Inspection and Testing of Piping Systems

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
INSPECTION AND TESTING

OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-101.09
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Piping, Pipelines & Valves

Inspection and Testing of Piping Systems
MODULE COMPONENT
PAGE
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 3
SAES-L-055, Inspection of Piping Systems ............................................ 4
SPECIFYING APPLICABLE METHODS OF WELD INSPECTION AND
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA................................................................................. 6
Typical Weld Imperfections ..................................................................... 7
Types of Weld Inspection ........................................................................ 9
Visual Examination ....................................................................... 9
Radiography ................................................................................. 9
Magnetic Particle ........................................................................ 12
Liquid-Penetrant Examination..................................................... 16
Ultrasonic Examination............................................................... 19
Examination Requirements ................................................................... 20
DETERMINING TEST PRESSURES REQUIRED FOR
A PIPING SYSTEM.......................................................................................... 25
Types of Pressure Tests and Their Purposes ....................................... 26
Strength Test.............................................................................. 26
Tightness Test ............................................................................ 26
Leak Test.................................................................................... 26
System Test ............................................................................... 27
Service Test ............................................................................... 27
Revalidation Test........................................................................ 27
Plant Piping ................................................................................ 28
Cross-Country Pipelines............................................................. 30
Sample Problem 1................................................................................. 34
Solution ................................................................................................. 34
Sample Problem 2................................................................................. 34
Solution ................................................................................................. 35
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 36
WORK AID 1: GUIDELINES FOR SPECIFYING METHODS OF WELD
INSPECTION ................................................................................................... 37
WORK AID 2: GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING PRESSURE
TESTS AND CALCULATING TEST PRESSURE ............................................ 38

Pressure Test........................................................................................ 38
Function ................................................................................................ 38
Situation ................................................................................................ 38
Test Pressure........................................................................................ 38
GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................... 41
ii

INTRODUCTION
An engineer will often be asked to participate in the
design of a piping system by evaluating a contractor's
proposal, auditing a contractor's work, performing a
screening study for cost estimating purposes, or actually
designing and managing pieces of the project.
After a piping system has been designed and laid out, the
next step is to fabricate and construct it, as discussed in
MEX 101.08. Once the piping system is constructed, it
must be inspected for defects and tested before it is
placed into operation. The inspector must look for
defects through various examination methods, especially
in welded areas. An engineer may audit an inspection
contractor's work to ensure that Saudi Aramco and
industry inspection standards are met. After inspection is
completed, any defects that are found must be repaired
before the pipe is placed into operation, and a pressure
test must be conducted. When all requirements are met,
the piping system goes into operation and routine
maintenance and inspection must be done. (Routine
maintenance and inspection will be discussed in MEX
101.11). This module discusses the Saudi Aramco and
industry requirements for inspection and examination, the
types of inspection and examination, and pressure
testing. This module does not discuss the details of
every examination procedure. The emphasis of this
module is on the requirements and purpose of
examination and inspection.

SAES-L-055, Inspection of Piping Systems

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-L-055,
Inspection of Piping Systems, covers the basic coderelated requirements for examination, inspection, and
testing of all new pressure piping systems.
The required inspections shall be made after each

part or stage of the work has been completed or
while the work is in progress. Inspections shall be
carried out per Aramco Inspection Practices (AIP's)
when available and applicable.
All drawings, calculations, and other design work

shall be checked and initialed by a qualified person
on behalf of the design office for compliance with
the applicable Saudi Aramco Engineering
Standards, and any other instructions, supplied by
Saudi Aramco to the design office. Such checking
shall be monitored on behalf of Saudi Aramco by the
assigned Project Engineer or other qualified person
in the Engineering Services Organization.
All bills of materials, requisitions, technical purchase

order requirements, technical bid evaluations, and
any material specifications prepared for the project
shall be checked and initialed by the qualified
person.

SAES-L-055, Inspection of Piping Systems, Cont'd
All material specifications other than SAMSS's shall

be approved first by the engineer having
responsibility for the design, and second, by the
Project Manager or Chief Engineer.
Construction specifications and contracts shall

require supervision of all work for proper
workmanship and examination of each completed
work stage for compliance with the technical
requirements of the project.
Saudi Aramco inspection shall be provided to

monitor the quality control of the construction
agency and to verify that all piping work is being
installed in accordance with the approved project
drawings, project specifications, and the
construction requirements of the applicable code
and standards.
Any conflict that is noted between the project

drawings or specifications and the SAES's shall be
brought to the attention of the responsible Project
Engineer and shall be resolved, if necessary, by the
assigned specialist in the Engineering Services
Organization.
All pressure piping systems that are within the

scope of the Saudi Aramco piping standards must
be tested in accordance with SAES-A-004, Pressure
Testing. These testing requirements will be
discussed later in this module.

SPECIFYING APPLICABLE METHODS OF WELD INSPECTION AND

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
Defects must be identified before a piping system can be
tested or go into operation. Defect identification is
especially important in welded areas. A good weld starts
with a proper design, and is executed using a qualified
procedure and welder, as discussed in MEX 101.08.
However, the quality that is achieved in a particular
instance may not be acceptable for a variety of reasons.
The engineer must specify the method of weld
examination that is needed to ensure that welds of
acceptable quality are achieved. There are different
methods of examination and inspection. Not all welds
are inspected in the same manner. Determining the
proper type of weld inspection is a function of technique,
weld type, anticipated type of defect, location of weld,
and pipe material.
A different type of inspection technique is required

for examining butt-welds than is required for fillet
welds.
A full-penetration, pressure-retaining weld requires

closer inspection than a fillet weld that holds a
reinforcement pad.
Some inspection techniques are not applicable to

stainless steel.
Specifying weld inspection enables the engineer to apply

Saudi Aramco Standards and audit an inspection
contractor's work. The engineer must know the various
types of weld defects, types of weld inspection, and
requirements of each examination to specify the proper
type of inspection. Work Aid 1 summarizes the
applicability of the different inspection methods to various
types of weld defects.

