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Running head: Student Diversity and the School Counselor: Exemplary Practices
STUDENT DIVERSITY AND THE SCHOOL COUNSELOR:

EXEMPLARY PRACTICES
A Dissertation
by
NIKI GONZALEZ
Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Education at

Texas A&M University - Corpus Christi
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
UMI Number: 3304619

Copyright 2008 by
Gonzalez, Niki
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STUDENT DIVERSITY AND THE SCHOOL COUNSELOR: EXEMPLARY

PRACTICES
A Dissertation
by
NIKI GONZALEZ
This dissertation meets the standards for style and format requirements of Texas A&M
University-Corpus Christi and is hereby approved.
Robert L. Smith, Ph.D.

(Committee Chair)
Richard Ricard, Ph.D.

(Member)
arvarene Oliver, Ed.D.

(Member)
<MQA >JJA,
Harvey Khull, PET)

Dean of Graduate Studies and
Associate Vice President for
Research and Scholarly Activity
May, 2008
Copyright by
NIKI GONZALEZ
May 2008
All Rights Reserved
ABSTRACT
Student Diversity and the School Counselor: Exemplary Practices
Niki Gonzalez
Dissertation Chair: Robert L. Smith
The contemporary school environment, influence by the changing society requires that the
American school system focus on practices that facilitate an intercultural school atmosphere
that includes the entire campus community (e.g., teachers, students, families, and
communities). Although there is extensive research advocating the diversity-based reform of
the American school system, there is still a gap in the research that specifies the role and
impact that the school counselor has on that process. Because of tenets like the ones
established by the American School Counselor Association, the school counselor should play
a vital role in national school reform, especially with regard to diversity. Despite increasing
awareness regarding the importance of improving students' diversity competence in the 21st
century, there have been very few studies that have actually examined the effectiveness of
practices that are realistic for school counselors to apply. This purpose of this mixed-methods
study was to address the school counselor's role as a facilitator in the educational
transformation for all students, especially diverse and minority populations. The most
significant findings of the surveys and interviews indicated that exemplary practices for
school counselors to facilitate diversity-based guidance programs include common factors
(i.e., systemic, developmentally appropriate, person-centered, and exposure). The findings
from this study have applicability for working with our nation's increasingly diverse public
school population.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Family. Mom, without you behind me, nothing that I ever achieve in my life would be
possible. You are my rock, my strength, everything that makes me who I am. Sister (a smile
comes to my face), you are my role model. I strive to have your strength of character,
freedom, and light-heartedness. Our childhood memories are priceless. Autumn, you are my
inspiration. Since you were born, I hoped to be someone that you could look up to. Dad, my
father, I hope that you are proud of me. I've always wanted your wisdom and approval. Tia
Grade, my mom's sister and best friend, thank you for always being there.
School Family. Dr. Smith, my professional mentor, you are and have been my
strongest professional influence. Dr. Ricard, my voice of reason, you challenged me and
fostered my critical thinking. Dr. Oliver, my ideal of a professional woman, you fostered my
independent thoughts and empowered me to work towards the ideal in my mind. Dr. Nelson,
my breath of fresh air, you helped me reach within myself and embrace who I am. Dr.
Lucido, my positive reinforcement, you were the missing piece. Mary, my escape, you were
always there for me. Cathy, Emilia, Erica, Jason, Lia, Paula, Raven, Trisha, & Yvonne, my
sisters and brother in the cohort, you were my sanity, my sounding board, and my support.
Not only did I know that I would never fail, I knew that you all (faculty/staff and cohort)
would hold me up high, and ensure my success.
Friends and Others. Glo. my best friend since 3 rd grade, you are my recollection of
innocence, youth, and hopes. The dreams we shared will always be with me. Eunice, my
Valley girl, you remind me daily of the possibility of perseverance. You will be a great
influence to all. Michelle, Aisha, and Mari you were "partners in crime." Eloy, part of my
family, your presence in my life is appreciated. Dr. Alvarado, Dr. Bhat, & Dr. Sparrow, my
UTPA professors, you believed in me and planted the seed.
DEDICATION
Mom;
Autumn;
My Momo & Popo;
The 2007-2008 students at Roy Miller High School;
The diverse youth of tomorrow;
Strong women;
The nature father of my children;
My legacy;
All children who are being "Left Behind;"
And Mother Nature.
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Dedication
Table of contents
i
ii
iii
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2.
Background of the problem
Statement of the problem
Purpose of the study
Theoretical rationale
Research questions and hypotheses
Significance of the study
Population and sample
10
Instrumentation
11
Data collection and analysis
11
Basic assumptions
14
Delimitations and limitations
14
Researcher and researcher bias
15
Definition of terms
16
Organization of the remaining chapters
18
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Diversity
19
20
Definition of Diversity
21
Prevalence of Diversity in the United States and Schools
22
School-Aged Student Issues Relevant to Diversity
23
Academic Issues
24
Gender
24
Dropouts
25
School Trouble
27
Conflict
27
Bullying
28
Teacher Expectations
Career Issues
29
30
Race
31
Poverty
32
Personal/Social Issues
33
Family Issues
33
Hispanic Families
34
African American Families
35
Asian Families
36
Immigrants/LCD
38
Spirituality
40
Socioeconomic Status
42
Individualized Student Identity
43
Race
44
Sexuality
45
Disabilities and Disorders
46
Student Outcomes
Stress
47
47
Suicide and Deliberate Self-Harm
49
Pregnancy
50
HIV/AIDS
52
Justice System
53
Counselors and Diversity
54
Counselor's Role in Diversity
57
School Counselor's Role in Diversity
58
School Counselor Strategies
60
Summary
3.
63
METHODOLOGY
65
Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research
66
Philosophical Assumptions
67
Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Design
69
Four Considerations of Mixed Methodology
70
Ethical Considerations
70
Quantitative Component of the Study
71
Research Design
71
Sample Size
72
Description of the Sample
72
Instrumentation
73
Procedures
75
Survey Recruitment
75
Data Collection
76
Data Analysis
76
Validity and Reliability
77
Validity
77
Reliability
77
Reducing Coverage Errors
78
Qualitative Component of the Study

Research Design
78
Sample Size
79
80
Procedures
80
Interview Protocol Development
4.
78
81
Data Collection
81
Data Analysis
82
83
Validity
84
Reliability
84
Qualitative Verification
85
Role of the Researcher
86
Feasibility and Advantages/Disadvantages
87
Feasibility
87
Advantages/Disadvantages of Sequential Explanatory Design
87
RESULTS
88
Quantitative Research
Participant Demographic Information
Ethnicity
88
88
88
Gender
88
Age Range
89
Knowledge
89
Experience
91
Section Summary
92
Quantitative Research Question Analyzed
93
Research Question One

Summary of Quantitative Results
Qualitative Research
Case Selection
Qualitative Findings
93
93
94
94
95
96
Case Study 1: Participant 1
97
101
104
108
Ill
114
118
Cross Case Analysis
121
Qualitative Research Questions Analyzed
126
Research Question 1
126
Research Question 2
126
Research Question 3
126
Summary
5.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of the Study
Quantitative Phase
Data Collection
127
128
128
129
,. 129
Data Analysis
129
Findings
130
Qualitative Phase
130
Data Collection
130
Data Analysis
131
Findings
131
Conclusions
132
Implications
134
Recommendations for Further Research
136
References
137
Appendix A: ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors-Diversity Focus
168
Appendix B: Model for Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Study
171
Appendix C-l: Institutional Review Board Application
173
Appendix C-2: Institutional Review Board Approval
178
Appendix D-l: Initial Flyer for Survey Participants
180
Appendix D-2: Informed Consent Form for Survey
182
Appendix E: Student Diversity and the School Counselor Online Survey
185
Appendix F-l: Recruitment Flyer for Online Survey
190
Appendix F-2: First Letter to Eligible Survey Participants
192
Appendix F-3: Second Reminder Letter to Eligible Survey Participants
194
Appendix F-4: Third Reminder Letter to Eligible Survey Participants
196
Appendix F-5: Recruitment Letter to Case Study Participants
198
Appendix G: Interview Protocol
200
Appendix H-l: Case Study Themes and Categories by Participant
202
Appendix H-2: Cross Case Analysis Perspectives
220
Student Diversity and the School Counselor
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
A changing society requires that the American public school system focus on
practices that facilitate an intercultural school atmosphere. Many agencies (governmental,
public, and private) are simultaneously working on the American public school reform
legislation that is focusing on issues affecting the academic performance of diverse
students, known as the No Child Left Behind legislation. Although in the past few years
the public school system has realized the need for an educational reform that includes
teachers, students, families, and communities, school counselors have been largely left
out of the transition. Yet, according to the American School Counselor Association
(ASCA) preamble, "Professional school counselors are advocates, leaders, collaborators
and consultants who create opportunities for equity in access and success in educational
opportunities by connecting their programs to the mission of schools and subscribing to
the following tenets of professional responsibility" (2004). Because of tenets like the
ones established by ASCA, the school counselor could play a vital role in national school
reform, especially with regard to diversity.
The contemporary school environment has emphasized two major trends in the
school counseling environment. First, there are a growing number of diversity issues
stemmingfromthe social contexts of students who are entering the American school
setting (e.g., cultures, ethnic groups, languages, physical features, socioeconomic
backgrounds, opinions, spiritual beliefs, and sexual orientation). These issues require the
concept of cultural competence to be embedded in the reformed system, especially by
professionals like school counselors. According to the Center for Mental Health in
Schools at the University of California, Los Angeles,
Cultural competence refers to a set of academic and interpersonal skills that allow
individuals to increase their understanding and appreciation of cultural differences
and similarities within, among, and between groups. This requires a willingness
and ability to draw on community-based values, traditions, and customs to work
with knowledgeable persons of and from the community in developing targeted
interventions, communications, and other supports. A culturally competent
program is one that demonstrates sensitivity to and understanding of cultural
differences in program design, implementation, and evaluation. (2004, p. 8)
Organizations that provide information or services to diverse groups must
understand the culture of the group they are serving, and they must design and manage
culturally competent programs to adequately serve those groups (Center for Mental
Health in Schools at UCLA, 2004). In response to a variety of social, economic, and
state-governed factors, ASCA has recently revised the Ethical Standards of School
Counselors and adopted a national model of a comprehensive school counseling program
in which the school counselor's role is outlined, defining the counselor as the
implementer of the underlying philosophies of leadership, advocacy, and systematic
change (ASCA, 2004). This dissertation examines the school counselors' cultural
competence in identifying the exemplary diversity guidance programs within the public
school.
Background of the Problem

