upthrust Th = Vcrg (directed vertically upwards through

CB
.

Case I

Density of the body (p) is greater than that of liquid (a)

In this case

if p > a then W > Th

So the body will sink to the bottom of the liquid

Case II

APP

= W - Th = Vpg - Vag = Vpg (1 - a/p) = W (1 - a/p).

Density of the body is equal to the density of liquid (p = a)

In this case if p = c then W = Th

So the body will float fully submerged in the liquid.

neutral equilibrium.
W

Case III

It will be in

APP = W-Th = 0

Density of the body is lesser than that of liquid (p < a)

In this case if p < <7 then W < Th

So the body will float partially submerged in the liquid In this case th*,
body will move up and the volume of liquid displaced by the body (V,) i
.

will be less than the volume of body (V) So as to make Th equal to W

.

App

= W - Th = 0

Surface tension is basically a property of liquid The liquid surface behaves

.

like a stretched elastic membrane which has a natural tendency to contract

and tends to have a minimum possible area. This property of liquid is called
surface tension.
Intermolecular forces

(a) Cohesive force

The force acting between the molecules of one type of molecules of same
substance is called cohesive force.

(b) Adhesive force

The force acting between different types of molecules or molecules of different

substance is cailed adhesive force.

Intermolecular forces are different from the

gravitational forces not obey the

inverse-square law

The distance upto which these forces effective, is called molecular range
This distance is nearly 10~9 m Within this limit this increases very rapidly as
.

the distance decreases.

Molecular range depends on the nature of the substance

Properties of surface tension

Surface tension is a scalar quantity

It acts tangential to liquid surface

Surface tension is always produced due to cohesive force

More is the cohesive force more is the surface tension.

When surface area of liquid is increased molecules from the interior of the

liquid rise to the surface. For this, work is done against the downward cohesive
force.

Dependency of Surface Tension

.

On Cohesive Force

Those factors which increase the cohesive force between molecules increase
the surface tension and those which decrease the cohesive force between
molecules decrease the surface tension.

On Impurities

If the impurity is completely soluble then on mixing it in the liquid, its surface

tension increases, e.g., on dissolving ionic salts in small quantities in a liquid

its surface tension increases. If the impurity is partially soluble in a liquid then
,

its surface tension decreases because adhesive force between insoluble impurity
molecules and liquid molecules decreases cohesive force effectively, e.g.
(a) On mixing detergent in water its surface tension decreases.

(b) Surface tension of water is more than (alcohol + water) mixture.

.

On Temperature
On increasing temperature surface tension decreases At critical temperature
.

and boiling point it becomes zero.

Note : Surface tension of water is maximum at 4C
.

On Contamination

The dust particles or lubricating materials on the liquid surface decreases its
surface tension.
.

On Electrification

The surface tension of a liquid decreases due to electrification because a force

starts acting due to it in the outward direction normal to the free surface of liquid.
Definition of surface tension

The force acting per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the free liquid
surface at right angles to the line and in the plane of liquid surface, is defined
as surface tension.
'

For floating needle 21 C sinO = mg

Required excess force for lift
Wire Fex = 2TC

Hollow disc Fex = 2nT (rl + ri>)

,

For ring Fex = 4nrT

Circular disc

Square frame

Square plate F

= 8aT

= 4aT

Soap bubble W = 37rr2T

Splitting of bigger drop into smaller droples R

Work done= Change in surface energy = 4nR3T

*

,x

Work = surface energy = TAA

Liquid drop W = 4nr2T

*

F =2rcrT

Excess pressure

Px
.

In liquid drop Pex

= P

2T

n'/3 1

j = 4nR2T (nJ/3-l)

P
out

In soap bubble P

4T

ANGLE OF CONTACT (0 )
c

s
The angle enclosed between the tangent plane atf contact
the liquidinside
tangent plane at the solid surface at the point o
defined as the angle of contact.