Typical Weld Imperfections

The following are common weld defects (illustrated in
Figure 1):
Lack of fusion between adjacent weld passes.
Lack of fusion between weld bead and base metal.
Incomplete penetration due to internal misalignment.
Incomplete penetration of weld groove.
Concave root surface.
Undercut.
Excess external reinforcement.
Cracks.

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TYPICAL WELD IMPERFECTIONS
Lack of Fusion Between Weld Bead and Base Metal
a) Side Wall Lack of Fusion
b) Lack of Fusion Between

Adjacent Passes
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Incomplete Filling at Root on One Side Only
c) Incomplete Penetration Due

to Internal Misalignment
Incomplete Filling at Root
d) Incomplete Penetration of
Weld Groove
External Undercut
Root Bead Fused to Both Inside

Surfaces but Center of Root Slightly
Below Inside Surface of Pipe (Not
Incomplete Penetration)
e) Concave Root Surface

(Suck-Up)
Internal Undercut
f) Undercut
g) Excess External Reinforcement
Source: ASME/ANSI B31.3 -1988. With permission from the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
FIGURE 1

Types of Weld Inspection

The presence of defects reduces the strength of the weld
from what was assumed in the design calculations. This
reduces the overall strength of the fabrication and
increases the risk of failure. Weld inspection must be
carried out in a manner that will detect unacceptable
defects while not damaging the material. This is called
nondestructive examination (NDE). The following is a
brief introduction to the primary NDE methods that are
used in piping systems. Complete coverage of this
subject requires its own course since there are many
different techniques, procedures and equipment
possibilities for each examination method. Section V of
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code provides
detailed requirements for conducting NDE.
Visual Examination
A thorough visual inspection is usually satisfactory for

minor structural welds, such as those that connect
insulation support rings to a vessel shell. In addition, all
surfaces of welds that are to be examined by more
extensive means are first thoroughly examined visually.
Visual weld inspection involves measuring the weld and
noticing any areas of obvious surface porosity holes, slag
inclusions, weld undercut or overlapping. This visual
inspection provides the inspector with an overall
impression of weld quality and helps pinpoint areas
where additional NDE should be concentrated.
Radiography
The most important NDE method is radiographic

examination. In this process, a high-energy ray is
emitted from a controllable source, penetrates a test
specimen, and leaves an image on a strip of film that is
mounted behind the test specimen. One major
advantage of radiography is that it produces a permanent
record of the examination on the film. Figure 2 illustrates
the basic setup for radiographic examination.
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION SETUP

FIGURE 2
10

Types of Weld Inspection, Cont'd
Any change in density of the weld metal will be shown on

the film as a dark spot. Thus, flaws such as gas pockets,
slag inclusions, incomplete penetration, or cracks located
anywhere through the weld thickness are readily
detected. Radiographic examination is most effective in
detecting and identifying small flaws, and is most
effective for examining butt-welded joints.
Radiography has some limitations. It is not very practical
to use for complex shapes such as tee junctions because
the results can be difficult to interpret for such
geometries. Radiographic inspection is a relatively
expensive method because of the high equipment cost,
and the precautions that are required to ensure operator
safety. The area where radiographic inspections are
conducted is restricted to protect personnel from
exposure to the rays. The operators who actually
perform the work are generally behind protective shields.
The extent of radiographic examination is specified in
ASME/ANSI B31.3,
Paragraph 344.5.2.
100% radiography applies only to girth- and mitergroove welds and to fabricated branch connection
welds.
Random radiography applies only to girth and miter

groove welds.
Spot radiography requires a single exposure

radiograph at a point that is within a specified extent
of welding. For girth, miter, and branch groove
welds the minimum requirement is:
For NPS 63 mm (2 1/2 in.), a single elliptical

exposure encompassing the entire weld
circumference.
For NPS > 63 mm (2 1/2 in.), the lesser of 25%

of the inside circumference or 150 mm (6 in.).
For transportation piping, the extent of radiographic
examination is specified in ASME/ANSI B31.4,
Paragraph 434.8.5, and ASME/ANSI B31.8,
Paragraph 826.
11

