Chapter 5

Pressure Measurement
5.1

Background

This lab is designed to introduce the basics of measuring pressure through gravitational-based
(manometry) and strain-based (Bourdon tube, pressure transducers) methods. Chapter 6 of Holman [11] discusses these methods for measuring pressure as well as dynamic response considerations.
The background material1 provided herein is intended to augment the material presented in Holman
[11].
5.1.1

Gravitational-Based Measurements

Consider a column of fluid at rest as shown. Since the fluid is at rest, the sum of the forces on
the fluid column must equal zero in the vertical direction. The balance of z-component forces:
z
x

F
c

a
b

Fz = 0 = Fsurface + Fbody
1

liq u id c o lu m n
d e n s ity , r
m a ss, m

F
2

on the liquid column can be rearranged to form the manometer equation:

P2 = P1 + gH
(5.1)
where P1,2 is the pressure at the upper and lower surface, respectively,
is the fluid density, g is the gravitational acceleration, and H is the
column height.2 Thus, a pressure difference can be measured using
the displaced height of a liquid column. Note that the cross sectional
area of the liquid column is not a factor.
Manometers are devices which balance the weight of a liquid column against a pressure difference. Measuring the displacement of
the liquid column and knowing the liquid densities allows for very
precise pressure difference measurements. There are two basic types
of manometers U-tube and well-type manometers. A number of
variations exist for the well-type manometer vertical, inclined and
the barometer.

Some material in this section has been adapted from Abata [12].
The derivation of equation (5.1) is provided in Section 5.6. Also, any fluid mechanics text will discuss this
equation and the use of manometers [6, 8].
2

19

20

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

U-Tube Manometer

The U-Tube manometer is typically constructed of a transparent material (glass or plastic) in the shape of a U. Both ends of the tube are
open for connection to a pressure source and the tube is usually about
half-full with a manometer fluid. For the U-tube manometer, the pressure difference between the two legs of the tube is obtained from the
manometer equation.
1

z
2

P2 P1 = g(z1 z2 )
1

(5.2)

Note that this equation is only valid if a gas is used to pressurize

the manometer.3 If the working fluid is a liquid with density, f ,
and the manometer fluid has a density, m , then the pressure difference
between the two legs is the difference in the weight of the two liquid
columns:

d a tu m

P2 P1 = m g(z1 z2 ) f g(z1 z2 )

(5.3)

The pressure measured by a manometer is expressed as a height of a fluid, such as mm of

mercury. This measure is known as a pressure head. The fluid used should always be specified so
as to allow for conversion of the pressure head to pressure difference.
z1 z2 =

P2 P1
g

(5.4)

The most common pressure head units are inches of water, inches of mercury, and mm of mercury.
Well-Type Manometer

The well-type manometer is similar to the U-tube

manometer except that one of the legs is replaced with
tu b e
a reservoir. When the gas pressure above the well and in
the tube are the same (P1 = P2 ), the manometer liquid
P 2
will be at a reference level, z0 , in both the well and the
measurement tube. Increasing the pressure over the well,
P2 , will move the manometer fluid from the well into the
A w e ll
z 1
tube. The pressure difference is again P2 P1 = g(z1 z2 ).
However, the height z2 is not normally visible so the standard manometer equation (equations 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4)
z 0 z 2
cannot be used. Since the liquid volume displaced from
the well is equal to liquid volume displaced into the tube,
d a tu m
the well height, z2 , can be calculated if the cross-sectional
area of the well and tube are known using conservation of mass. The volume of liquid displaced
from the reference level, z0 , is

s c a le

Awell (z0 z2 ) = Atube (z1 z0 )

3

A more detailed explanation liquid-liquid U-tube manometers can be found in any fluid mechanics textbook, c.f.
Munson, Young, and Okiishi [6, 2.6.2, page 50].