The angle of contact depends the nature of the solid

nd
e liquid

and hqu: d

rise
Angle of contact 0 < 90 => concave shape, Liquid falls
Angle of contact 0 > 90 => convex shape, Liquid

contact
_

up

Angle of contact 0 90 => plane shape Liquid neither rise nor

Effect of Temperature on angle of contact

On increasing temperature surface tension decreases,
1
thus cos0

COS 0 oc -

increases

and 0 decrease.

So on increasing temperature, 0 decreases.

c

Effect of Impurities on angle of contact

(a) Solute impurities increase surface tension so cos9 decreases and angle
of contact G increases.
(b) Partially solute impurities decrease surface tension so angle of contac
,

decreases.

Effect of Water Proofing Agent

Angle of contact increases due to water proofing agent It gets converts
acute to obtuse angle
.

ar.ntp. to nnhiQo anno

...

Capillary rtse
.

2Tcos0

" "

rpg

Zurin's law h

Jeager,s method T

-(Hp - hd)

The height 'h' is measured from the bottom r>f tk

there exist some liquid above this line also If correction,T
this

appW

then the formula will be

rpg h +

j _

2 cos 8

When two soap bubbles are in contact then

radius of curvature of the common surface

When two soap bubbles are combining to

form a new bubble then radius of new bubble

Force required to separate two plates

--

i ~ r2

'

>

Hydrodynamics

Steady and Unsteady Flow

Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure and density at a point do not change with time.

Streamline Flow

In steady flow all the particles passing through a given point follow the same
path and hence a unique line of flow. This line or path is called a streamline.
Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow is the flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined
streamlines which are straight and parallel.
Compressible and Incompressible Flow

In compressible flow the density of fluid varies from point to point i e the
density is not constant for the fluid whereas in incompressible flow the density
.

of the fluid remains constant throughout

Rotational and Irrotational Flow

Rotational flow is the flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along

path-lines also rotate about their own axis. In irrotational flow particles do
not rotate about their axis.

Equation of continuity AjV,

= A

2 Based on conservation of mass

Bernoulli"s theorem :
C

Kinetic Energy

. .

Kinetic Enerou

1 m

kinetic energy per unit volume ----

,
"