Magnetic Particle
Magnetic particle examination is suitable for detecting

cracks, porosity and lack of fusion at or near the surface
of ferromagnetic materials. Depending on the particular
method that is employed, flaws that are up to 6 mm (1/4
in.) beneath the weld surface can be detected. Magnetic
particle examination is frequently employed on the root
and final weld passes, or every 6 mm (1/4 in.) of weld
buildup for critical welds where radiographic inspection is
not practical.
Because magnetic particle inspection depends on the
magnetic properties of the material being examined, it
cannot be used on nonmagnetic materials. In addition,
other limitations include:
It cannot be considered as a method for volume

examination of a casting, forging, or other wrought
material, as can the radiographic and ultrasonic
methods.
Surfaces must be clean.
The magnetic field must be oriented with respect to

the flaw as close to 90 as possible, as shown in
Figure 3.
Surface roughness and configuration may decrease

sensitivity.
Subsurface discontinuities (porosity, slag inclusion,

sand holes, hot tears) usually produce particle
patterns which are not clearly defined.
Sensitivity decreases as the size of the discontinuity

decreases and also at a certain depth below the
surface.
Insufficient field strength may fail to produce

indications of defects.
Irrelevant indications of defects may occur when

conditions cause a sudden change in the magnetic
field.
12

Magnetic particle inspection is based on the magnetic

lines of flux, or force lines, that can be generated within a
test piece. These force lines are parallel to each other
through the test piece if there are no defects present. If
there are defects, there will be a small break in the force
lines at the defect location. The basic approach for
magnetic particle inspection is to apply iron powder to the
surface and magnetize the test piece. If there are no
defects, the powder is aligned in straight lines along the
North-South magnetic flux lines. If there are defects, the
powder alignment is disturbed and forms around the
defect. This is shown schematically in Figure 4. There
are several specific approaches to magnetic particle
inspection, depending on the nature of the piece to be
inspected and the required sensitivity.
13

FLAW INDICATION IN A DISC WITH CIRCULAR FIELD
FIGURE 3
14

MAGNETIC LINES OF FLUX
FIGURE 4
15

Liquid-Penetrant Examination
A liquid-penetrant examination is used to detect weld

surface-type defects. Surface defects include cracks,
seams, porosity, folds, inclusions, shrinkage, or any other
surface defect that might occur. Liquid-penetrant
examination may be used for both ferrous and nonferrous materials. It is often used as the first and only
step after visual inspection for relatively minor structuraltype welds. In some cases, liquid-penetrant examination
is done on intermediate weld passes for critical welds to
detect and repair defects early, before an entire weld is
made. Liquid-penetrant examination is often done on the
weld root pass to ensure that this first weld is sound, and
after the final weld pass to find surface breaking flaws. It
is then followed by another inspection method to search
for internal defects. Liquid-penetrant examination is
relatively simple to perform and less expensive than
radiographic, magnetic particle, or ultrasonic inspections.
The major limitation of liquid-penetrant examination is
that it can only detect imperfections that are open to the
surface. It cannot be used as the only examination tool
for critical pressure-containing welds.
Liquid-penetrant examination requires the following basic
steps:
1.
Surface Preparation and Cleaning.

Adequate cleaning prior to liquid-penetrant
examination is necessary to obtain meaningful
results. All surface coatings (i.e., paint, etc.) and
contaminants must be completely removed because
they could either stop the penetrant from entering
the flaw, or prevent the penetrant from identifying
the flaw. Solvent cleaning is the most popular
method used.
2.
Penetrant Application.
Liquid-penetrant solutions have high fluidity, low
viscosity, and high reliability to permit them to
penetrate defects via capillary action. They also
16

contain either a fluorescent or visible dye to mark

potential defect areas. Penetrant is applied to the
clean and dried part to be inspected by any means
that will thoroughly wet the surface. Spraying is a
common application method. It will generally take
10-30 minutes to ensure adequate liquid penetration
into any flaws that are present. After this waiting
period, excess penetrant is removed.
3.
Removal of Excess Penetrant.

Excess penetrant must be removed from the surface
by wiping with a clean cloth or equivalent. The
penetrant must still be liquid rather than dried at this
point or the entire process must be started again.
The objective is to remove the penetrant from the
weld surface without removing any that seeped into
weld defects.
Types of Weld Inspection, Cont'd
4.
Development.
After excess penetrant is removed, developer is
immediately applied to make the flaws readily
visible. The developer aids in detecting penetrant
that is retained in surface flaws by aiding the
capillary bleed-out process. Developer emphasizes
the presence of a flaw by causing the penetrant that
is retained in the flaw to spread over a larger area.
It also acts as a color-contrasting background for the
dye that is used in visible penetrants, or for the
fluorescent material that is used in fluorescent
penetrants.
5.
Inspection and Evaluation.

After sufficient development has taken place, the
weld is ready for inspection. Inspection is done in
normal light when visible-dye penetrants are used,
and in ultraviolet light when fluorescent penetrants
are used. With either method, two types of
indications are revealed: true indications and false
indications.
17

The standard, true flaws that are indicated include

cracks, cold-shut cracks, pits, and porosity. In Figure 5,
a large crack is shown as a solid line of some width and
becomes apparent soon after the developer is applied.
The cold-shut crack is an undersurface crack that bleeds
to the surface. It is represented by a line of dots and
requires a few minutes, after the developer is applied, to
come to the surface. Porosity indications come to the
surface almost immediately after application of the
developer and appear as dots.
LIQUID PENETRANT TEST INDICATIONS
FIGURE 5
False or nonrelevant indications are not caused by
surface flaws. The primary causes of these indications
are poor liquid-penetrant application procedures, or
rough weld surfaces. The results of the liquid-penetrant
examination must be evaluated to determine if the flaws
indicated are real, their extent and exact nature, and
decide whether repairs must be made.
18

