Fundamentals of Seed Production I:

Genetics, Breeding, and Seed

Production

I- INTRODUCTION

Samuel Contreras
Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile
Departamento de Ciencias Vegetales
Santiago - Chile

Food, feed, and fiber production, fundamental

goal of agriculture.

New technologies for yield improvement:

2050: 9 x 109

World Population

Inhabitants x 10
10
8

2015: 7.15 x 109

2000: 6 x 109

1900: 1.7 x 109

2
0
1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

How to deal with the increasing demand?

2000

Development of new cultivars (breeding)

Establishment techniques
Watering
Nutrient supply
Crop protection
Post harvest
etc.

Year

Breeding, main objectives

How to deal with the increasing demand?
New technologies for yield improvement:

Development of new cultivars (breeding)

Establishment techniques
Watering
Nutrient supply
Crop protection
Post harvest
etc.

50%

Maize yield in bushels per acre in the United States. The periods dominated by openpollinated, and double and single crosses hybrids are indicated along with regression
coefficients (from Crow, 1998).

Other common objectives of breeding during the

last 50 years (Fehr, 1987):

Disease and insect resistance

Seed composition
Forage quality
Tolerance to environmental stresses
Adaptability to mechanization
Lodging resistance
Photoperiod response

Impact of biotechnology on plant breeding

New tendencies in breeding objectives:

Quality traits
Accumulation or stacking of traits
New uses:
Ornamental and recreational
Medicinal
Industrial (biopolymers, biofuels)

Seed has become a delivery mechanism for new

technologies and a high value products

Activities involved in seed production:

ACTIVITY

OBJECTIVES

Genetic Selection

Develop superior varieties

Seed Production

High yield of genetically pure seed

with high performance

Seed Collection

Maximize yield at optimum stage of

development for quality seeds

Seed Conditioning

Separate seed from fruit and remove

non-seed material and weed seeds

Seed Treatments

Enhance seed germination or facilitate

sowing

Packaging and Storage

Retain seed quality until sale to or use

by crop producer

Attributes of genetically pure seed (Kester et al 1997):

Trueness to name
Trueness to type
Freedom from contaminants

(from Kester et al 1997)

 In general, the objective of any propagation technique is to

multiply a specific genotype and produce the kind of plant or
phenotype that we are interested.

II- GENETICS OF PLANT POPULATIONS

AND BREEDING SYSTEMS

In general, the objective of any propagation technique is to

multiply a specific genotype and produce the kind of plant or
phenotype that we are interested.

In general, the objective of any propagation technique is to

multiply a specific genotype and produce the kind of plant or
phenotype that we are interested.

Genotype

Genotype

(genetic constitution)

(genetic constitution)

In general, the objective of any propagation technique is to

multiply a specific genotype and produce the kind of plant or
phenotype that we are interested.

Phenotype
(external appearance)

Environment
C

Environment A
Environment A
Genotype
Genotype
(genetic constitution)

Phenotype
(external appearance)

(genetic constitution)

Environment
B

Genotype x Environment = Phenotype

Genotype
chromosome

genes

Homologous chromosome

Homologous chromosomes:
a1

locus

a2

Genes at the same locus affect the

same trait and are called alleles

Homologous chromosomes:
a1

locus

a2

Genes at the same locus affect the

same trait and are called alleles
Supposing there is not dominance:
a1 & a1 =
a1 & a2 =
a2 & a2 =

Homologous chromosomes:
a1

locus

a2

Genes at the same locus affect the

same trait and are called alleles

Homologous chromosomes:
a1

Locus a

a2

If a1 is dominant and a2 is recessive:

a1 & a1 =
a1 & a2 =

b1

b1

Locus b is homozygous

c1

c3

Locus c is heterozygous

a2 & a2 =

Homozygous genotype

Homozygosis and self-pollination

Homozygous genotype

Heterozygous genotype

Homozygosis and self-pollination

Gametes

Homozygous
genotype

Homozygous
genotype

(pollen or ovule)