The population of students in the American school setting continually becomes
more diverse. School counselors have realized that traditional therapeutic models and
techniques, which are successful for students who are acculturated to the Western way of
life, may not work for studentsfromother societies, as well as for studentsfromvarious
ethnic and racial groups in this society. Acknowledging this concept, ASCA vision
statement expresses that ASCA is "the foundation . . . of professional school counselors
through advocacy, leadership, collaboration, and systemic change. ASCA empowers ...
with the knowledge, skills, linkages, and resources to promote student success in the
school, home, the community, and the world" (2004). Below are two excerptsfromthe
preamble:
Each person has the right to be respected, be treated with dignity and have access
to a comprehensive school counseling program that advocates for and affirms all
studentsfromdiverse populations regardless of ethnic/racial status, age, economic
status, special needs, English as a second language or other language group,
immigration status, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity/expression, family
type, religious/spiritual identity and appearance. . . . Each person has the right to
receive the information and support needed to move toward self-direction and
self-development and affirmation within one's group identities, with special care
being given to students who have historically not received adequate educational
services: students of color, low socio-economic students, students with disabilities
and students with non-dominant language backgrounds. (ASCA, 2004)
The preamble clearly emphasizes the responsibilities of school counselors in

working with diverse populations. After creating the preamble, ASCA developed the
Ethical Standards for School Counselors, first adopted by the delegates in 1984. The
standards have been revised three times, with the most recent revision taking place in
2004. These standards include counseling for all students, emphasizing programs for
diverse populations and minority groups. ASCA clearly speaks to the school counselor's
diversity-based responsibilities to students, parents/guardians, colleagues and
professional associates, schools, community, self, and the profession. In addition, in June
2002 ASCA presented the National Model for School Counseling Programs to establish
collaboration between school counseling and current educational reform movements that
emphasize student achievement and success. ASCA (2004, p. 5) developed this model to
offer the "mechanism with which school counselors and school counseling teams will
design, coordinate, implement, manage, and evaluate their programs for students'
success." This model provided a framework for the role of the school counselor in
promoting a comprehensive approach to the school counseling program: foundation,
delivery, management, and accountability. This model also provided a template for
school counselors to follow in making the transition from traditional service-centered
approaches for some students to program-centered approaches for all students. In
summary, ASCA is requiring school counselors to be forerunners in educational reform
for diverse groups of students.
Although knowledge of students' cultures or shared culture can enhance the
guidance and counseling sessions that go on in the school setting, it is impossible to
assume that a counselor can have knowledge of every student's difference. According to
Seeley (2004) an intercultural or diversity approach to school counselor facilitation does

not depend on the counselor's exclusive knowledge of every culture, which would induce
a superficial concept of that culture and reduce it to collective practices. Such
generalizations would obscure national, ethnic, racial, tribal, linguistic, religious,
political, and socioeconomic features, as well as preferences like language, food, music,
and social identity featured in the group and emphasizes intracultural homogeneity and
overlooks intra-group variation (Seeley, 2004).
Culturally diverse students cannot be understood by counselors using these large
categories of culture. Seeley (2004) indicated that these categories do not provide the
counselor with a means of understanding students whose self-concepts are plural, (i.e.,
multicultural, multiracial, or multilingual). Cultural competence-based perspectives,
including intercultural competence and general coping, present valuable alternatives to
understanding individuals' behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and attitudinal adaptations in
an unfamiliar environment, as well as the skills and strategies that may ameliorate the
negative aspects of the process (Torres & Rollock, 2004). Studies show that school
counselors have been effective in modifying school climate and structure; school
counseling interventions can have an impact on student's development (Hanish & Guerra,
2000). Various school-based interventions (i.e., consulting, individual and small-group
counseling, classroom guidance) have been found to contribute directly to students'
success in and out of the classroom (Borders & Drury, 1992). These interventions are a
proactive way that school counselors can address the acculturation and culture shock that
students may experience while in middle school. Because culture shock is founded in
unknown intercultural contact experiences, learning about intercultural relations should
reduce culture shock, especially communication problems and disrupted interpersonal

relations.
So, not only do cultural competence perspectives enable the school counselor to
address all students, such perspectives also model and assist students with cultural
competence that will be vital to them in the future (Torres & Rollock, 2004). This
process, beginning with the living situations of young people wherever they are, can
gradually broaden to encompass the situations of their parents, community citizens, and
finally of peoples of distant places. These two trends in school counseling make cultural
competence-based school guidance a necessity around the United States. Identifying the
exemplary diversity guidance programs for public schools and studying their practices
can ensure that school counselors are leaders in the push for educational reform for all
students.
Statement of the Problem
American public school reform is a major concern for the government, private
and public agencies, and the people. Because of this interest, many governmental bureaus
are focusing on issues regarding the academic performance of studentsfromdiverse
backgrounds. Many agencies are also making one of their major tenets to assist all
students in academic equality. For example, ASCA states that "school counselors are
advocates, leaders, collaborators and consultants who create opportunities for equity in
access and success in educational opportunities" (2004). School counselors have an
ability to give guidance to students on various aspects of diversity, which can act as a
preventive and protective factor for students. Because social relations and school climate
are extremely pertinent to the young adolescent child's development and research shows
that school counselors can directly affect those factors, it is imperative that research
examine the current practices of school counselors regarding diversity, cultural
competence, and educational reform. Despite the ethical responsibility of school
counselors to develop a guidance program that facilitates a climate of cultural
competence and assists in the educational reform for all students, there is minimal
research on their role in this reconstitution.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this mixed-methods study is to examine the cultural competency
practices of school guidance programs across the United States. This research addresses
the school counselor's role as a facilitator in the systematic transformation for all
students, especially diverse and minority populations. Thefirstphase, a quantitative
survey, is a collection of demographic information and cultural competency selfperceptions of school counselors who are members of ASCA. The second phase of the
study is qualitative. Purposefully selected interviews were used to identify practices of
school counselors who perceive themselves as culturally competent and ways of
designing and implementing organizational-cultural competence in a school setting. In
addition, the interviews explore experiences of culturally competent school counselors.
This research provides vital information to counselor educators, counselor directors,
counselor intern supervisors, school counselors, school counselor students, and outside
agencies that provide consultation services for school systems. The results assist in
providing techniques, strategies, and professional development initiatives in diversity for
school counselors.
Theoretical Rationale
The study of cultural competence in educational reform, with a direct emphasis on
school counselors, poses important challenges, and its findings have practical
applications for the guidance of students living in a diverse society. This study's findings
add to the research in the area of school counseling and cultural competence by indicating
practices for school counselors who serve youth from varied backgrounds.
The theoretical base of this study is social learning theory (Bandura, 1988).
Learning takes place in large part because of the environment. The learning environment
includes professionals, serving in that environment. In this study the professionals are the
school counselors and the learning environment is the school itself. Ultimately, this type
of theory was chosen because it explains some action, interaction, and processes as
related to the social context in which they actually occur (Pidgeon, 1996).
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The main goal of the quantitative phase of this study was to generative normative
data about the participants' backgrounds (i.e., ethnicity, gender) and experience (i.e.,
training and work experience) in order to set a criterion for the qualitative portion of the
study.
The central research question guiding the qualitative phase of the study was to
understand the experiences and practices of a culturally competent school counselor. This
exploration was done with an open-ended questionnaire via telephone interview that had
the following three grand tour questions:
Research Question 1: What are the experiences of counselors who perceive