5.1. BACKGROUND

21

Substituting this into the manometer equation (5.2):

P2 P1 = g [(z1 z0 ) + (z0 z2 )]
= g(z1 z0 ) [1 +

Atube
]
Awell

(5.5)

The height z1 z0 is measured directly on the manometer scale which is generally corrected by the
manufacturer to include the factor, [1 + Atube /Awell ].
As an example, consider an area ratio of Atube /Awell = 0.1. The pressure difference between the
well and the measurement tube is:
P2 P1 = g [physical height][1 +

Atube
]
Awell

= g [corrected scale height]

The difference between the physical height of the manometer fluid column and the corrected scale
height is:
Atube
(z1 z0 )corrected scale = (z1 z0 )physical height [1 +
]
Awell
A physical distance of 1 cm is reduced by a factor of 1.10 on the scale, i.e. 1 cm on the corrected
scale has a physical length of 0.9 cm.
Inclined Manometer
The inclined manometer is a well-type manometer with the measurement tube tilted at an angle. The tilt of the manometer tube allows for greater measurement accuracy of small pressure
differences. The relationship between pressure and column height is still P2 P1 = g(z1 z2 ).
However, z1 z2 is not easily measured. Instead, z1 z2 is inferred from the scale and the angle
with corrections for the area factor and in some cases the tilt angle.
P2 P1 = g(z2 z1 )
= g(s2 s1 ) sin
=

g(s2

area corrected

s1 )

angle & area corrected

s
2

sc

al
e

z
0

q
2

d a tu m

z
0

22

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Thus, when the manometer scale is corrected for both the area ratio and the tilt angle, a measurement of s2 s0 provides the pressure head directly:
s2 s0 =

P2 P1
g

(5.6)

Manometer fluids generally do not have the same density as water. The manometer fluid used
during this laboratory exercise has a specific gravity of 0.827. Be certain of any correction
applied to inclined manometer scales. Most inclined manometers use a manometer oil
instead of water, but the scale is corrected for the angle, the displaced volume in the
well and the difference in density between the manometer fluid and water. For example,
an inclined manometer may use an oil with a specific gravity of 1.2, but the scale may read inches
of water.
General Remarks Regarding Manometers
Manometers are used extensively for pressure measurements and calibration of pressure gauges and
transducers. The advantages of manometers are that they are simple and inexpensive, relatively
free from error, and can be used with a high degree of accuracy and sensitivity. They are, however,
not without disadvantages. The practical pressure range for manometers is generally limited to 210
to 350 kPa (30 to 50 psig) and manometers have a poor dynamic response. Factors which affect
the precision of manometers include:
Shape and size of the tube: The tube diameter should be sufficiently large to prevent liquid from
rising into or withdrawing from the tube due to capillary pressure. A non-uniform tube
diameter will affect the meniscus shape and subsequently add error to the height measurement.
Manometer fluid density: The density of the manometer fluid varies with the temperature. When
converting pressure head to pressure, the fluid density is used and inaccuracies in the density
will add error to the pressure measurement.
Cleanliness of the manometer fluid and measurement tube: Debris in the manometer fluid or particulate matter (dirt) in the tube can cause the meniscus to pin at a location other than the
equilibrium position resulting in error in the height measurement.
Various fluids are used in manometers. Mercury is generally used for high pressure differences
and vacuum measurements while distilled water, oils and alcohols are used for small pressure differences. Tap water should never be used in a manometer to avoid lime buildup on the measurement
tube walls and for the fact that the density will not be accurately known. Manometer components
should be compatible with manometer fluids to avoid corrosion and chemical reaction. For example, mercury should never be used with aluminum. If the manometer fluid wets the measurement
tube (water, oil, alcohol in glass), the meniscus is concave upward. If the manometer fluid does
not wet the measurement tube (mercury in glass), the meniscus is concave downward. To avoid
measurement error due to meniscus curvature, height readings should always be taken at the center
of the tube.