Homozygosis and self-pollination

Progeny

Gametes
Homozygous
genotype

Effect of self-pollination and roguing following crossing of a Tall (DD) and Dwarf (dd)
pea. Fixing of the two parental phenotypes can be observed in succeeding generations
in the proportion of tall and dwarf plants. Continuous roguing for the recessive trait
never eliminates totally its segregation from residual heterozygous individuals (Kester
et al 1997)

(pollen or ovule)

Continuing selfpollination proportions

DD

Effect of self-pollination and roguing following crossing of a Tall (DD) and Dwarf (dd)
pea. Fixing of the two parental phenotypes can be observed in succeeding generations
in the proportion of tall and dwarf plants. Continuous roguing for the recessive trait
never eliminates totally its segregation from residual heterozygous individuals (Kester
et al 1997)
Continuing selfpollination proportions
DD

Dd

dd

DD x dd

P1
F1
F2
F3

1
3

F4
F5
F6
F7

7
15
31
126

1 (100% Dd)
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
2

7
15
31
126

Percent
homozygous

Tall

Dwarf

All
3
14

1
1

87.5
93.75
96.88
98.44

35
143
535
2143

1
1
1
1

DD

Dd

dd

87.5
93.75
96.88
98.44

87.5
93.75
96.88
98.44

Effect of self-pollination and roguing following crossing of a Tall (DD) and Dwarf (dd)
pea. Fixing of the two parental phenotypes can be observed in succeeding generations
in the proportion of tall and dwarf plants. Continuous roguing for the recessive trait
never eliminates totally its segregation from residual heterozygous individuals (Kester
et al 1997)
Continuing selfpollination proportions
DD

Dd

dd

Tall

Dwarf

%dd

All
3
14

1
1

25
7.1

35
143
535
2143

1
1
1
1

2.8
0.7
0.2
0.05

7
15
31
126

87.5
93.75
96.88
98.44

Gametes
Homozygous
cultivar

Roguing of all dwarfed

plants

Percent
homozygous

2
2
2
2

(pollen or ovule)

Progeny from
Self-pollination

Roguing of all dwarfed

plants

2.8
0.7
0.2
0.05

7
15
31
126

7
15
31
126

7
15
31
126

1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2

2.8
0.7
0.2
0.05

2
2
2
2

F4
F5
F6
F7

35
143
535
2143

7
15
31
126

1
1
1
1

7
15
31
126

2.8
0.7
0.2
0.05

25
7.1

F4
F5
F6
F7

35
143
535
2143

F4
F5
F6
F7

1
25% dd
3

1
1

25
7.1

1
3

1
2
50% Dd
2

All
3
14

1
3

1
1

1
2
2

1
25% DD
3

%dd

1
2
2

All
3
14

1
3

25
7.1

Dwarf

1
3

%dd

100
0
50
75

100
0
50
75

Tall

100
0
50
75

Dwarf

P1
F1
F2
F3

Percent
homozygous

P1
F1
F2
F3

Tall

%dd

Effect of self-pollination and roguing following crossing of a Tall (DD) and Dwarf (dd)
pea. Fixing of the two parental phenotypes can be observed in succeeding generations
in the proportion of tall and dwarf plants. Continuous roguing for the recessive trait
never eliminates totally its segregation from residual heterozygous individuals (Kester
et al 1997)
Continuing selfpollination proportions

dd

P1
F1
F2
F3

Roguing of all dwarfed

plants

100
0
50
75

Dd

Roguing of all dwarfed

plants

Percent
homozygous

Pollen flow and

contamination risk

isolation

Pollen flow and

contamination risk

Seed production area

Seed production area

Roguing: elimination of off-type plants

Roguing: elimination of off-type plants

Off-type plant

Off-type plant

Seed production area

Heterozygosis and cross-pollination

Heterozygous
genotype

Seed production area

Heterozygosis and cross-pollination

Heterozygous
genotype

Gametes
(pollen or ovule)

Heterozygosis and cross-pollination

Heterozygous
genotype

Gametes

Asexual propagation

Progeny

Sweet potato root

(pollen or ovule)