themselves as diversity competent and have an exemplary campus-based diversity
program?
Research Question 2: What practices have been used successfully by school

counselors who perceive themselves as diversity competent in working with
diverse populations?
Research Question 3: What experiences do the students, parents, and surrounding

campus communities express when school counselors perceive themselves as
diversity competent?
Significance of the Study
Although there is extensive research advocating the diversity-based reform of the
American public school system, there is still a gap in the research that specifies the role
and impact that the school counselor has on that process. Despite increasing awareness
regarding the importance of improving students' cultural competence in the 21st century,
there have been very few studies that have actually examined the effectiveness of
practices that are feasible for school counselors to use (Meacham, 1996). Consequently,
studies examining these cultural competence interventions by school counselors as
leaders and advocates in the educational reform are nonexistent.
Because of the lack of research, little credible information on these topics exists
that can be used as a template for guidance program design and delivery for the American
public school system. The significance of this research stems from its ability to identify
variables of the culturally competent school counselor and to distinguish processes,
practices, and skills necessary for improving the design and delivery of similar programs.
10
This is an area within the field of professional school counseling that needs further
research. The findings of this study have applicability for working with the nation's
increasingly diverse student population. In addition, there are implications for counselor
educators, counselor directors, counselor intern supervisors, school counselors, school
counselor students, and outside agencies that provide consultation services for school
systems.
Population and Sample
For this study, the researcher conducted criterion sampling (Patton, 2002), using
ASCA's available e-mail list of current members. Each current member received via email an initial letter with basic information about the study, followed one week later by
the informed consent form and questionnaire. The data was obtained from a voluntary
sample of ASCA members who participated in the survey by e-mail, and the follow-up
telephone interviews were conducted with a purposeful sample, the members of which
were selected because they were information rich and they offered useful manifestations
of the phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2002). The purposeful sample was composed of
the top-ranked individuals who voluntarily answered the questionnaire. They were asked
to explore the issue more in-depth through a telephone interview, which was a
combination of conversational style and interviewer- guided discussion. Combining these
approaches offered the interviewer "flexibility in probing and in determining when it is
appropriate to explore certain subjects in greater depth, or even to pose questions about
new areas of inquiry that were not originally anticipated" (Patton, 2002, p. 347).
11
Instrumentation
For the quantitative portion of the study, the researcher derived a questionnaire
for the ASCA members. The first portion of the questionnaire was a survey acquiring
demographic information about the participants. Variables, if any that contribute to the
participant's diversity competence (i.e., ethnicity, gender, training, etc.) were identified.
The second portion of the questionnaire was a Likert scale for participants to identify
their diversity knowledge. The final portion of the initial questionnaire was also a Likert
scale for participants to evaluate self-perception of proficiency of portions of the ASCA
Ethical Standards for School Counselors, which focuses on diversity. The instrument
used for the second step, the qualitative section of the study, was an open-ended
telephone interview. During this interview, participants were asked to expand on the
questionnaire through a semi-structured interview protocol that included three grand tour
questions with reflexive follow-up questions based on the literature review of the topic.
Data Collection and Analysis
The methodology chosen by the researcher was a mixed paradigm. The mixedmethods design combines aspects of the quantitative and qualitative paradigms within
different phases of the research process (Creswell, 2003; Tashaokkori & Teddlie, 1998).
The mixed-methods design was chosen for this study because of its ability to use
qualitative data to help explain information gathered during the quantitative phase
(Hanson et al., 2005). The purpose was to explore ASCA school counselors' cultural
competencies via a national survey and to investigate factors, such as demographic
information, that affect school counselors' competence in diversity. A mixed method, one
that is both quantitative and qualitative, can help the researcher with triangulation of
12
results, elaboration of results, development of implementation strategies, initiation of new

perspectives, and expansion of the research (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989).
Creswell described the advantages of using this approach, indicating that "researchers
may first survey a large number of individuals, and then follow up with them to obtain
their specific language and voices about the topic" (2003, p. 53).
The sequential explanatory mixed-methods research design is described by
Hanson, Creswell, Clark, Petska, and Creswell (2005) as a two-part model consisting of
an initial quantitative data collection and analysis phase followed by a qualitative data
collection and analysis phase. The research design used for this study was primarily
qualitative with an initial quantitative component. The qualitative observations yield
detailed, thick descriptions; in-depth inquiries; and interviews that capture direct
quotations about people's personal perspectives and experiences (Patton, 2002). The
findings are integrated during the data interpretation phase. The research method chosen
was intended to identify practices that can be used by school counselors nationwide in
cultural competence and educational reform.
This study used a two-step process in which quantitative data was first gathered
and analyzed. This data was used to guide the collection of qualitative information in the
second step of the study. All of ASCA's current members with an e-mail address on the
Web site's directory were asked to participate in the study. By e-mail, members received
an initial letter with a brief synopsis of the study. One week later, members received via
e-mail the informed consent form and the actual questionnaire. It was ultimately up to
members to decide to participate in the study. If the member had concerns about the study
prior to agreeing to participate, the member had the opportunity to pose questions about
13
participation in the project. The quantitative phase, the initial Web-based questionnaire
was designed to gather demographic information on participants allowing a selfevaluation of his or her knowledge of diversity according to ASCA standards.
The qualitative portion of the study followed the initial questionnaire. The followup telephone interviews were conducted with a purposeful sample of individuals who
answered the questionnaire. Participants who agreed to be interviewed for the follow-up
were contacted, at their convenience, to answer open-ended questions. The interviewer
used a semi-structured interview protocol of mixed styles, conversational and interviewer
guided, to explore and expand on diversity issues. The interview included three grand
tour questions with reflexive follow-up questions based on the literature review of the
topic. The interviews were to last 45 minutes to an hour and were recorded on audiotape
and then transcribed.
The researcher analyzed the text in a "sense-making effort that takes a volume of
qualitative material and attempts to identify core consistencies and meaning" (Patton,
2002, p.453), which are often called patterns or themes. The researcher underlined the
statements made that addressed practices, processes, or skills used for cultural
competence by the counselor. This initial consolidation of data provided the ability to
look for patterns that were to become codes. The primary codes and comments by the
researcher were color coded in the margins of the text. Strauss and Corbin (1998)
considered generating theoretical propositions after inductively identifying categories as
deductive analysis by grounded theorists. A constant comparative method was used for
analyzing the data. This entailed each interview being analyzed individually and
comparatively to previous interviews. This constant comparative method allowed for
14
continuous reflection of the data. Many readings of the individual transcripts and
continuous review of the initial codes and margin notations, revealed the overall themes
in the data.
Basic Assumptions
The assumptions of the study are as follows:
The participants in this study agreed to fully participate in both steps of

the study.
The participants in this study answered all of the survey questions in a

thoughtful and honest manner.
The instruments utilized in this study did, as accurately as possible,

measure the constructs they were designed to measure.
The researcher methodically analyzed transcriptions for codes and themes.
This study is based on a pragmatic philosophy, which seeks to find the most
practical approach to a problem. Instead of trying to dwell on ideologies, it seeks action
and is consequence oriented (Onwudgbuzie & Johnson, 2004).
Delimitations and Limitations
The study consisted of ASCA members whose e-mail addresses are currently on
the ASCA Web site directory and who voluntarily participated. The researcher was
involved in every step of the study and interpreted the survey and telephone interviews in
an effort to provide consistency in the presentation of the material. In addition, the
participant interviewees had the opportunity to correct the transcriptions of the
interviews.
15
The findings of this study will perhaps have implications and applicability for
working with our nation's increasingly diverse public school population. However,
recognizing the limitations of this study is also important. First, data collection was
limited to only the ASCA members who voluntarily participated in this study. Thus,
generalization of the results is limited to the members who participated. Another
limitation resulted from the lack of empirical instruments that were used in this study.
The instruments utilized were constructed by the researcher through available sources. A
third limitation is that a survey was used for primary data collection, which carries with it
the potential for participants to misunderstand questions. A fourth limitation is that a
convenience sampling was used in the quantitative phase, so the respondents may not be
a true representation of the total population. The fifth limitation is that, when conducting
interviews, the interviewer may affect the dialogue in unknown ways; for example, the
interviewee may have answered in some atypical fashion because of the manner of the
question, which can distort the data. The final limitation is that the results of the
qualitative phase of the research could have been analyzed and interpreted differently by
other researchers.
Researcher and Researcher Bias
The primary researcher in this study is a Hispanic female who is a doctoral
candidate from a Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational
Programs (C ACREP) accredited counselor education program. Prior to collecting data,
biases and expectations regarding the potential findings of the study were noted. The role
of the researcher differed in the two phases of the study. In the quantitative phase, the
researcher objectively collected numerical data and factual information through the
16
administration of a survey. The descriptive statistical information was analyzed to create