Ultrasonic Examination
Ultrasonic examination is frequently used to detect subsurface flaws such as laminations or slag inclusions in
thick plates, welds, castings, or forgings. It is often used
in order to confirm that high weld quality is being
obtained in pressure-containing joints that cannot be
examined by radiography, such as at branch
connections.
In ultrasonic examination, sound waves are generated by
a power source and are applied to the test piece through
a transducer. A schematic of an ultrasonic examination
system is shown in Figure 6.
PULSE-ECHO ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION SYSTEM
FIGURE 6
In the pulse-echo system shown in Figure 6, the sound
waves pass through the test piece. They are reflected
back to the transducer either from the far side of the
piece or from a flaw that is in an intermediate location.
By proper calibration, the ultrasonic examination operator
will know whether a flaw has been detected, and if so, its
location and size.
19

A through-transmission ultrasonic examination system,

as shown in Figure 7, uses two transducers, one to
transmit the waves and the other to receive them. In this
case, if a flaw is present, it blocks the sound waves from
being received by the receiving transducer.
The use of ultrasonic examination requires that the
inspector be qualified and experienced in the technique.
THROUGH-TRANSMISSION ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION SETUP
FIGURE 7
Examination Requirements
Prior to initial operation, each piping installation, including
individual components and overall workmanship, shall be
examined. The following requirements are based on
ASME/ANSI B31.3, Paragraph 341.4.
For P-Nos. 3, 4, and 5 materials, examination shall

be performed after heat treatment. In this way, any
defects that might be caused by the heat treatment
will be present.
20

For a welded branch connection, the examination of

and any necessary repairs to the pressurecontaining weld shall be completed before any
reinforcing pad or saddle is added. Thus, the
reinforcement will not prevent inspection and repair.
Piping that is in Normal Fluid Service shall be

examined. Figure 8, Acceptance Criteria for Welds,
specifies examination requirements based on fluid
service category, and also includes requirements for
severe cyclic conditions and Category D fluid
services.
Examination Requirements, Cont'd
At least 5% of all fabrication shall be visually

examined.
100% of fabrication for longitudinal welds, except in

components made in accordance with a listed
specification, shall be visually inspected.
Random visual examination of the assembly of

threaded, bolted, and other joints.
Random visual examination during the erection of

piping.
Not less than 5% of circumferential butt- and mitergroove welds shall be examined fully by random
radiography or random ultrasonic examination.
Not less than 5% of all brazed joints shall be

examined, by in-process examination.
Piping in severe cyclical service requires additional

examination.
Table 341.3.2A, shown as Figure 8, matches the type of

weld inspection with the kind of imperfection. The focus
of this table is to determine if a weld defect is acceptable.
This will be discussed further in MEX 101.11.
Based on ASME/ANSI B31.4, Paragraph 434.8.5:
21

The quality of welding shall be checked by NDE or

by removing completed welds as selected by the
inspector for destructive testing.
NDE shall consist of radiographic examination or

other acceptable NDE methods.
When the pipeline is to be operated at a hoop stress

of more than 20% of the specified minimum yield
strength, certain girth welds shall be inspected.
A minimum of 10% of the welds completed each day

shall be randomly inspected by the operating
company.
Each weld that is inspected shall be inspected

completely around its circumference.
Examination Requirements, Cont'd
In the following locations or conditions, a minimum

of 90% of the girth welds shall be inspected:
-
Within populated areas.
River, lake, and stream crossings within an area

subject to frequent inundation.
Railroad or public highway rights of way.
Offshore and inland coastal waterways.
Old girth welds that are in used pipe.
Tie-in girth welds that are not hydrostatically

tested.
22
Branch
Fillet [Note
(3)] Connection [Note (4)]
Branch Connection [Note (

Fillet [Note (3)]
Longitudinal Groove [Note (2)
Fillet [Note
(3)] Connection [Note (4)]
Branch
Girth And Miter Groove
Severe Cyclic Conditions
Methods
Types of Weld
Category D Fluid Service

Methods
Types of Weld
Visual
Magnetic Particle
Liquid Penetrant
Types of Weld
100% Radiography
Girth And Miter Groove

Longitudinal Groove [Note (2)]
Normal Fluid Service
Methods
Visual
Kind of
Imperfection
Criteria (A to M) for Types of Welds, for Service Conditions, and for Required Examination Methods [Note (1)]
Visual
Spot Or Random Radiography
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELDS
GirthLongitudinal
And Miter Groove
Groove [Note (2
Crack
Lack of Fusion
NA
NA
C
Incomplete
Penetration
NA
NA
Internal Porosity
NA
NA
(a) Slag Inclusion or

Elongated Indication
NA
NA
(a) Undercutting
Surface Porosity or
Exposed Slag
Inclusion [Note (5)]
Surface Finish
(a) Concave Root

Surface (Suck-Up)
NA
NA
NA
Reinforcement or
Internal Protrusion
Engineers.
FIGURE 8
23

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELDS, CONT'D
Engineers.
FIGURE 8, Cont'd
24