5.1. BACKGROUND

23

m e n is c u s
h e ig h t
re a d in g

h e ig h t
re a d in g

w a te r, o il, a lc o h o l
in g la s s

5.1.2

m e rc u ry
in g la s s

Elastic-Strain-Based Pressure Measurements

Elastic transducers operate by a confined fluid at some pressure different than the surroundings
exerting a stress on the container which deforms elastically. The strain in the material containing
the fluid is proportional to the pressure. Elastic transducers are typically constructed of a thin
metal section (phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, Monel, brass, stainless steel, etc.) which allows
for relatively large, elastic deformation from small pressure differentials; thus, good sensitivity.
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
The Bourdon tube pressure gauge (patented in 1852) is a flattened tube (oval cross section) usually
shaped as a C and sealed at one end. The opposite end is connected to the pressure source. As
the pressure in the tube is increased, the C shape begins to elastically deform, or flatten, due
to the strain. The sealed end of the tube is connected to amplifying linkage which pulls a rack
and pinion gear arrangement that rotates an indicator needle. The sensitivity of a Bourdon tube
pressure gauge increases with increasing radius of the tube (the size of the C) and decreasing wall
thickness. Typical accuracies are 1% full scale. High precision gauges can accuracies of 0.25%
full scale. Read 6.5 Holman [11] for more details.
Diaphragm Pressure Transducer
Pressure transducers typically correlate the strain in a diaphragm to the pressure difference across
the diaphragm. 6.6 of Holman [11] discusses strain-based pressure measurement in detail.
5.1.3

Calibration

The Bourdon tube pressure gauge and pressure transducers are secondary instruments. That is,
they must be calibrated by another instrument. A primary measuring instrument, such as a
precision manometer, does not require calibration with another instrument. Primary instruments
only require an accurate knowledge of certain physical properties. A secondary pressure gauge such
as the Bourdon tube may be calibrated by three different methods:
1. by comparing the gauge reading with a manometer. This method is limited to low pressures
since high pressures would require unwieldy long manometer tubes;
2. by comparing the gauge reading from another gauge that is already calibrated; or
3. by applying a known pressure to the gauge using a dead weight tester.

24

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

m a ss

p re ssu re g a u g e

m a ss

s c re w p lu n g e r

m a ss
m a ss

D
p is to n
h y d ra u lic o il

5.1.4

Dead Weight Tester

The dead weight tester uses hydraulic oil to float fixed weights thereby providing a known pressure.
The pressure under the piston supporting the weights is:
P Patm = weight/area
where the area is the effective cross-sectional area of the piston and the cylinder. The piston is
rotated to reduce hysteresis and friction.

5.2

Objectives

There are three separate experiments in this laboratory exercise involving calibration of a pressure
measuring device. The objectives of this lab are to familiarize students with the concept of pressure
and pressure measuring devices. There are three objective in this lab:
Compare the sensitivity of a U-tube, a well-type and an inclined manometer and determine
the correction factors incorporated into the manometer scales.
Calibrate a Bourdon tube pressure gauge using a dead weight tester.
Calibrate strain-based pressure transducers using a Bourdon tube pressure gauge.

5.3

Calibration Using a Dead Weight Tester

The purpose of this lab is to use a primary instrument, the dead weight tester, to calibrate a secondary instrument, the Bourdon tube pressure gauge. There are two dead weight testers available;
one operates in the range of 0 - 100 psig and the second is 0 - 1000 psig. Either apparatus may be
used for this experiment. The basic procedure is to float the weights thereby providing a known
pressure, Pa , to the Bourdon tube pressure gauge, Pm . Note that the weights are not in exact
increments. Each weight is stamped with a code indicating the fraction of weight which should be
added or subtracted from the nominal weight. A calibration sheet for the weights is provided with
each dead weight tester.

5.3. CALIBRATION USING A DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

5.3.1

25

Procedures

Safety glasses must be worn at all times during this experiment.