a framework for the second phase of the study. In the qualitative phase, the researcher
acted as a participant interviewer by posing reflexive questions based on the
interviewee's statements.
The researcher did not want to make any pre-study judgments or bring any kind of
preconceived notions into the study. The following are the biases that the researcher
included: school counselors who come from diverse backgrounds, such as minority
groups, tend to be more competent in their counseling; school counselors who are more
involved in extra activities will not have time to participate in the study; and younger
school counselors will be more culturally competent than older school counselors.
Definition of Terms
1) Content analysis - analyzing text and "sense-making effort that takes a volume of
qualitative material and attempts to identify core consistencies and meaning" (Patton,
2002, p.453), which are often called patterns or themes.
2) Criterion sampling - picking all cases that meet some criterion, for example, all school
counselors in ASCA (Patton, 2002).
3) Culture - learned, shared, and transmitted values, beliefs, norms, and life ways of a
group that are generally transmitted intergenerationally and influence one's thinking and
action modes (Leininger, 1988).
4) Cultural competence - a set of academic and interpersonal skills that allows
individuals to increase their understanding and appreciation of cultural differences and
similarities within, among, and between groups. This requires a willingness and ability to
draw on community-based values, traditions, and customs to work with knowledgeable
17
persons of and from the community in developing targeted interventions,

communications, and other supports. A culturally competent program is one that
demonstrates sensitivity to and understanding of cultural differences in program design,
implementation, and evaluation (Center for Mental Health in Schools at UCLA, 2004).
5) Cultural diversity competence - ability to function with awareness, knowledge, and
interpersonal skill when engaging people of different backgrounds, assumptions, beliefs,
values, and behavior (Hogan, 2007).
6) Data triangulation - the use of a variety of data sources in a study (Denzin, 1978b).
7) Diversity - refers to all those dimensions of difference that provide the foundation for
the construction of meaning in our lives (Meacham, 1996). For this study, diversity will
refer to race, ethnicity, nationality, issues of gender, social class, sexual orientation,
religion, and language.
8) General interview guide -outline of a set of issues that are to be explored with each
respondent, created before interviewing (Patton, 2002, p.342).
9) Informal conversational interview - relies entirely on the "spontaneous generation of
questions in the natural flow of an interaction" (Patton, 2002, p. 342).
10) Personal culture - core identity; is a dynamic entirety that underlies one's individual
behavior and includes everything an individual finds meaningful, including beliefs,
values, perceptions, assumptions, and explanatory frameworks about reality itself
(Valsiner, 2007).
11) Purposeful sampling - cases for study are selected because they are "information rich
and illuminative, that is, they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest;
18
sampling, then, is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization
from a sample to a population" (Patton, 2002, p.243).
13) Qualitative data - observations that yield detailed, thick descriptions; inquiry in
depth; interviews that capture direct quotations about people's personal perspectives and
experiences; case studies; careful document review (Patton, 2002).
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
This study focuses on the processes, practices, and skills of school counselors as
advocates for student diversity and on how this competence affects the experiences of
those people in the school environment. A review of top survey respondent interviews
allowed for an exploration of perceptions. This study pinpointed the activities that have
the greatest impact on diversity competency and what designs or implementation
strategies may be the most helpful. Chapter Two provides a theoretical base for diversity
competence of school counselors and a review of the literature and research previously
conducted in the area being studied. Chapter Three provides a description of the design of
the study, instruments to be used, methodology, and procedures. Chapter Four provides
the results of the data, and Chapter Five includes the limitations, summary, conclusions,
and recommendations for further research.
19
CHAPTER TWO
Review of the Literature
The societal change that the United States has been undergoing is apparent in the
American public school system. This chapter presents a synopsis of research related to
the school counselor's role with regard to diversity issues, as well as detailing what
diversity is, the counselor's role in diversity issues, approaches that are currently being
used with diversity, school-aged student issues related to diversity, and future trends of
the school counselor's role concerning diversity.
This literature review provides the contextual basis for this study. The literature
review is divided into four sections: Diversity, School-Aged Student Issues Relevant to
Diversity, and Counselors and Diversity. The perspectives of counselors in facilitating a
diverse school environment provide an in-depth description of what the individuals who
are most affected by this environment see as needs for this population.
The first section of the review of literature, Diversity, focuses on the evolution of
the society. This section provides a review of the literature that helps ascertain the need
for diversity issues to be addressed and highlights current research that addresses
diversity's status in America. The second section, School-Aged Student Issues Relevant
to Diversity, focuses on three major areas of student life: home, school, and work. The
three subsections deal with family, academic, and career issues. Family Issues centers on
the relationship of family to students; the Academic Issues subsection introduces
information about students' schools and school performance; and the Career Issues
subsection provides information about the process and importance of career development
and awareness for students. All portions of this section also highlight the concerns of
20
family, academics, and career as they relate to the presence of diversity. In addition, the
section also provides an overview of the many topics in the world of developing students
that may directly or indirectly affect their well-being. The third section, Counselors and
Diversity, encompasses characteristics of counselors' roles and obligations in the realm
of diversity.
Diversity
This section of the literature review will present many sides of diversity. Diversity
will be defined, and the prevalence of diversity in the United States and the American
public school system will be discussed.
Positive talk about globalization and the economic opportunities that have arisen
from the rapid integration of world markets and the explosion of information is
commonplace today. Corporations trade with countries around the world with the ease
and efficiency of telecommunications. The global village, a term Marshall McLuhan
(McLuhan, 1962) coined only three decades ago, has become a reality.
This technological and social change has obvious implications for education in a
setting where cross-cultural contact is the norm, both domestically and internationally;
therefore, the American public school system should prepare students to function
effectively in this multicultural, global society. Racism and discrimination are
counterproductive to all sections of society insofar as they squander the cultural and
intellectual resources in that society. Taking into account considerations across ethnic,
cultural, and linguistic elements, education should embrace diversity and place a high
priority on social justice.
21
Although imperative to the changing society, diversity education can be