DETERMINING TEST PRESSURES REQUIRED FOR A PIPING SYSTEM

Once welds have been properly designed for their
purpose, and are of the necessary quality, one more step
is necessary to ensure that the piping system is sound. It
must be pressure tested. Saudi Aramco requires
pressure testing of piping systems and equipment. All
defects that are found from weld inspection must be
repaired before the pressure test. If the defects are not
repaired, pipe failure may result.
The objective of the pressure test is to bring the piping
system to a high enough internal pressure under
controlled conditions, such that its mechanical integrity
has been demonstrated. Once the pressure test has
been conducted, the item is considered acceptable for
operation. Water is almost always used as the test
medium because of its relative safety. If a leak at a weld
develops during a hydrotest, the internal pressure
immediately drops because water is an incompressible
fluid, and therefore causes no major damage. Stresses
in components during a pressure test are normally
permitted to go as high as 90% of the material yield point.
This approach ensures that the components will be
exposed to a much higher stress than they will
experience in service, but under well controlled
conditions. If no defects are found under these
conditions, then the piping integrity has been
demonstrated. Test pressures are discussed in further
detail in the next section of this module.
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-A-004,
Pressure Testing, specifies general requirements for
pressure testing. Saudi Aramco General Instruction GI
2.102, Safety Precautions for Pressure Testing, provides
safety requirements that must be followed for pressure
testing. The checklist in GI 2.102 should be filled out
before all pressure tests. The details of GI 2.102 will not
be discussed because they are beyond the scope of this
course.
25

Types of Pressure Tests and Their Purposes

The following describes various types of pressure tests
and their purposes. Each test can either be a hydrostatic
test or, if approved by the Chief Inspection Engineer, a
pneumatic test. As previously noted, pressure tests will
normally by hydrostatic.
Strength Test
A Strength Test is a pressure test at an internal pressure

that is high enough to verify the integrity of the piping
and/or equipment for service at the Maximum Allowable
Operating Pressure (MAOP).
During this test, the equipment shall not be subject to
impact. The test pressure shall be maintained for a
duration of not less than 10 minutes.
A strength test is applied in the following cases:
Before piping system is initially placed in service.
After repairs or alterations have been made that

affect the strength of pressure containing parts,
except as noted in SAES-A-004.
At intervals as specified by Equipment Inspection

Schedules.
Tightness Test
A Tightness Test is a pressure test which is conducted at

a reduced pressure from the strength test pressure, and
is done immediately after the strength test. A tightness
test only applies to cross-country pipelines.
Leak Test
A Leak Test is a pressure test to demonstrate that there

are no leaks in the system at the test pressure. Leak
tests are normally conducted by Operations during startup or commissioning of the facilities, using approved
plant procedures, and are outside the scope of SAES-A004.
26

System Test
A System Test is an in-situ strength test which is applied

to a system that is comprised of piping and other
equipment that operate at one MAOP, as limited by the
weakest element in the system.
Service Test
A Service Test is a strength test for low-pressure utility

services that is conducted at the operating pressure with
the service fluid.
Revalidation Test
A Revalidation Test is a pressure test which is meant to

prove the integrity of buried cross- country pipelines.
This test is conducted at the option of, and at the
intervals set by, the responsible operating organization.
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-A-004 and
the applicable industry code provide test pressure
requirements. The following sections discuss test
pressures for plant piping and cross-country pipelines.
The primary test pressure requirements are summarized
in Work Aid 2.
27

Plant Piping
For new piping, unless limited by flanges or by

valves in the line, the hydrostatic strength-test
pressure shall be calculated to produce a hoop
stress of 90% of the specified minimum yield
strength (SMYS), but shall not be less than the
minimum test pressure that is determined per
ASME/ANSI B31.3. For new installations, the test
pressure shall be calculated based on nominal
pipewall thickness less mill tolerance
(manufacturer's minus tolerance).
Strength test pressures for existing piping shall be

per ASME/ANSI B31.3 Paragraph 345.4, based on
the design pressure for hydrostatic leak tests. The
hydrostatic test pressure at any point in a metallic
piping system shall be as follows:
(a)
Not less than 1-1/2 times the design pressure.
(b) For design temperatures that are above the

test temperature, the minimum test
pressure
shall be calculated as follows, except that the value
of ST/S shall not exceed 6.5:
P T = 1.5 P S T
S
where:
PT
Minimum hydrostatic test gauge pressure.
P =
Internal design gage pressure.
ST
S =
Allowable stress at design temperature.
Allowable stress at test temperature.
(c) If the test pressure as defined above would

produce a stress in excess of the
yield strength
at test temperature, the test pressure may be
reduced to the
maximum pressure that will not
exceed the yield strength at test temperature.
Pneumatic strength tests, when approved, shall be

conducted per Paragraph 345.5
of
ASME/ANSI B31.3. The tightness test shall be per
Paragraph 345.5.4 of
ASME/ANSI B31.3. Only
during the tightness test shall the piping be
approached
and inspected for leakage
28

Types of Pressure Tests and Their Purposes, Cont'd
Based on ASME/ANSI B31.3, Paragraph 345.5, for

pneumatic leak tests, the test pressure is 110% of
the design pressure.
Underground pressure piping that is in process

water service and employs non-welded girth joints
(bell and spigot) shall be strength tested to 1.5 times
the system design pressure prior to backfilling. The
test pressure shall be maintained for two hours
while the joints are inspected for leakage.
If for operational safety reasons the line must be
back-filled, then the joints shall remain exposed
during testing, or be subjected to a 24-hour
recorded test.
Lube and seal oil piping shall be strength tested with

the service fluid. The test pressure shall be 1.5
times the design pressure or 690 kPa(ga) (100
psig), whichever is greater.
Low-pressure lines that are designed for less than