Read through all steps before beginning the experiment.
1. Identify potential safety hazards. Record these safety hazards and the steps you are taking
to mitigate any hazard. This should be included in the lab report.
2. Turn the control valve to the discharge position fully counter-clockwise. The valve knob
should be pointing away from you.
3. Add a single weight to the piston. The weight of the piston is equivalent to 5 lbf/in2 .
4. Turn the plunger crank clockwise until the weights just begin to rise. The piston should be
gently rotated during this step to reduce friction between the piston and cylinder wall.
5. Record the measured pressure on the Bourdon tube pressure gauge and the weight in the
data table provided in Section 5.3.2.
6. Repeat Steps 3, 4, and 5 until the pressure reaches 90 percent of full scale. Do not exceed
the pressure limit of the gauge or it will be permanently damaged.
7. Relieve the pressure by turning the plunger crank counter clockwise before removing any
weights.
8. Turn the control valve to the closed position fully clockwise. The valve knob should be
pointing towards you.
9. Plot a Correction Factor curve as the Measured Pressure less Applied Pressure versus Applied
Pressure; (Pm Pa ) vs (Pa ).

26

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

5.3.2

Data Log for Calibration Using a Dead Weight Tester

Name:
Date:
Lab Partners:

Test
Point

Applied Pressure
Pa

Gauge Reading
Pm

Correction Factor Pm Pa

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

- P

C o rre c tio n F a c to r

A p p lie d
P re ssu re
(p s ig )

5.4. MANOMETER CALIBRATION

5.4

27

Manometer Calibration

There are a variety of manometers used during this experiment (U-tube, well-type, inclined) with a
variety of liquids (elemental mercury, Merriam red manometer oil) The scale on the well-type and
inclined manometers is corrected, but you do not know the correction factor. The scale may be
corrected for angle, specific gravity, and/or well volume. The scale may read inches, cm of Hg, inches
of water, etc. You need to determine the correction factor so that you can use these manometers
later in the semester. Observe the difference in sensitivities between the inclined manometer with
Merriam red manometer oil (SG 0.827), the U-tube manometer with Merriam red manometer
oil, and the U-tube manometer with mercury.
The manometers are connected together to a single hand pump. The hand pump can be
operated in either a pressure mode or a vacuum mode via a lever on the side near the tubing
connection. You will use the hand pump to depressurize the manometers. Do NOT pressurize
the manometers! Manometer oil will leak on the floor and then it will not be possible to zero
out the manometer scale.
There are two manometer bank setups; one with an inclined manometer. The objective of this
part of the laboratory exercise is to determine the conversion between the manometer scales and
pressure in psig and kPa.
5.4.1

Procedures

Read through all steps before beginning the experiment.

1. Identify potential safety hazards. Record these safety hazards and the steps you are taking
to mitigate any hazard. This should be included in the lab report.
2. Zero the scale on the inclined and well-type manometers and note any offset from zero on the
U-tube manometers.
3. Verify that the pressure-vacuum selector switch on the hand pump is in the vacuum setting.
Pressurizing the manometers may force the manometer fluid out of the reservoir and onto the
bench.
4. Slowly depressurize the system with the hand pump. Pay careful attention to the inclined
manometer as it will be the first to overflow. This manometer has the smallest overall liquid
column height.
5. Stop depressurization when the meniscus in the inclined manometer is near the top of the
scale by closing the stopcock. The oil may continue to rise even after you have stopped
pumping.
6. After the menisci have stabilized, record the fluid level in all manometers.
7. Partially release the vacuum by rotating the selector valve on the handpump to half way
between vacuum and pressure and opening the stopcock. Allow the liquid to fall a small
distance to a new position; then close the stopcock. Record the fluid level in the manometers
after all have settled. Take five sets of readings, each at a different pressure.
8. Determine the scale conversion to psig and kPa for each manometer and the specific gravity
of the red manometer oil.
9. Calculate in EES the uncertainty in pressure for each of the manometers.