overlooked because it puts an emphasis on social justice and power relationships in our
society. More important, the future of our society and the priorities and values of the next
generation are brought to awareness. Diversity education highlights the fact that the
differences (e.g., languages, disabilities, cultures) that students bring to school are
resources for them, their families, their communities, and the society. Instead of students
who exhibit these differences in identities being harassed, as in prior generations,
diversity education insists that these resources be treasured and affirmed.
In many instances, even in education, an aim of the national government has been
the acculturation and assimilation of diverse people into a "melting pot" of values,
ideologies, and customs (Herring, 1989). Fortunately, many immigrants and indigenous
people rejected these coercive attempts and instead adopted a "salad bowl" ideology
(McCormick, 1984). Savickas (1992) distinguished between these analogies for
multiculturalism in the United States in the 1990s. In the melting pot, each distinct group
loses its characteristic and "melts" together into one homogeneous group. The salad bowl
describes the mixing together of diverse groups into a heterogeneous ideal of interests,
beliefs, traditions, and rituals, but each retains its own specific character (Herring, 1997).
Definition of Diversity
The Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development distinguishes
between the terms multicultural and diversity. According to Arredondo et al. (1996) the
"term multicultural, in the context of counseling preparation and application, refers to
five major cultural groups in the United States and its territories: African/Black, Asian,
Caucasian/European, Hispanic/Latino, and Native American or indigenous groups who
22
have historically resided in the continental United States and its territories (p. 43)."
Diversity refers to characteristics such as socioeconomic class, gender, religious or
spiritual identification, disability, age, sexual identity, and residence (i.e., urban or rural).
Generally, a worldview is made up of an individual's explanation for how and
why reality is as it is. According to Thompson (2004) certain components of the human
experience are understood to contribute in powerful ways to the construction of a
worldview, including cultural background, family environments, and spiritual traditions.
Much of the literature on working with diversity has identified the concept of a
worldview as a central component (e.g., Ibrahim, 1985; Smith, Richards, MacGranley, &
Obiakor, 2004).
Prevalence of Diversity in the United States and in the American Public School System
According to the United States Census (2001), the rate of growth of minority
groups within the United States is on the rise. From 1990 to 2000, the population of
Hispanic individuals living in the United States increased by 58% (U.S. Census, 2001),
and the population of Asian/Pacific Islanders has grown to nearly 87 million people
(Sacbee News, 2001).
Obviously, the United States is a nation of a diverse population. Unfortunately,
few school faculty and staff realize that with the demographics of the student body
changing so rapidly, new techniques and skills for empowering, motivating, and
understanding every student regardless of difference is of utmost importance. Valuing
diversity in school is not a social goal anymore. Negative beliefs about diversity leave
their imprint not only on students but also on campus faculty and staff.
23
Constantine et al. (2001) stated that by 2050, approximately 60% of the total U.S.
school-aged population will be composed of non-white students whose descent can be
traced to Africa, Asia, the Hispanic countries, and the Pacific Islandsalmost
everywhere but white Europe. The current population of white students in some of
America's large urban cities is already less than 20% of the total student body. With such
rapid minority expansion in this country, school counselors need to be knowledgeable
about and proficient in counseling diverse populations. Lack of this competence will
inhibit school counselors in meeting the personal, social, academic, and career needs of
their students.
School-Aged Student Issues Relevant to Diversity
Baker and Gerler (2001) noted that the goal of developmental guidance is "to
promote emotional, social, and cognitive growth while preventing problems in the lives
of young people" (p. 300). The National Model for School Counseling Programs
proposed by ASCA (2003) suggested that school counselors should be most concerned
with the comprehensive needs of their students (i.e., academic, career, and
social/personal). Fukuyama (2001) indicated that from an operational perspective,
wellness programming and holistic counseling are "closely linked to prevention" (p.
328). Thus, holistic wellness initiatives implementation provides a means for counselors
to meet a broad range of developmental (Myers, Sweeney, & Witmer, 2000). Meeting
those needs for diverse students is of the utmost importance (Lee, 1998). This section
provides a description of the different variables that have an impact on diverse students as
they move through school. Some of these issues have been linked with causes of diversity
24
(ethnicity, social class, etc.), while others are not backed by research to indicate a
significant relationship to diversity issues.
Academic Issues
It is important to understand possible explanations for why some minorities do
well in school and others do not. Many theorists (Gibson, 1997; Goto, 1997; Ogbu &
Simons, 1998; Portes & Raumbaut, 1996) have offered explanations for the difference in
academic performance. School is particularly difficult for poor minority students as the
stresses in the surrounding community combine with the changes in the school structure
(Seidman, Allen, Mitchell, & Feinham, 1994). In addition, there are differences in
degrees of academic success among minority populations. African Americans, Mexican
Americans, Puerto Rican Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics from certain
Latin American countries have historically fared poorly in the American education
system (Dietrich, 1998).
One third of the ASCA's National Standards document is devoted to academic
development, and within this context, counselors are expected "to help students,
regardless of their differences, develop career awareness, employment readiness, and
career information acquisition skills and understand how their education, the world of
work, and personal qualities coexist" (ASCA 2002).
Gender
Academic issues related to gender are also a paramount concern. It is during
middle school that the infamous gender gap in math emerges, and in science, the gap
grows larger. By the end of middle school, girls who have previously been high academic
achievers report that they feel more worried and afraid and less encouraged and
25
appreciated than they did in elementary school (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). Around this
same age, girls begin to lose confidence in their academic abilities. Girls report a sense of
not being smart enough or not being good enough to accomplish their goals more often
than boys do (Herr, 1996). Believing oneself to be not bright enough often becomes a
self-fulfilling prophecy (Orenstein, 1994). Facing this issue, counselors would ideally
prepare and implement interventions to help students be successful and equal contributors
to American society.
Evidence suggests that, in some school settings, young black and brown men are
viewed as a greater threat by teachers than young black and brown women, and thus, the
school experiences of boys may be qualitatively different (Gibson, 1997).
Dropouts
In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education sounded the alarm
because U.S. educational standards had fallen behind those of other major industrialized
countries (1983). Since then, studies have focused on the concern with the identification
of characteristic associated with dropout risk. The researchers have consistently found
factors in school, family, community, and the students themselves (Gruskin, Campbell, &
Paulu, 1987; Kronick & Harcis, 1998; Payne, 1989; Suh, Suh, & Houston, 2007;
Valdivieso, 1986). For example, McMillan & Kaufman (1997) and Orr (1987) found that
low socioeconomic status is one of the most frequently cited predictors of dropping out of
school. Gruskin et al. noted that "when socioeconomic factors are controlled, the
difference across racial, ethnic, geographic, and other demographic lines blur" (1987, p.
5). In addition, Ekstrom, Goertz, Pollack, and Rock (1986) found that dropouts are
usually racial minorities and also come from low-socioeconomic families. This indicates
26
that the combination of two or more risk factors increases the likelihood of dropping out
(Suh, Suh, & Houston, 2007).
Suh et al. (2007) stated that identifying predictors of high school failing is an
important aspect for counselors concerned with the well-being of the individual student,
school, family, and society. Fortunately many researchers have conducted studies in an
effort to identify factors that may lead to dropping out of school (Rumberger, 1983;
Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). Suh et al. (2007) feel that school counselors and other
personnel may generate prevention and intervention strategies with the identification of
predictors.
The National Center for Educational Statistics (1994) found that Hispanic,
African American, and children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, drop out at
rates higher than their peers. Only 64.1% of Hispanic youth ages 18 to 24 years complete
high school, a significantly lower rate than those of other groups. White students of the
same age group completed high school at a rate of 91.8%, African Americans completed
high school at a rate of 83.7%, and 94.6% of Asian Americas completed high school
(Kaufman, Alt, & Chapman, 2001). In 1999, 12.5% of all African Americans between the
ages of 16 and 24 years were dropouts. The school dropout rate was higher for African
American studentsfromlow-income families (20.1%) than for thosefrommiddle-income
families (8.7%) (National Center for Education Statistics, 1999). Twenty-one percent of
Hispanics aged 16 to 19 drop out of school, as compared with 12% of blacks and 8% of
whites (Pew Hispanic Center, 2004). Donahue, Daane, and Grigg (2004) found that
almost one third of Latino students drop out of school, which is more than four times the
comparable rate for white students.
27
School Trouble
Conflict. Adolescents often experience conflict with other students and school
staff, making violence and aggression real concerns for public school professionals
(Robinson, Smith & Duanic, 2000). School is where early adolescents spend a large part
of their waking hours; consequently, most of the conflicts occur within the school day.
The Annual Report on School Safety, prepared jointly by the U.S. Departments of
Education and Justice (1999), stated that even though the overall school crime rate
declined between 1993 and 1997 the number of multiple-victim homicides at schools
increased. They also reported that, an estimated 3,930 students were expelled for bringing
a firearm to school during the 1997-1998 academic year. The need to teach our students
alternatives to violence is becoming overwhelmingly apparent.
Minority students are suspended or expelled from schools at a higher rate than
their white counterparts. In particular, African American and Hispanic adolescents are
suspended or expelled more often than whites for fighting, extortion of money, verbal or
physical abuse of a teacher, vandalism, and truancy (Children's Defense Fund, 1998).
Unfortunately, there has been an increase in the participation of girls in violent acts,
increasing concern among school administrators.
Many students are involved in or have firsthand knowledge of gang activity. In a
recent study of youth gangs reported by the Virginia Commission of Youth (Echelberger,
1996), 66% of the informants reported having joined their gang while they were of
middle-school age. With the understanding that gangs are almost exclusively racially
specific, race conflict and intolerance is also an area of immediate concern for school
counselors.
28
Bullying. Bullying is a cross-cultural phenomenon (Carney & Merrell, 2001)