690 kPa(ga) (100 psig) may be pneumatically
strength tested. The pneumatic strength test shall
be the lesser of 110% of the design pressure or
125% of the normal operating pressure, but never
less than 170 kPa(ga) (25 psig). A tightness test at
21-35 kPa(ga) (3-5 psig) shall be conducted and the
piping checked for leakage with a soap solution.
Instrument take-off piping and sampling system

piping, up to the first block valve, shall be strength
tested with the piping or equipment to which it is
connected.
Instrument lead lines, between the first block valve

and the instruments to which they are connected,
shall be subjected to the same strength test as the
piping or equipment the instruments are connected
to. Elements that may be damaged shall be
disconnected.
Piping systems in vacuum service shall be strength

tested to 100 kPa(ga) (15 psig).
29

Paragraph 345.4.3 of ASME/ANSI B31.3 states that

for a hydrostatic test of piping with vessels as a
system:
(a) Where the test pressure of piping attached to a
vessel is the same as or less than
the test
pressure for the vessel, the piping may be tested
with the vessel at the
piping test pressure.
(b) Where the test pressure of the piping exceeds
the vessel test pressure, and it is
not
considered practical to isolate the piping from the
vessel, the piping and
the vessel may be tested
together at the vessel test pressure, provided the
owner
approves and the vessel test pressure is
not less than 77% of the calculated
piping test
pressure.
Cross-Country Pipelines
Unless limited by flanges or valves in the line,

hydrostatic strength test pressure of newly
constructed pipelines shall be calculated to produce
a hoop stress of 90% of the SMYS of the pipe
material based on the nominal wall thickness. The
test pressure at the lowest point of the pipeline,
including the static head, shall not result in a hoop
stress greater than the SMYS. The strength test
pressure shall be maintained for two hours.
The strength test temperature shall not result in a

combined longitudinal stress exceeding the SMYS.
The combined longitudinal stress is calculated
based on 0.7 hoop stress at the test pressure plus
temperature stress plus bending stress.
Tightness test of newly constructed pipelines shall

be conducted at 95% of the strength test pressure
immediately at the completion of the strength test.
The tightness test pressure shall be maintained long
30

enough for the inspector to examine all exposed

joints. A 24-hour recorded tightness test shall be
applied when the pipeline is buried or covered by
insulation, or is partially buried with a total buried
length of more than 300 m (1000 ft).
Where pressure variations caused by test-water

temperature changes can occur, such as in crosscountry pipelines, a sufficient number of
thermocouples shall be installed to obtain accurate
pipe metal temperature measurements that are
required in order to determine the acceptance of the
pressure test. The Consulting Services Department
shall be consulted with regard to any deviations that
are noted in the 24-hour pressure chart.
31

Strength test pressure of existing pipelines shall be

per the applicable ASME/ANSI B31.4 or B31.8
piping code based on the Maximum Allowable
Operating Pressure (MAOP) of the pipeline. This is
specified as follows:
(a)
Portions of piping systems to be operated at a

hoop stress of more than 20% of the specified
minimum yield strength of the pipe shall be
subjected at any point to a hydrostatic proof
test equivalent to not less than 1.25 times the
internal design pressure at that point for not
less than four hours. When lines are tested at
pressures which develop a hoop stress, based
on nominal wall thickness, in excess of 90% of
the specified minimum yield strength of the
pipe, special care shall be used to prevent
overstrain of the pipe.
PT = 1.25PD
where: PD = MAOP of limiting component.
(b)
(1)
Those portions of piping systems where

all of the pressured components are
visually inspected during the proof test
to determine that there is no leakage
require no further test. This can include
lengths of pipe which are pretested for
use as replacement sections.
(2)
On those portions of piping systems not

visually inspected while under test, the
proof test shall be followed by a reduced
pressure leak test equivalent to not less
than 1.1 times the internal design
pressure for not less than four hours.
API RP 1110, Pressure Testing of Liquid

Petroleum Pipelines, may be used for guidance
for the hydrostatic test.
32

(c)
The hydrostatic tests shall be conducted with

water, except liquid petroleum that does not
vaporize rapidly may be used provided:
(1)
The pipeline section under test is not

offshore and is outside of cities and
other populated areas, and each
building within 90 m (300 ft.) of the test
section is unoccupied while the test
pressure is equal to or greater than a
pressure which produces a hoop stress
of 50% of the specific minimum yield
strength of the pipe;
(2)
The test section is kept under

surveillance by regular patrols during
test; and
(3)
Communication is maintained along the

test section.

(d)
If the testing medium in the system will be

subject to thermal expansion during the test,
provisions shall be made for relief of excess
pressure. Effects of temperature changes shall
be taken into account when interpretations are
made of recorded test pressures.
(e)
After completion of the hydrostatic test, it is

important in cold weather that the lines, valves,
and fittings be drained completely of any water
to avoid damage due to freezing.
Work Aid 2 summarizes pressure test requirements.
33

Sample Problem 1
A new 1,050 mm (42 in.) crude oil transportation pipeline
must be pressure tested. The MAOP of the pipeline is
4,964 kPa (720 psig) and is limited by the 13 mm (0.500
in.) pipe wall thickness. The SMYS of API 5L Gr. X42
ERW pipe material is 289.6 MPa (42,000 psi.).
Specify the type of pressure tests and required test
pressures.
Solution
Work Aid 2 may be used to help solve this problem
1.
Strength Test.
PT =
=
(2)(0.9 SMYS)(E )(T)