28

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

5.4.2

Data Log for Manometer Calibration

Name:
Date:
Lab Partners:

Room Temperature:

Manometer Description

Manometer Description

Notes and Calculations:

Scale Reading
3

Scale Reading
3

5.5. PRESSURE TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION

5.5

29

Pressure Transducer Calibration

Each student will select and calibrate a separate pressure transducer. The measured mV output
of the pressure transducers will be correlated to the pressure reading (psig) on the test gauge to
generate a calibration curve.
5.5.1

Overview of the Pressure Transducer Calibration Rig

The pressure transducer calibration rig can simultaneously calibrate twelve strain-based transducers. The large Bourdon tube pressure gauge is a calibrated secondary standard that will be used
for calibrating the transducers. Note the parallax mirror behind the needle on the test guage. A
separate DC power supply provides the excitation voltage for the transducers. The transducers
are connected via quick-disconnects and electrical connectors to the front panel of the calibration
rig. Each transducer has a separate voltage display; each display has a separate power switch. A
master display power switch is located below the test guage.
5.5.2

Safety Overview

A number of safety hazards exist with this experiment. There are potential pinch points and sharp
edges. The most serious hazard is that the transducer calibration rig will be pressurized with
compressed air up to 90 psig. Fittings can fail and lines can break free which may result in flying
debris. Pay attention to what is happening at the experiment setup. Safety guidelines are to be
followed. Carelessness, inattention, and/or horse-play may result in serious injury to yourself or
a fellow student. Failure to follow safety guidelines or TA instructions are grounds for dismissal
from the course!
Safety glasses with side shields must be worn at all times during this experiment.
1. Locate the Main Power switch for the transducer calibration rig. Off is with the switch
toggle in the down position. In an emergency, turn off the Main Power switch.
2. Locate the compressed air Shutoff Valve. This is a ball valve located upstream of the filter
and regulator mounted on the wall. Air can flow to the transducer calibration rig when the
valve handle is parallel to the compressed air line. Turning the handle 90 , or perpendicular
to the air line, will shut off the compressed air to the transducer calibration rig. In an
emergency, turn the compressed air Shutoff Valve to the closed position.
3. When the transducer calibration rig is pressurized you should stand several feet away from
any fitting or quick disconnect. This is to prevent you from being whipped by a blown line
or struck by a catastrophic failure of a fitting. Common sense dictates that you not stand
directly across from any of the pressure transducers.
4. Pay attention to what is happening with and around the transducer calibration rig! Carelessness, inattention, and/or horse-play may result in serious injury to yourself or a fellow
student.

30

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

5.5.3

Procedures

You should familiarize yourself with the location and function of all of the key components; compressed air regulators, transducer calibration rig, pressure transducers with quick disconnects, test
gauge, and transducer power supply.
Read through all steps before beginning the experiment.
Pre-experiment Check
1. Identify and record three potential safety hazards. Record the identified hazards and your
plan for mitigating those hazards in your data log.
2. Verify the electrical and compressed air connections:
MAIN power and Meter Power switches are off
compressed air shutoff valve is in the off position
The shutoff valve is a ball valve upstream of the wall-mounted regulator. The valve is off when
the handle is perpendicular to the compressed air line.

wall-mounted regulator is closed

A closed regulator has 0 psig output pressure. Turning the regulator adjustment knob counterclockwise reduces the output pressure. The adjustment knob should be turned counterclockwise
until it feels loose and the regulator pressure gauge reads zero.

calibration rig pressure Regulator is closed

Rotate the regulator control knob fully counter-clockwise.

calibration rig is plugged in to a 120VAC wall outlet

air hose is securely connected to the wall-mounted regulator and the Inlet quick disconnect
of the calibration rig; the hose should also be secured to the side of the rig to eliminate
the possibily of hose whip should the quick disconnect fail at high pressures.
DC power supply is plugged into an Auxiliary Power outlet on the calibration rig.
DC power supply is connected to the Excitation Voltage.
Check the polarity of the connection. The red lead is positive and should be connected to the red
connection on both the power supply and the calibration rig. The positive connection is marked
with a (+) on the calibration rig.