involving systematic intimidation among peers. There are also numerous instances of
"lower level" violence and harassment in schools. Bullying is a form of violence that
influences the lives of adolescents and consequently the role of counselors. It is a
pervasive problem that is often minimized and overlooked in schools. Although bullying
was at one time considered a normal part of growing up, officials recognize the costs of
such a view (Lipman, 2003). Research indicates that school victimization has a
substantial and long-lasting effect on children's social and emotional adjustment (Crick
& Bigbee, 1998). According to the Johnson Institute (1996), in a survey of 65,000
students, 37% of students do not feel safe in school; 20% avoid hallways; 43% avoid
restrooms; 45% avoid school grounds; 26% of the girls and 49% of the boys reported
being physically assaulted; and 8% of middle school and high school students missed one
day of each school month because they were afraid to attend.
The act of the bully not only affects the victim but also those who witness the act.
Bullying can influence individuals, groups, and the institutional climate by normalizing
interpersonal aggression and violence (Randall, 1997). The effects of bullying can be
fatal, as evidenced by the recent wave of school shootings in America. According to
Cornell (1999) in a recent testimony before the House Judiciary Committee on youth
culture and violence, many of the school shootings involved young people who are
described as "outcasts from their peers" (Cornell, 1999, p. 4). The U.S. Secret Service
reported that in its examination of 37 school shootings, the majority of shooters suffered
extreme and longstanding bullying and harassment (Lumsden, 2002; Vossekuil, Fein,
Reddy, Borum, & Modzeleski, 2002). It has been stated by researchers (Espelage,
29
Bosworth, & Simon, 2000) that intervention during early adolescence is extremely
important to minimize the risks associated with bullying.
Minorities face a greater risk of becoming victims of assaultive violence than do
white youths (Hammond & Yung, 1993). The homicide rate for African American males
during 1997 was the highest the nation had seen in almost 100 years (King, 1997). In
addition, young Hispanic men's incidences of deathly violence are found to be three to
four times higher than for same age, young white men (National Center for Health
Statistics, 1997). Racial and minority youths are also exposed to high rates of
neighborhood crime, which can result in trauma. These children are now filling the
American school system, and school counselors should be aware of this and create
programs to address this trend. Counselors must be aware of the historical, economic, and
social factors that students bring to the schools.
Teacher Expectations
Low teacher expectations may further disadvantage diverse student groups. For
example, Braswell, Daane, and Grigg (2004) found that minority students perform below
basic math levels (i.e., 61% of African American, 53% of Latino, 46% of Native
Americans). In addition, several studies have indicated that teacher behaviors may
disproportionately interfere with the academic engagement of African American children
(Guerra, Attat, & Weissburg, 1997; Tucker, 1999). Taking into consideration a report by
Smith (1998) that stated that most preservice teachers say they do not want to teach
minority students except as a last resort, the dilemma of the climate in which the ethnic
and racial minority students are taught becomes greater.
30
On the other side of the issue, teachers are often the first resources contacted in
identifying gifted students. When gifted students are recent immigrants to America,
identifying and providing them with appropriate services is particularly challenging.
Often the giftedness of immigrant, minority, and second-language children is overlooked
because of a lack of knowledge and understanding about the children's learning style.
Many times these students are "neglected, labeled, and left to wither in the lowest tracks
of our schools" (Lewis & Arnold, 1998, p. 60).
Career Issues
Career development occurs throughout an individual's life. Counselors are in a
position to coordinate activities and facilitate students' advancement toward a variety of
career awareness experiences. "The entire school must work together to provide career
exploration opportunities. Furthermore, teachers, administrators, parents, and the
community must be involved to make sure all students are given support as they explore
career options and develop a tentative plan of study" (Arrington, 2000, p. 105). The
workplace of tomorrow dictates that counselors adhere to a more inclusive idea of career
guidance for today's diverse students and ensure that they receive appropriate educational
training and career guidance (Mau, 1995). Gottfredson (1981) found that adolescents
initially developing vocational/career plans confront numerous social and psychological
challenges, which are constrained by biases in the dominant culture.
It has recently been found that formative year development is fundamental to
youths and that career paths in the professional fields may never be discussed with
minority students (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 2001). Career
development is one third of the ASCA's National Standards and within this context,
31
counselors are expected to help students, explore careers, be ready for employment, and
develop career acquisition skills to comprehend how education, work, and personality
coexist (ASCA, 2002).
Race
Counselors will be more effective if they are sensitive to the educational and
vocational needs of different ethnic minority students (Mau, 1995). Readiness to make
appropriate career decisions are influenced not only by one's age but by one's race and
ethnicity as well. Ethnic minorities' underrepresentation in various occupational
categories and overrepresentation in others can be attributed to many factors in a
multicultural society. These factors may be education, poverty, regional differences, and
prejudice (Herring, 1998). In addition, continued representations of minority youth as
having less career maturity than their peers, as measured by instruments that are
standardized using a white middle-class sample, can lead to inaccurate career
assumptions and generalizations among non-white and at-risk youth. These inaccurate
beliefs can, in turn, influence minority youth's career-related behavior (Schnorr & Ware,
2001).
Black and Latino students' decisions to go into college or enter the workforce, in
large part depend on their career preparation in secondary school. Niemann, Romero, &
Arbona (2000) found that for Latino students, many psychosocial factors (i.e.,
acculturative stress, language barriers, incongruity between cultural values, experienced
academic isolation, socioeconomic inequities) can deem college as an attainable option.
32
Poverty
Poverty has been suggested to be an influence on various aspects of career
development, including occupational attainment, access to work opportunities, and
definitions of work within the worldviews and value systems of individuals (Browns,
Fukunaga, Umemoto, & Wicker, 1996). Constantine et al. (1998) found that poverty
related factors (i.e., familial unemployment, exposure to crime and violence, poor health
care, parents who cannot provide educational support) are stressors that affect academic
and vocational attainment. Low-income youth often have high aspirations, but the
influence of inadequate guidance and lack of information or role models affect their
placement in the career maturity models (Kerka, 1999). The lack of positive career role
models also limits career choices and restricts the potential of low socioeconomic status
youth (Herring, 1998).
Chronic poverty and inappropriate education contribute to the persistence of
career myths and low career aspirations among ethnic youths (Herr, 1996). Children from
low-income families may need extra help from counselors for information on making
sound academic and career choice decisions. Low-income African American and
Hispanic adolescents often do not have the luxury of an exploratory phase in finding their
career interests but often take the first job available in their early teens for the survival of
the family.
Constantine et al. (1998) stated that school counselors are the position to facilitate
the transitional experiences of diverse students into higher education and vocation by
acknowledging, normalizing, and directly attending to the factors that could affect these
adolescents' sense of overall identity as well as vocational and academic identity. Based
33
on this information, they indicated that school counselors should be aware of how the
confluence of cultural (e.g., acculturation, gender, values), familial (e.g., parental
educational attainment), and environmental (e.g., poverty, violence) factors contribute to
adolescents' perceptions of attainable careers (Constantine et al., 1998).
Personal/Social Issues
Many issues and changes have become a part of the day-to-day lives of today's
society and affect students, who are already in the middle of tremendous change and
growth. These personal/societal issues can be grouped into family issues, individual
identity issues, and general student issues. One third of the ASCA's National Standards
(2002) is for personal/social development, and within this context, counselors are
expected "to help students, regardless of their differences, develop career awareness,
employment readiness, and career information acquisition skills and understand how their
education, the world of work, and personal qualities coexist."
Family Issues
In this section, a large number of family issues related to diversity will be
addressed. This section will explore cultural differences in families,
immigration/linguistically and culturally diverse families, spirituality, and socioeconomic
status.
The family system as it was once known is virtually extinct. In today's society of
single-parent, blended, and stepfamilies, youths are often placed in difficult situations
when relating to siblings and parents (Brown, 1996). The data on today's American
family are significant. Historically, for counselors there is a lack of strategies for minority
34
students and their families (Hernandez & Isaacs, 1998; Knitzer, 1982). The following
paragraphs will address differences among various families based on culture.
Hispanic Families. The term Hispanic is used by the U.S. Census Bureau to
designate people who moved from Spain or Spanish governed areas and/or native
language Spanish speakers (Johnson-Powell, Yamamoto, Wyatt, & Arroyo, 1997).
Hispanics are inclusive of a large group of individuals from varied countries and
backgrounds, so one must consider intragroup variation and diversity when using this
term. The term Hispanic family refers to many variations of a family system.
Within the Hispanic family, there are group variances affected by several factors,
including class, country of origin, rate of acculturation, and generation. Although many
immigrants who are labeled Hispanic have emigrated from Spanish-speaking countries,
their reasons for leaving their countries of origin vary greatly (Altarriba & Bauer, 1998);
consequently, the issues that affect the families are also varied. Research on many of the
Hispanic groups indicates that the structure and function of the family and extended
family continue to be characterized by a highly integrated extended kinship system and a
strong reliance on the family system for emotional support, child rearing, financial
support, and problem solving (Chilman, 1993).
In general, differences in sex role socialization are obvious in much of the
Hispanic culture. Boys who have been guided by Hispanic cultural expectations for male
identity, machismo, may find themselves struggling with psychosocial stress (i.e., new
language, peer relationships, unfamiliar environment). Expression of internal turmoil will
damage their image of machismo may force them to act in destructive ways (Padilla,
1995). Girls raised in Hispanic culture, which emphasizes traditional family roles for
35
women, often experience identity and role confusion as they live in and are exposed to
American culture, which permits independence and freedom for the female (Gooenow &
Espin, 1993).
Added to the difficulties of counselors working with Hispanic immigrants is the
reality that many immigrants are in the United States illegally and are reluctant to engage
in a counseling situation for fear of being caught (Altarriba & Bauer, 1998). A couple of
areas to be researched are how counselors can reach this population effectively and how
reunification of many Hispanic families affects family dynamics. During immigration,
many children are left in the care of family members in their countries of origin and
reunited with their families many years after separation.
African American Families. The literature has identified four major values of
African American families: the importance of education, the importance of religion or
spirituality, the importance of the extended family and kinship networks, and the
importance of flexible family roles (Staples & Johnson, 1993). Unfortunately, in recent
years the desire for higher education in the African American community has reduced
due to several factors, including the social isolation of the poor, inner-city African
Americans who lack middle-class role models, the changing nature of the economy, the
government's declining commitment to affirmative action (Wilson, 1996), and children
being raised in single parent (usually mother) homes. In 1993 the percentage of African
American children raised in mother-only homes was 54% (U.S. Bureau of the Census,
1996).
Extended families are an important part of the African American family (Logan,
1996). Researchers (Teachrnan et al., 1998) recently found data that indicates that
36
African American youths in homes with both parents have significantly higher reading
and math scores, in addition, they have fewer behavioral problems than children of
single-parent homes. These factors must be taken into consideration when planning
intervention. The implications for counselors working with African Americans include
the need to understand the composition and resources of African American families and
to use the resources as an advantage for students.
Asian Families. Asian families are extremely diversified in American society. A
number of subgroups under this category have several commonalities and differences.
The Asian subgroups include Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, Korean
Americans, Southeast Asians, and Filipino Americans (Herring, 1998).
Chinese Americans are not a homogenous group. They include the very
traditional Chinese immigrants who came to the United States before 1965 and the native
and foreign-born Chinese who are citizens. Generational conflicts between parents and
adolescents in the United States reflect the ongoing acculturation process. Many Asian
American adolescents experience a dislike for their own culture, especially in their social
life (Sue & Sue, 1993), become dissociated from their parents, and exhibit antisocial
behavior.
Japanese Americans provide the basic reference group for socialization for
various members of the family. For example, the main role of the traditional Japanese
father is that of disciplinarian, and the mother is usually a source of emotional support
(Lee, 1997). Both Japanese born in Japan and those born in the United States are eager to
become Americanized (Axelson, 1993). The traditional principles carried from Japan,
37
however, have been modified in the United States (Herring, 1997), but commonalities
still prevail (e.g., parents and children may remain Buddhist).
Korean American families have cultural values similar to those of other Asian
American families (Lee, 1997). Traditional Korean family dynamics are changed by
immigration. The new language and culture are picked up much faster by students than
their parents. This means that parents are often put in the position of depending on their
children for translation, and this role reversal creates conflicts in the hierarchical
relationship between parents and children (Choi, 2001).
Southeast Asians' family structure and the Asian Indian family system are similar
to those of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean families; children obey their parents and they
are patriarchal (Rosenthal, Ranieri, & Klimidis, 1996). Like other Asian American
families, collectivism, an emphasis on conformity to group norms (Triandis, 1995), is
valued.
The Filipino American family structure has become similar to that of European
American families, in which parental responsibility is equally shared (Axelson, 1993).
The Filipino cultural community is not as visible or cohesive; that is, there is little group
identification within this Asian American group (Choi, 2001) as compared with the
Chinese and Japanese communities.
The nontraditional family structure could be composed of many variations. For
example, counselors will encounter students who are living in strife (e.g., hunger, abuse,
inadequate housing) and are in atypical family situations (e.g., single-parent home, live
with grandparents, live with two mothers). Research shows that poverty rates are high for
children in families with one adult, particularly among those with young, single mothers
38
who did not complete high school (Brooks-Gunn, Duncan & Maritato, 1997).
Alarmingly, Payne (1998) found that 1 in 4 children live with only one parent, usually a
divorced or never-married mother. Other findings were that 50% of America's youth
spend some time being raised by a single parent, that 5.4 million children live in
households headed by a relative other than a parent, and 39% of these children live in
households with no parent present (Payne, 1998).
Students' acculturative stress can be particularly heavy when they are not fully
rooted in either their family culture or American culture. Researchers have found that
children and adolescents struggle over appropriate behavior and values as they attempt to
be accepted and fluent in two worlds (Portes & Rumbaut, 1996). School counselors' task
of addressing students' personal, social, academic, and career needs must be done within
the confines of the original family system. Consequently, school counselors must be able
to facilitate a school climate in which students of differing family backgrounds feel
appreciated and welcomed.
Immigrants/Linguistically and Culturally Diverse (LCD). Immigration and the
experience of immigration is not a thing of the past. Daily, new people are making their
way to the United States borders. In addition, because many of the students in our schools
are immigrants themselves or have relatives (e.g., parents, grandparents) who are, the
school counselor must be a source of hope for these students. The United States is a
nation of immigration. Unfortunately, immigrants often experience various struggles
upon entrance into the country. Many live in neighborhoods with high crime, high
poverty, and high unemployment rates (Portes & Raumbaut, 1996).
39
These variables often lead to an educational barrier. In Ogbu & Simons' typology
(1998), it is suggested that a group is classified as immigrant or involuntary according to
its initial terms of incorporation into a society, but Gibson (1997) emphasizes that the
group's original terms of incorporation are just one factor that shapes the schooladaptation patterns of immigrant students. Other factors, such as the length of time a
family has been in the United States, can have a significant impact on individuals' selfperception as part of society, their acculturation level, how related they feel to their own
ethnic background, and how they view opportunities available from society's structure
(Gibson, 1997). Often, children of immigrants have difficulties because they feel
pressured to acculturate into subcultures. These immigrant students are at increased risk
of school failure when they feel pressured to Americanize rapidly and when their
surroundings (i.e., parents, community) lack the cultural and social resources to guide
their path (Gibson, 1997). Another finding from Portes and Raumbaut (1996) is that
school performance may actually decline across generations after immigrating to
America.
Overall, immigrant children face many potential challenges to their educational
success. For example, parents often know little about the school system, English is not
the primary language spoken at home, and most live in large urban areas which are often
plagued with troubled school systems (Fuligni, 1997). Because school's role has
traditionally been that of an assimilating agent, the isolation and rejection that accompany
immigration have largely been undermined. The founding experiences of students and
their parents, grandparents, and neighbors have often been ignored.
40
In addition to immigrants, many students are linguistically and culturally diverse.