volume

2 V

Potential Energy

Potential energy per unit volume

Potential Energy

~~~=vSh = P3h

= -

Pressure Energy

Pressure energy

Pressure energy per unit volume = -;- = p

volume

For horizontal flow in venturimeter

P1 + |pVl = P2 + |PV" => y

1 = A2

2gh

V Al - A;

Rate of flow :

Volume of water flowing per second

Q - A,v.
- A, A 2
,
,
V

2gh
2

Aj - A

Velocity of efflux v = J2gh

Horizontal range R = 2 Vh(H - h)

aI?
*
f
t

H i

hU

B X
J

-v

- pv

2V

(f?
Newton s

V,scos,ty

law of viscosity F = rjA-

'

*-

Ay

. SI UNITS : -- or deca poise

m

'"

. CGS UNITS : dyne-s/cm2 or poise (1 decapoise =10 poise)

Dependency of viscosity of fluids
On Temperature of Fluid

(a)

Since cohesive forces decrease with increase in temperature as increase

in K.E.. Therefore with the rise in temperature the viscosity of liquids
,

decreases.

(b)

The viscosity of gases is the result of diffusion of gas molecules from

one moving layer to other moving layer. Now with increase in tempera
ture, the rate of diffusion increases. So, the viscosity also increases.
Thus

the viscosity of gases increases with the rise of temperature.

On Pressure of Fluid

(a) The viscosity of liquids increases with the increase of pressure.

(b) The viscosity of gases is practically independent of pressure.
*

On Nature of Fluid

dV

Ttpr

Poiseuillel,s formula

Q =

Viscous

F = 67tr|rv

force

2 r2(p~ o)g
Terminal velocity

VT

Reynolds number

R < 1000 laminar flow

Rc > 2000 turbulent flow

VT oc r

pvd
=

Thermal Physics

Scales of temperatures

Temperature - Lower fixed point

Upper fixed point- Lower fixed point

For any scale

C-0
a

F - 32

100-0

273.15

212-32 ~ 373.15-273 15
.

F - 32

T-273 15

5
AC

80 - 0
C - Centigrade
K - Kelvin
F - Fahrenheit

"

9
AF

R-0
~

5
AT

R - Reaumur

AR

e-o

Old thermometry

Constant

100-0

x-x

X10o

X0

[two fixed points - ice & steam points]

where X is thermometric property i.e. length, resistance etc.
T-0

Modern thermometry

273 16 0
-

X
~

[Only one reference point - triple point of water is chosen]

Thermal expansion

Linear expansion C = (0 (1 + aAT) -> In solids

Superficial expansion A = A0 (1 + PAT) - In solids
In solids, liquid & gases
Volume expansion : V = V0 (1 + yAT)
Relation between a, P, & y of isotropic solids.

a : P : y = 1 : 2 : 3
Q
Thermal capacity = mc = -

Amount of heat required to raise the temp, of a given body by

1C

(or IK).

Specific Heat capacity

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a body
Q

through 1C (or 1K) c =

Dulong & petit law

For solids :Atomic weight x specific heat = 3R = 6 cal/C

Q

MWQ

Molar heat capacity C = Mwc =

Water equivalent: If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms of me>ssrj{

water, it is called water equivalent of the body. W = (mc) <-in gram

Heat required to change state (Latent heat) Q = mL

Clausins & clapeyron equation (effect of pressure on boiling point of liquids
dP

melting point of solids related with latent heat)

L
~

jy _y

Principle of calorimetry Heat lost = Heat gained

T,+
Conduction

dQ

Rate of heat flow

dT

KA(T -T,)

dx

-j- - -KA -- Qr - =-dt

Thermal resistance (RH) =

KA

Rods in series
A

+ 2

K =

eq

Xf/K

Rods in parallel
A,
A

K,

Keq =

Growth of ice on ponds

t =

K,

ka + k2a2

ika

Aj + A.

IA

(xi - x?)
2KB
I

-.

Time taken by ice to grow a thickness from x

x
Radiation

to x

Stefan-Boltzmann's law :

Radiated energy emitted by a perfect black body per unit area

per second

E = gT4

For a general body

E = e aT4
r

If surrounding has temperature

T0

then E = e a(T4 - T4 )