Artichoke
rooted sucker
Garlic cloves
(bulb)

Asexual propagation

Potato tuber

Open pollinated seed production

Progeny (clones)

Heterozygous
genotype
Breeding

Asexual
propagation
Selected cultivar

Heterozygous
population

Open pollinated seed production

Hybrid seed production

Seed production:
Isolation
Roguing

Selected
cultivar

Progeny from
OP seed

Heterozygous
population

Enforced selfpollination of
selected individual
through several
generations

Inbred line
Homozygous genotype
High uniformity
Low vigor (inbreed depression)

Hybrid seed production

Hybrid seed production

Gametes

Hybrid cultivar

Gametes

Line A

Line A

Line B

H
y
b
r
i
d
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

Line B

Heterozygous genotype
Very uniform
Vigorous (heterosis)

Hybrid seed production

An hybrid cultivar may be defined as the first

generation from a cross that results from controlled
pollination between progenitors with different genotype.
The seed obtained from that cross is the only commercial
seed that may be designated as hybrid.

Comparison of grain yields for hybrid maize and their inbred

parents from different decades of use when grown in the same
environment (from Fehr, 1987).

AxB

AxB
A

Single-cross hybrid, from the cross between two

inbred lines (A and B in this figure).

(AxB)xC
AxB

Three-way cross hybrid, from the cross between a

single-cross hybrid (AxB) and an inbred line (C).

AxB

CxD

DxA
(AxB)x(CxD)

AxB

CxD

Double-cross hybrid, from the cross between two

single-cross hybrid (AxB and CxD).

Top-cross hybrid, from the cross between an inbred

two inbred line (A) and an open-pollinated cultivar
(D)

Apomixis
Involves seeds, but is an asexual form of reproduction
Progeny is genetically identical to mother plant
Facultative apomixis: sexual and apomictic seeds are
produced

III- MECHANISMS FAVORING SELF- OR

CROSS- POLLINATION

Obligate apomixis: all seeds formed are apomictic

In sexual reproduction, seeds are classified according with the source

of pollen that is responsible for fertilization (Fehr, 1987):

Types of plant species according with frequency of self- or crosspollination (Fehr, 1987):

Self-pollinated seeds are formed when the pollen is produced on the

same plant as the ovule which it fertilizes.

Self-pollinated or autogamous

Cross-pollinated seeds result when the pollen of one plant fertilizes

the ovule of another plant.

Cross-pollinated or allogamous

10

Perfect or hermaphroditic flowers:

Perfect or hermaphroditic flowers:

Imperfect or
unisexual flowers:

Modifications of perfect flowers that may favor either self- or cross-pollination:

Mechanism

Description

Self-pollination in lettuce:
Corolla

Favoring self-pollination
Cleistogamy

Production of closed flowers

Homogamy

Simultaneous maturation of male and female structures

Stigma
Pollen
Stamens

Favoring cross-pollination
Chasmogamy

Pollination occurs in open flowers

Dichogamy

Stamens and stigma mature at different moments

Protandry
Protogeny

pollen shed before the stigma is receptive

stigma matures and cease to be receptive before pollen shed

Self-incompatibility

Inability to self-pollinate

Sterility

Production of non-functional gametes or sexual structures

Heterostyly

Two or more different positional arrangements of anthers and

stigma

Protogyny in
magnolia:

Ovary

Emergence of style and stigma through staminal column in lettuce

perfect flowers (from Besnier, 1989)

Heterostyly in
primula:

thrum plant

pin plant

In the first day flower, the stigmas are receptive and the anthers have not begun to
shed pollen. In the second day flower, the anthers are shedding pollen and the stigmas
are no longer receptive. This example is Magnolia grandiflora, southern magnolia.
Photos taken by K. R. Robertson of trees at the University of North Carolina.
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/plantbio/digitalflowers/index.htm

From Silverside, 2002, at: http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/bioref/Genetics/Primula_heterostyly.html