Hancock and Katel (1995) found that 3 million students in the United States speak little
or no English. Spanish is the native tongue of 70% of these students, followed by Asian
languages at 15%. Schwallie-Giddis, Anstrom, Sanchez, Sardi, & Granato (2004) found
that in American schools, linguistically and culturally diverse (LCD) students face
dilemmas stemming from various aspects. These aspects may be religious, linguistic,
ethnic, and stereotyping. Dropping out of school can be a consequence of the difference
in home-school values. School counselor's unfamiliarity in this topic and resources
needed for development in this area has still not been explored (Schwallie-Giddis et al.,
2004).
Counselors must be aware of the differences in the cultures and the conflicts that
may arise. Immigrant and LCD experiences are a significant point of departure on the
journey into diversity counseling in the American public school system. This journey
needs to begin with counselors, who themselves are frequently unaware of or
uncomfortable with their own ethnicity. Consequently, school counselors must be able to
facilitate a school climate in which people of differing backgrounds feel appreciated and
welcomed.
Spirituality. A study done by the University of Pennsylvania (2003) found that
seventy-five percent of people in America report that religion and spirituality are
important to them. Because this is a large portion of our population, it might seem an
easy topic to address. Unfortunately, the people in this large majority do not have the
same spiritual beliefs and followings. Mainly in light of this fact, there has recently been
an increased need for counselors to consider the role of spirituality and religious issues in
41
students' lives. Despite the numerous beliefs that people hold, another problem in
addressing this issue is the federal law that states that the public school counselor must
work within the confines of the mandates of separation of school and church. Even with
this reality, a comprehensive understanding of spiritual and religious issues in the lives of
families, which counselors serve, may allow counselors to help address families' needs.
In the case of school counselors, there is an increased need for awareness of the
lives of students and students' parents, particularly those who belong to a racial or ethnic
minority (Frame & Williams, 1996). The importance of religion and the role of the
church cannot be ignored by school counselors working with minority youth and their
families. For example, religion has historically played an important part in African
American families (Dash, Jackson, & Rasor, 1997). As Mattis (2000) found, spirituality
permeates nearly every domain of African American life. In instances with a highly
spiritual African American family, the importance of religion increases greatly.
Much of the multicultural counseling's literature (e.g., Atkinson, 2004; Smith,
2004; Sue & Sue, 1999), explains the multicultural competencies that are based on three
dimensions (strategies, self, and client). In addition, the literature also has practical
application information which focuses on skills, knowledge, and attitude. Lonborg and
Bowen (2004) found that even though some authors include spiritual diversity as a factor
in multicultural competencies (e.g., Richards, Keller, & Smith, 2004; Sue et al., 1998),
actually working with client's of diverse beliefs has not been explored. Lonborg and
Bowen (2004) went on to state that although counselors operate on their own beliefs, it is
their ethical duty to facilitate a school climate that is spiritually diverse and welcoming to
all.
42
Socioeconomic Status. American culture is divided by social class, a term that