Verify Excitation Voltage

3. Power the calibration rig via the MAIN power switch.
4. Power the displays via the Meter Power and the individual display toggle switches.
5. Power the DC power supply via the toggle switch located above the voltage connectors.
6. Verify that the voltage output of the transducer power supply is between 8 and 12 VDC
on the display marked Excitation Voltage. An excitation voltage greater than 12 VDC will
damage the pressure transducers. The excitation voltage may be changed using the voltage
adjustment screw on the rear of the power supply.

5.5. PRESSURE TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION

31

Install Pressure Transducer

7. Turn off the DC power supply and the Meter Power toggle switch.
8. Select a pressure transducer. Record the transducer # and model # in your data log.
9. Select any open calibration port. Record the calibration port in your data log.
10. Connect the transducer to the quick disconnect on the panel firmly grasp the transducer
by its body and push the quick connect stem into the quick connect body attached to the
panel until it locks into place. There should be an audible click and you should not be able
to remove the transducer by pulling on the transducer body.

Verify that the transducer power supply is turned off. The pressure transducers must not be
connected to a live circuit.
11. Connect the transducer electrical connection grasp the Amphenol connector by its housing
and plug it into the panel connection. The connectors are keyed so it will only go on one
way. Once plugged in, screw the locking ring clockwise until tight to secure the connection.
Be sure to turn the locking ring, not the body of the connector.

12. Power the displays via the Meter Power toggle switch.
13. Turn on the DC power supply.
14. Check your transducer display for proper operation.
Allow the displays to operate for a few minutes. As the electronics warm up the readings may drift
slightly. This is a good time to review the remaining procedures again.

32

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Calibrate Pressure Transducers

15. Verify that the Test Gauge reads 0 psig.
16. Record the transducer excitation voltage in your data log.
17. Record your transducer output in volts at 0 psig via the corresponding display.
18. Open the compressed air shutoff ball valve located upstream of the wall-mounted regulator.
19. Open the wall-mounted regulator by turning the adjustment screw clockwise until the regulator output pressure is approximately 90 psig. Listen for air leaks during this operation.
If a leak is detected the stop immediately, lower the pressure by turning adjustment screw
counterclockwise, and inform the lab TA.
20. Turn the calibration rig Regulator knob clockwise to increase the pressure in increments of
roughly 10 psi up to a maximum of 90 psig. Record your transducer reading in volts and the
Test Gauge reading in psig at each increment.
The calibration rig regulator is of much higher precision than the wall-mounted regulator. Subsequently, the calibration rig regulator may occasionally bleed air off in order to balance line pressure
changes in the building.

Second Excitation Voltage

21. Carefully adjust the transducer power supply to output a different excitation voltage between
8 and 12 VDC.
22. Repeat the calibration by incrementing the pressure back down to zero. Be certain to record
the transducer output at 0 psig. Do not use the Bleed Valve to reduce the pressure. The
sudden pressure drop may damage the test guage.
To get the 0 psig reading, shut off the compressed air line at the ball valve and bleed the
wall-mounted regulator to 0 psig. With the test guage reading below 10 psig, the Bleed Valve
may be opened to bring the rig pressure down to atmospheric.
Experiment Shutdown
23. Verify that the regulators are fully closed (0 psig) and that the ball valve is closed.
24. Turn off the DC power supply and the displays and (Meter Power toggle switch).
25. Turn off the MAIN power switch on the calibration rig.