0
r

'

Newton s

law of cooling (Cooling by radiation)

d0

If temp, difference is small then rate of cooling

In general when a body cools from Oj

to (),

in time t in a

0i -

-(0-0o)

0, + 9

surrounding ot temperature 0o then --- = K

Oo

VVien s displacement law X T = b

in

Solar constant S=

where

47iR2ctT1

4nr2

4rcr2

(FL "l

V r

Rs = radius of sun

r
Note

= average distance between sun and earth

S = 2 cal crrr2min=1.4 kWmrZ

T = temperature of sun 5800 K

Gas laws

w 1
Boyle,s law :For a given mass at constant temperature. V c n

law : For a given mass at constant pressure VT

Gay-Lussac,s law For a given mass at constant volume P cc T
,

Charles

Avogadro,s law:If P,V & T are same then no. of molecules NX=N2
1

Graham"s law: At constant P and T, Rate of diffusion <x

Dalton,s law

: P = Pj + P2

Total pressure =Sum of partial pressures

Ideal gas equation

MRT

pv = mrt p= V =

NAkT (N) kT

-V

= nkT

V V /

Real gas equation [Vander Waal,s equation]

nV
'

(V -- pb) = pRT

where a & b are vander waal s constant and depend on the nature of gas.
'

8a

Critical temperature Tc = 27Rb

The maximum temperature below which a gas can be liquefied by pressure

alone

Critical volume V = 3b

PCVC
Note

For a real gas

n
_

3
g

Critical pressure P

27ba

Kinetic theory of gases

1 rnNvIim
P

Pressure of an ideal gas

lfmN
Kinetic energy per unit volume Lv - 2 [ y

v? + vz
Root mean square speed

\ms

n Most probable speed

2
3RT

Mw

|3kT

Mw

2kT

Vl+V2 + V3+-.V

"

2RT
mp

Average speed vav=

=-P

2
v
,

8RT

8kT

tcM w

i ran

Degree of freedom (t) :Minimum number of coordinates required to specif)

the dynamical state of a system.
l

y
t
i

a
n
o

n
o

m
o
t

Total (f)

Cv

cP

y = -J*-

Cv =-R
V 2

CPCv+R j

!
!
!

Monoatomic

[He, Ar, Ne..].

Diatomic

[H2, n2..]
Triatomic

(Linear C02)

& Polyatomic

-1f7

Triatomic

Non-linear-NH )

I
I

->4

=133

3R

4R

Maxwell's law of equipartition of energy

Kinetic enerqy of a molecule per degree of freedom = - kT
2

Translational kinetic energy of a molecule = - kT

Total kinetic energy of a molecule = ifT

Internal energy of a gas

U = - pRT
2

Mean free path : Average distance between two consecutive

collisions

1
=

42nd2n W frf

= diameter of molecule, n = molecular density

For mixture of non-reacting gases

Molecular weight

Mu,

+ 2MW + ....
;

Hj+H2+....

Specific heat at constant V,

Cv =

Specific heat at constant

Cp =

Cp
Xnix

Cy

P,

l P, +

mlM

|JjCy

mt*

'

+ H2+....

UiCp + UoCp -f.

Hi +

2 +

+
M-2 V

2
'

First law of Thermodynamics

Q = W + AU
where

or <5Q = 5W + dU

Q = heat supplied to the system,

W = J PdV = work done by the system

AU = change in internal energy = pC AT
v

Isothermal Process
T-

constant

In this process

or

JT - 0 => PV - constant

= pCvAT = 0
so Q = W = uRT

(-

/n

Pi

= pRTfn
v

2 y

Adiabatic Process

PVY = constant or TY P)_Y = constant or 1 Vr

"

= constant

In this process Q = 0 and W = -AU = pCv (Tt Tz) -

Isobaric process

P = constant => V oc T ; Q = |iCpAT,

AU = |iCvAT, W = P(V2

Isochoric process V = constant =>P<xT&W = 0, Q - AU

) = mRat

mCvat

Polytropic process : PVX = constant

rat

Work done W =-; Molar heat capacity C = Cv +

x -1

1 - x

\ Q2

Efficiency of a cycle

V Sink T.
'

Work done by working substance

Heat supplied

For carnot cycle

For refrigerator

W
= Q

~ = ~ so
Qi

T,

Qi
Q,

Q2

Q,

12
5

T,

Source T]

Q*

Q2

Q, - Q2

t, - T,

Coefficient of performance (3 = ttt =

fill

Wave Theory and Popple*

Effect

Wave Motion

A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space,