11

Heterostyly in
primula:

thrum plant

stigma

Heterostyly in
primula:

pin plant

From Silverside, 2002, at: http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/bioref/Genetics/Primula_heterostyly.html

Heterostyly in
primula:

anthers

stigma

thrum plant

pin plant

From Silverside, 2002, at: http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/bioref/Genetics/Primula_heterostyly.html

Self-incompatibility
Self-incompatibility is the inability of functional pollen to set
seed after self-pollination.

thrum plant

pin plant

Two types:
Gametophytic self-incompatibility
Sporophytic self-incompatibility

From Silverside, 2002, at: http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/bioref/Genetics/Primula_heterostyly.html

Gametophytic self-incompatibility
Gametophytic self-incompatibility results from the interaction
between the haploid genotype of the pollen grain and the diploid
genotype of the pistil.

Gametophytic self-incompatibility
Gametophytic self-incompatibility results from the interaction
between the haploid genotype of the pollen grain and the diploid
genotype of the pistil.

Aborted
pollen
tube

normal
pollen
tube

Example of gemetophytic self-incompatibility with three alleles (S1, S2, and S3).
Results from the pollinization with pollen S1 and S2 and pistils S1S2, S1S3, and
S2S3. Only S2S3 and S1S3 zygotes are formed (from Besnier, 1989).

12

Gametophytic self-incompatibility

Sporophytic self-incompatibility
Sporophytic self-incompatibility results from the interaction
between the diploid genotype of the pollen grain and the diploid
genotype of the pistil.

Relations of compatibility and incompatibility for a population with

three alleles S for the locus of self-incompatibility.
Plant
Pollen
S1S2

Plant

Pistil
S1S2
Pistil
S1S3
Pistil
S2S3

Pollen
S1S3

Pollen
S2S3

S1

S2

S1

S3

S2

S3

+
-

+
-

+
-

+
-

+: compatible
- : non-compatible

Sporophytic self-incompatibility

Sporophytic self-incompatibility

Sporophytic self-incompatibility results from the interaction

between the diploid genotype of the pollen grain and the diploid
genotype of the pistil.
Diploid genotype
pollen grain

Types of sporophytic self-incompatibility in relation with the dominance

of the incompatibility alleles in pollen and pistil in cruciferae species
(Besnier 1989).

Type

(from Kester et al 1997)

Diploid genotype
pistil

Example of sporophytic self-incompatibility with four independent alleles (S1,

S2, S3, and S4). Results from the pollinization with pollen S1S2 and pistils S1S2,
S2S3, and S3S4. Only genotypes without common alleles are compatible.

Male Sterility
Male sterility is the failure of a plant to produce functional
pollen.
Two types:

Polen
Dominance

Pistil

Group of species where this

type of incompatibility may be
found

Independence

cabbage, brussels sprouts

Independence

cabbage, brussels sprouts,

broccoli, chineese cabbage,
kohlrabi, rabano

II

Dominance

III

Independence Dominance

cabbage

IV

Independence Dominance

chineese cabbage, kohlrabi,

rabano

Genetic male sterility

Three possible
genotypes:
ms ms

Homozygous, male sterile

Genetic male sterility

Cytoplasmic male sterility

Ms ms

Heterozygous, male fertile

Ms Ms

Homozygous, male fertile

13

Genetic male sterility

Cytoplasmic male sterility

Hybrid seed production using genetic male sterility:

Pollen receptor line

Pollen donor line

ms ms

ms ms

sterile cytoplasm (S) + homozygous genotype for ms = male sterile

ms ms

normal cytoplasm (N) + homozygous genotype for ms = male fertile

Ms ms

sterile cytoplasm (S) + heterozygous genotype = male fertile

Ms Ms

sterile cytoplasm (S) + homozygous genotype for MS = male fertile

Ms Ms

N
Ms ms

Hybrid cultivar

Cytoplasmic male sterility

Hybrid seed production using cytoplasmic male sterility:
Pollen receptor line

Pollen donor line

X

rf rf

Rf Rf

Rf rf

Hybrid

14