5.5. PRESSURE TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION

33

Disconnect Pressure Transducer

26. Remove the electrical connection by unscrewing the locking ring and unplugging the connector.
27. Disconnect the pressure transducer body from the panel by grasping it firmly by its body,
do not pull on the wires, and pull the bell shaped section of the panel connector towards
you. This will release the transducer from the quick-connect fitting on the panel. Return the
pressure transducer to the storage bin. Do not drop or toss the pressure transducer
into the storage bin!
Data Processing
28. Plot the transducer output versus the test gauge pressure in EES for both excitation voltages.
Determine the bias error [psig] (DC offset at 0 psig) and the sensitivity [psig/mV] (slope) for
both excitation voltages using a least squares fit.4 The calibration curve should be as:
(pressure) = (sensitivity) (transducer output) + (bias error)

Caution! Do not use Excel to find the slope and offset. The Excel Slope function does not return the correct
value.

34

CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

5.5.4

Data Log for Pressure Transducer Calibration

Name:
Date:
Lab Partners:

Transducer Model:
Transducer Number:
Calibration Port:
Excitation Voltage:
Calibration Test Gauge
Point
(psig)
1

Transducer
Output (mV)

Excitation Voltage:
Calibration Test Gauge
Point
(psig)
1

10

10

Sensitivity [psig/mV]:

Sensitivity [psig/mV]:

Bias [psig]:

Bias [psig]:

Potential Safety Hazards and Mitigation Strategies:

TA signature:

Transducer
Output (mV)

5.6. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

5.6

35

Derivation of Incompressible, Hydrostatic Pressure Relation

The infinitesimal fluid element with volume, = A z,

and mass, m is located at position z. With the fluid element at rest, the sum of the forces acting on the fluid
element must be equal to zero. In the z-direction there are
surface forces and body forces which must balance. The
z-direction surface forces acting on the top and bottom of
z
the fluid element are F (z + z
2 ) and F (z 2 ), respectively.
The body force, or weight, is gm. Thus, in the z-direction:
Fz = 0 = +F (z /2) F (z + /2) gm
The goal is to derive a force balance at a point, z, in the
fluid. The surface forces, however, are located at /2 away
from that point. The surface forces can be expressed in
terms of the force at z using a Taylor series expansion:

d A

d F (z + d z /2 )

d z

z + d z

g
d m

z
x

z - d z

d F (z -d z /2 )

F z 1 2 F z 2 1 3 F z 3
1
+
( )
( ) +
+ F (z z) = +F (z)
2
z 2 2! z 2 2
3! z 3 2
F z 1 2 F z 2 1 3 F z 3
1
F (z + z) = F (z)
( )
( )

2
z 2 2! z 2 2
3! z 3 2
+ F (z z/2) F (z + z/2) = 2 (

1 3 F z 3
F z
) 2(
( ) )
z 2
3! z 3 2

If z is small ( 1), then z 3 z and the higher order terms may be neglected. Thus, the
imbalance of surface forces on the infinitesimal fluid element reduces to the derivative of the surface
force at z multiplied by z. The force balance becomes:
Fz = 0 =

F
z gm
z

The mass of the fluid element is m = (zA). Substituting for the mass, dividing through by the
volume (zA) and recognizing that pressure is force per unit area (F /A) results in the hydrostatic
force balance:
dP
0=
g
(5.7)
dz
The pressure change associated with a column of liquid can be found by integrating equation (5.7)
with respect to z. If the gravitational acceleration and density are constant, then

P2
P1

dP = g

z2

dz

Z1

P2 P1 = g(z2 z1 )

(5.8)

Thus, knowing the fluid density, , and the gravitational acceleration, g, pressure differences may
be determined by measuring the difference in height of liquid columns.

Bibliography
[1] Yunus A. C
engel and Michael A. Boles. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach. McGrawHill, 5th edition, 2006. ISBN 0-07-288495-9.
[2] Michael J. Moran, Howard N. Shapiro, Bruce R. Munson, and David P. DeWitt. Introduction to
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