(2)(0.9)(42,000 )(1.0)(0.5) = 900 psig
42
PT = 900 psig held for 2 hours.
Solution, Contd
2.
Tightness Test.
Pressure is 95% of strength test pressure.
(0.95)(900 psig) = 855 psig
Sample Problem 2
In order to add a third pump to an existing refinery piping
system, it is necessary to provide branch connections to
the suction and discharge headers. The branch
connections will be welded onto the headers, then
inspected and hydrotested. The design pressure is 3,448
34

kPa (ga) (500 psig) and the design temperature is 371C

(700F). The test temperature is 27C (80F). The 150
mm and 200 mm (6 in. and 10 in.) seamless discharge
and suction pipes will have schedule standard wall
thicknesses. The Class 300 flanges limit the MAOP to
5,172 kPa (750 psig) at the test temperature. Assume a
mill tolerance of 12.5%. The pipe material is A335
Gr. P11.
Specify the type of pressure tests and required test
pressures.
Solution
Work Aid 2 may be used to help solve this problem
Strength Test:
Maximum Flange test pressure = 1.5 times the
permissible pressure at 38C (100F). Same as at 27C
(80F).
P T 1 = (1. 5 ) ( 750 ) = 1, 125 psig

Note that ASME/ANSI B16.5 requires that the test
pressure be "rounded up" to the nearest 172 kPa (25
psig). In this particular case, no "rounding" is needed.
150 mm (6 in.) pipe and 250 mm (10 in.) pipe, per B31.3.
PT 2 = 1. 5 P x
ST
20, 000
= (1.5 )(500 )
15, 600
S
PT 2 = 961 psig
Solution, Contd
Use a strength test of 961 psig as limited by B31.3 since this

is for branch welded to existing piping.
35

SUMMARY
This module discussed the requirements of SAES-L-055,
SAES-A-004, and applicable ASME/ANSI B31 codes
regarding the inspection and testing of piping systems.
Weld inspection must be completed before the system
can operate. Once weld inspection is completed and
defects are repaired, pressure tests must be conducted
for all the appropriate parts of the system. MEX 101.10
discusses how to complete Safety Instruction Sheets for
piping systems. Once these forms are completed, the
system can be placed into operation.
36

WORK AID 1:
GUIDELINES FOR SPECIFYING METHODS OF WELD

INSPECTION
Type
Visual
Radiography
Situation/Weld Type
Magnetic Particle
Liquid Penetrant
Ultrasonic
All welds.
Minor structural welds.
Butt welds.
Girth welds.
Miter groove welds.
Defect
Ferromagnetic
materials.
Ferrous and nonferrous

materials.
Final weld passes.

Root and intermediate
passes possible.
Simple and
inexpensive.
Confirms high weld
quality in pressure
containing joints.
Surface cracks.
Surface defects.
Surface and subsurface
cracks.
Subsurface defects.
Incomplete penetration.
Surface cracks.
Surface defects.
Surface cracks.
Surface defects.
Laminations.
Subsurface defects.
Table 341.3.2A of ASME/ANSI B31.3, shown in Figure 8, also specified required

weld inspection and acceptance criteria for types of weld imperfections.
37

WORK AID 2:
Pressure Test
Strength Test
Tightness Test
Leak Test
System Test
Service Test
Revalidation Test
GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING PRESSURE TESTS

AND CALCULATING TEST PRESSURE
Function
Verify integrity of piping and equipment.
Reduce pressure from strength test to verify integrity
of pipe and equipment.
To demonstrate there are no leaks.
Used in a system in which MAOP is limited by a
component.
Strength test for low-pressure utility services.
To prove the integrity of existing piping.
Situation
New Plant Piping: hydrostatic strength
test
pressure
Plant Piping: hydrostatic strength tests
Test Pressure
Pressure to produce 90% of
SMYS, based on nominal
thickness less mill tolerance.
2(0.9)SMYS ET
PT =
D 2YT
Not less than 1-1/2 times the
design pressure.
Minimum test pressure shall be
calculated:
P T = 1.5 P S T
S
PT = Minimum hydrostatic test
gauge pressure.
P = Internal design gauge
pressure.
ST = Allowable stress at test
temperature.
S = Allowable stress at design
temperature.
ST/S shall not exceed 6.5.
Reduce test pressure calculated
above if necessary to ensure that
it will not produce a hoop stress
more than yield strength in the
pipe at test temperature.
38

Plant Piping: pneumatic leak tests
110% of the design pressure.
For low-pressure lines designed

for less than 690 kPa (ga) (100
psig): 125% of the normal
operating pressure, but in no
case less than 170 kPa (ga) (25
psig).
09/28/96
39

WORK AID 2:
GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING PRESSURE TESTS AND

CALCULATING TEST PRESSURE, CONT'D
Situation
Test Pressure
Plant Piping: underground pressure

piping in process water service and
employing nonwelded girth joints
Plant Piping: lube and seal oil piping
1.5 times the system design

pressure prior to backfilling.
Plant Piping: vacuum service
New Cross-Country Pipelines:

hydrostatic strength test of newly
constructed pipelines
Maximum of 1.5 times the design

pressure or 690 kPa (ga) (100
psig).
Strength tested to 100 kPa (ga)
(15 psig).
Pressure to produce 90% of the
SMYS of the pipe material based
on the nominal wall thickness
(assuming no mill tolerance).
PT =
Cross-Country Pipelines: tightness
test of new construction pipelines
Cross-Country Pipelines: pneumatic

test gage pressure
Existing Cross-Country Pipelines:

(portions of piping systems to be
operated at a hoop stress of more than
20% of SMYS)
2(0.9)SET
D
95% of the strength test pressure

immediately at the completion of
the strength test.
690 kPa (ga) (100 psig) or 25% of
the specified minimum yield
strength of the pipe, whichever is
less.
1.25PD.
PD = MAOP of limiting
component.
40

GLOSSARY
angle testing
An ultrasonic test method in which

transmission is at an angle to the test surface.
back reflection
The ultrasonic signal received from the back

surface of a test object.
bleed out
The action by which liquid penetrants flow out

of a discontinuity, due primarily to capillary
action and the blotting effect of the developer.
blowhole
A hole in a casting or weld caused by gas

entrapped during solidification.
blotting
The action of a developer in drawing out liquid

penetrant from a surface discontinuity causing
maximum bleed out for increased contrast and
sensitivity.
capillary action
The tendency of certain liquid to travel, climb,

or draw into tight crack-like interface areas due
to such properties as surface tension, wetting,
cohesion, adhesion, and viscosity.
Category D Fluid
Service
As defined in ASME/ANSI B31.3, a fluid

service in which all the following apply:
(1) the fluid handled is nonflammable,
nontoxic, and not damaging to human
tissues as defined in Paragraph 300.2;
(2) the design gage pressure does not
exceed 1,030 kPa (150 psi); and
(3) the design temperature is from -29C
through 186C (-20F through 366F).
41

Category M Fluid
Service

service in which the potential for personnel
exposure is judged to be significant and in
which a single exposure to a very small
quantity of a toxic fluid, caused by leakage, can
produce serious irreversible harm to persons
on breathing or bodily contact, even when
prompt restorative measures are taken.
cold crack
A flaw that appears as a straight line, usually

continuous throughout its length, and generally
singly. These cracks start at the surface.
couplant
A substance used between an ultrasonic

transducer face and the test surface to permit
or improve transmission or reception.
crack
A material separation that has a relatively large

cross-section in one direction and a small or
negligible cross-section when viewed in a
direction perpendicular to the first.
defect
A discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation,

location, or properties make it detrimental to
the useful service of the part in which it occurs,
or which exceeds the accept/reject criteria of
the particular design.
developer
A finely divided material applied over the

surface of a part to help bring out penetrant
indications.
discontinuity
Any interruption in the normal physical

structure or configuration of a part such as
cracks, laps, seams, inclusions, or porosity. A
discontinuity may or may not affect the
usefulness of the part.
dry powder
Finely divided ferromagnetic particles selected

and prepared for magnetic particle inspection
by the dry method.
42

examination
Applies to quality control functions performed

by the manufacturer, fabricator, or erector.
false indication
An indication that may be interpreted

incorrectly as a discontinuity or a defect; a
nonrelevant indication.
filled crack
A crack open to the surface but filled with some

foreign material, such as oxide, grease, etc.
flaw
An imperfection which may not be harmful. If

harmful, it is a defect or discontinuity.
flux lines
Imaginary lines used to explain the behavior of

magnetic fields.
fusion
The complete joining of two parts in such a

manner that loads are effectively transferred
across their common boundary.
hot crack
A flaw that appears as a ragged dark line of

variable width and numerous branches. It has
no continuity, may exist in groups, and may
originate internally or at the surface.
hot tear
A fracture formed in a metal during

solidification.
indication
A response that requires interpretation to

determine its significance.
inspection
The process of examining and checking

materials and parts for possible defects, or
deviation from acceptance standards.
interpretation
The process of determining the nature of an

indication.
magnet
A material having the power to attract iron and

other substances to itself and exhibit polarity.
magnetic flux
The total number of magnetic lines existing in a

magnetic circuit.
43

magnetic
discontinuity
A break in the magnetic continuity of a part,

possibly caused by a defect.
nondestructive
examination
Testing to detect internal, surface, or

concealed defects or flaws in a material using
techniques that do not damage the item being
tested.
nonrelevant
indications
These are true indications produced by

uncontrolled or incorrect test conditions. They
have no relation to discontinuities that might be
defects.
normal fluid
service

service pertaining to most piping covered by
this Code, i.e., not subject to the rules for
Category D, Category M, or High-Pressure
Fluid Service, and not subject to severe cyclic
conditions.
pores
Small voids in the body of a metal.
porosity charts
Standard charts for comparing porosity size,

spacing, and number in a given area.
pressurecontaining weld
A weld that joins two pressure containing

components such as at a branch connection.
prods
Two hand-held electrodes which are pressed

against the surface of a part to make contact
for passing magnetizing current through the
metal.
radiography
The use of radiant energy in the form of

neutrons,
x-rays or gamma rays for NDE of opaque
objects. It produces graphical records on
sensitized films which indicate the comparative
soundness of the object being tested.
reference
radiographs
A group of radiographs containing images of

discontinuities. They are used as comparison
standards for material acceptability.
44

severe cyclic
conditions
As defined in ASME/ANSI B31.3, those in

which SE, computed in accordance with
Paragraph 319.4.4, exceeds 0.8SA (as defined
in Paragraph 302.3.5), and the equivalent
number of cycles (N in paragraph 302.3.5)
exceeds 7000; or other conditions which the
designer determines will produce an equivalent
effect.
suspension
The liquid bath in which ferromagnetic particles

used in the wet method are suspended.
void
Discontinuity in which there is a physical

separation between opposite walls.
wet method
The magnetic particle inspection method

employing ferromagnetic particles suspended
in a light oil or water which acts as a vehicle.
45

Inspection and Testing of Piping Systems

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