momentum from one point to another

transports energy and

without the transport of matter.

Classification of waves

Wave classification According to

I
-

Necessity

Propagation

of medium

of energy

l
Vibration

Dimension

of particle

Plane progressive wave y (x, t) = a sin (cot kx)

2 71

Wave propagation constant k

Speed of wave v = n X

Maximum particle velocity = Aco

Relation between path difference (A x) phase difference (A & time difference (ATI
,

A(j)
2k

Ax

X ~~T

Intensity of progressive wave

I = 2rt2 a2 n2v
E

Speed of longitudinal wave

AT

V ~

VP
B

scuid

liquid

VP

yP

Speed of Longitudinal wave in gaseous medium

Speed of transverse wave

v nr

2p

In super position of two coherent waves of intensity I(

I=

Resultant amplitude

A =

+ \2 + 2

mT

=
qas

v =

Resultant intensity

[yRT
"

and l

T2cos

+ A2 + 2A, Azcos<j)

For constructive interference

A <j) = 27in , Ax = nl, Imax

n

= Ij + I2

+ 2 Y2 =

+V )

For destructive interference

A 4 =(2n-l) 71, A X =(2n - 1) A/2, I

min

max

Degree of hearing = i

Beats frequency = nt

, i
max

min v 1 AH
min

Closed organ pipe

v

Fundamental frequency =

o Frequency of m,h overtone = (2m +1)

v

Open organ pipe

Fundamental frequency
Frequency of mth overtone - (m + 1) -

Frequency with end correction

v

For COP n =

where e = 0.6 R

4(f + e)

where R = radius of resonance tube.

v

For OOP n =

2(f + 2e)
<- 2

3 1

In resonance tube X = 2 [C2

) end correction e -

Frequency of sonometer wire n = ~

J- where p = number of loops
2i V m
v

">Vc

Doppler,s effect in sound source

observer

Sound
wave

= observed frequency

n'

sjieed of sound wave w.r.t observer _ V + Vo

'

observed wavelength

-O

v + v

V - V

s }

If vQ,

v
s

'

<<< v then n

Mach number =

V ~

1 - v/c

0 (observer)

0 (observer)

v <-#

l+

C)

S (light source)

S (light source)

'

1 + v/c

speed of source
speed of sound

Doppler effect in light

"

A., =

rr

1 - v/c

1 + v/c

X = | 1-c

Violet

shift

19 (a) SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS

67 x 10 " N m2 kg 2

Gravitational constant (G)

Speed of light in vacuum (c)

3 x 10f ms",

Permeability of vacuum (u0)

4 it x 10 , H m"1

Permittivity of vacuum (r>0)

8 85 x lO"J2 F m'

Planck constant (h)

6 63 x lO 34 Js

Atomic mass unit (amu)

Energy equivalent of 1 amu

931.5 MeV

Electron rest mass (m )

Avogadro constant (N )

6 02 x 1023 mol1

Faraday constant (F)

9 648 x 10" C mol-,

Stefan-Boltzman constant (o)

5 67 x lO W rrr2

Wien constant (b)

2 89 x 10-3 mK

Rydberg constant (RJ

1 097 x 107 m">

Triple point for water

273.16 K (0.01C)

Molar volume of ideal gas (NTP)

22.4 x 10~3 m3 mokJ

1xl0"3]kg= 0.511 MeV

19 (b)
1 year

1 day

365.24 days = 3.16

h = 8.64 x 10

= 24

"

x 10 s
s

107 ergs

1 J

66 x 10 2, kg

f\

1 ca\

1 eV

1 hp

1 bar

1 fm

= 4.184 J

= 1.6 x 10"W J
= 0.746 k\W
= 10& N/m2

1 atm

1 light year

1 parsec
1 Btu

760u.mH3-76cinH9
013x10

= i 013
= 9.46

xlO& N/m2

x 1012

1 kVJh

IT

km

= 3.26 ly
= 1055

J = 252 cal
.

=1

6J

i \\/b rrf

2 =

*3

ampere

angstrom
atomic mass unit

atmosphere
British thermal unit
coulomb

degree Celsius
calorie

degree (angle)
electronvolt

19 (d)

farad

Decimal Prefixes

femtometer

for

foot

Units of

gauss

Measurement

gram

henry

tera (10J2)

->

giga (109)

hour

horse power
hertz

joule

kelvin
meter

mega (10f)

->

kilo (103)

hecto (102)

da

deca (101)

minute

maxwell
oersted

deci (10-1)

pascal
ohm

radian

second

Siemens

->

centi (10_2)

-y

milli (10~3)

>

tesla

volt
watt
w

eber

Jj

nano (10~9)

micro (10~&)

->

pico (10-J2)