refers to "differences in wealth, income, occupation, status, community power, group
identification, level of consumption, and family background" (Duberman, 1975, p. 34).
Membership in a specific social class provides parameters within which the developing
student will experience a restricted range of opportunities, choices, and challenges in
particular social contexts (Herring, 1997).
Social class differences exist in any school setting. Although their consequences
may not be apparent on the surface, there are huge distinctions between students of
different social classes. For example, a higher social class provides parents with more
resources to intervene in schooling and closer bonds to social institutions than are
available to lower-class families (Lareau, 1996). According to Teachman et al. (1997),
children who spend 1 to 3 years of their adolescence in poverty are about 60% less likely
to graduate from high school than children who have never been poor. In addition, in a
2000 study on adolescent risk behavior (Blum et al.), it was found that family income is
highly related to drinking, cigarette smoking, suicide risk, weapon-related violence, and
the incidence of sexual intercourse among students.
Socioeconomic status can be the product of many factors (e.g., immigration,
divorce). Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, & Aber (1997) found that severe developmental
problems are consequences of living in high-poverty area, such as that they obtain fewer
years of schooling and earn less money (Teachman, Paasch, Day, & Carver, 1997). In
addition, poor parents have less schooling than do wealthier parents, which affects their
ability to encourage their children to get an education (Corcoran & Adams, 1997). In
addition, youths in families who live in structurally disadvantaged environments are at a
43
higher risk for adolescent delinquency (Elliot, Wilson, Huizanga, Sampson, Elliott &
Rankin, 1996; Pettit, Bates, Dodge, & Meese, 1999). This may be due in part to the lack
of community services and lack of adequate supervision from good adult role models.
Family homelessness is also a growing concern in the United States, making up 40% of
the entire homeless population (National Coalition for the Homeless, 1998c).
Students of lower socioeconomic status are victims of social inequality and have
unequal access to programs and institutions (e.g., health care providers, libraries,
community-based recreational activities), even the schools as they operate from middleclass norms (Payne, 1998). It is the school counselor's obligation to normalize education
for low socioeconomic students and facilitate a school climate in which people of
differing socioeconomic backgrounds feel welcome.
Individualized Student Identity
In this section, individual student identity issues related to diversity will be
addressed, exploring differences in race, sexuality, and disabilities/disorders in the
student-aged population. The achievement of a positive coherent identity is a
fundamental goal for youths (Erickson, 1968). Erikson (1963) has argued that the youth
period of life focuses on defining the self, what one values, and the direction one will
take in life. Identity development involves youth seeking and requiring confirmation of
their choices and understanding the expectations of society (Erikson, 1968). As youth
struggle to identify who they are, counselors must be able to address many concerns that
surround student development, which may be compounded by the struggle for some
students to identify with a group.
44
Race. Racial identity refers to a sense of group or collective identity based on

one's perception that he or she shares a common racial heritage with a particular racial
group (Helms, 1994). One's racial identity is a complex construct in which societal
resources contribute to group membership and assists in helping individuals understand
themselves (Helms, 1994). Racially and ethnically diverse adolescents are looking for
answers to who they are in terms of their race and conflicting attitudes as they mature. As
adolescents go through the various stages of racial/cultural identity development
(Atkinson, Morten & Sue, 1993), racial identity becomes much more salient.
In the United States, the focus on the study of ethnic identity has been mainly on
African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. There have
been few published examinations of racial identity development of youth from various
races (Field, 1996; Herring, 1992). Also, biracial or multiracial youth have received even
less attention (Herring, 1992). Research has found that adolescents from European
descent experience less problematic paths to pride and acceptance of their ethnicity,
mainly because "whites represent the societal norm, they can easily reach adulthood
without thinking much about their racial group" (Tatum, 1997, p. 93). This is not the case
for African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and other racially/ethnically diverse groups.
The acknowledgement of the significance of racial identity development among
racial/ethnic minorities may enable counselors, working with these students, to
understand their role through this period of development.
One of the school counselor's duties is to ensure that an educational environment
is conducive to all students' learning, regardless of race/ethnicity. Knowing that various
45
ethnic minority groups are prone to negative ramifications of learning, the school
counselor's job is to empower these students and enable learning for all of them.
Sexuality. Because adolescents are in a time of transition from childhood into
adulthood, their identities on all levels are dynamic. They are changing rapidly and often
unevenly on physical, emotional, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and sexual levels. The
sexual identity of a person during adolescence is being formed according to theories of
human development. Sexual orientation, or the primary direction of one's romantic,
relational, and psychological desires, is in flux for many adolescents. Sexual orientation
and the personal, communal, societal, and educational issues surrounding it are
instrumental in the lives of all adolescents, especially those who are experiencing
attractions that are not mainstream (e.g., those attracted to the same sex or transgendered
youth).
There is an estimated 2.9 million gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered youths
in America's school system (Colorado Department of Health, 1992). Although this
includes every social class, ability, race, age, and position, Taboos and fear have kept the
educational system blind and mute (Uribe & Harbeck, 1991). Harbeck (1991) found that
both students and teachers kept their sexuality hidden because of fear.
Gray, lesbian, and bisexual students, in comparison with their heterosexual peers,
have higher levels of or experience more suicide, substance abuse, sexual abuse,
homelessness, parent rejection, emotional isolation, dropout risk, low self-esteem,
prostitution, physical and verbal abuse, and sexually transmitted diseases (Uribe &
Harbeck, 1991). It is the school counselor's ethical duty to advocate for this group of
students and promote a positive learning environment for them.
46
Disabilities and Disorders. Schools are mandated to provide early intervention

services to children with disabilities and their families. With the increased number of
diagnoses of disabilities, more and more counselors will be providing services to students
with disorders such as autism (Layne, 2007). Cross, Bazron, Dennis, and Isaacs (1989)
provided a structure for developing competent services for emotionally disabled,
disturbed minority students that was culturally sensitive. However, there is little support
for training counselors for handling the increasing numbers of students with a disability.
Counselors will need interventions to work with the whole family to deal with a child
with a disability, and counselors should be aware of the potential problems that families
with a disabled student may experience. An example given by Miles, Takahashi, Haber,
& Hadden (2003) states that parents who have children with autism have a higher rate of
marital problems and alcoholism.
School personnel have been required to assist disabled students, the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 101-476), in 1990. This has given school counselors
the role of advocate within and outside the school community. An Individualized
Education Program is also mandated every year to help meet the social and academic
goals of the disabled student.
The negative impact of a student's development (academic or social) has been
studied by a plethora of researchers (e.g., Akos & Galassi, 2004). For example,
Anderman (1998) used the National Education Longitudinal Study's data and discovered
that achievement gaps in science and math between students without and with learning
disabilities gets wider as they get older. In addition, this researcher also reported that
47
disabled students experience a decreased motivation and need for achievement as they
got older.
Disabled students' transition within the school-community should be ensured by
the school counselor. The ASCA National Model (2005) indicates that school counselors
must take a developmental, systematic, and comprehensive practice to ensure that
students with disabilities make the transition from one environment to another as
smoothly as possible.
Student Outcomes
This section will address specific outcomes that are related to diversity. Some
researchers feel that early adolescents are at particular risk given the limits of their levels
of psychosocial and cognitive development and their life experiences (De Anda et al.,
1997). This section will discuss stress, suicide and deliberate self-harm, pregnancy,
HIV/AIDS, and dealings with the justice system, which can be consequences of diversity
issues in school-aged students.
Stress. Today's adolescents are faced with many outside stressors at a time when
they are in the midst of extreme internal change. Much of the stress experienced by
adolescents is a part of the normal developmental process; however, there is concerns
regarding the degree to which today's adolescents are exposed to greater and more
serious stressors than earlier generations (De Anda et al., 1997). Some manifestations of
this increased stress are higher rates of adolescent suicide (Centers for Disease Control,
1995; National Center for Health Statistics, 1997) and the higher occurrence of multiple
school murders (Cornell, 1999). The available research on stress and youth indicates
significant associations between stress and coping capabilities (De Anda et al., 1997) and
48
health factors (Colquhoun, 1997). Other studies point out the relationship between stressrelated and acting-out behavior, depression, and stress among adolescents (De Anda et al,
1997). Further, Fisher and Shaw (1999) found that there are ethnic-specific sources of
stress. The Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (1995) reported discrimination in housing,
juvenile justice, education, housing and social services which is a risk factor for minority
youth.
While most studies of stress related to incidences of discrimination and racism
have been focused mainly on adult subjects (Gaines & Reed, 1995; Steele, 1997), some
researchers (Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995; Dion & Kawakami, 1996; Ghuman,
1998) have started to study prejudices' effect on Hispanic and East and South Asian
descent youths. Unfortunately, despite its impact on adolescent development, research in
America continues to ignore prejudice and discrimination in minority youths' lives
(Fisher et al., 1997).
Some studies on diversity-related stress have been conducted. For example, a
recent survey (Gallup, 2001) shows that nearly half of African Americans reported that
they were treated unfairly in their own communities in at least five common situations
(shopping, work, restaurants, police, and using public transportation) during the previous
month. Another example is immigration and undocumented migrant rates from Southeast
Asia and Central America, which have precipitated a wave of prejudice against these
groups (e.g., competition for jobs, intolerance of others) (Huang, 1994). The number of
children and their parents living in the United States with expired or no documentation is
significant. The stress involved in living in fear of being sent back to one's country of
origin has not been well documented but exists as a reality for many illegal immigrants. It
49
is important for counselors to try to understand the effects of this on the development of
children and adolescents (Huang, 1994). In addition, counseling for acculturation-related
stress is an issue of importance because research shows that Hispanics' acculturative
stress is more significant than that of other immigrants (Smart & Smart, 1995).
Another situation counselors may face is homeless students who often experience
stress as they move from school to school as their living locations change. In a 1999
study, children reported that stress related to adjustment and homelessness results in short
attention spans, sleep disorders, and delays in speech and language development
(Buckner, Bassuk, Weinreb, & Brooks, 1999).
Suicide and Deliberate Self-Harm. According to the Centers for Disease Control
(1995), children between the ages of 5 to 14 years old have a fifth leading cause of death
being suicide. The rate of suicide among very young adolescents increased 120%, within
the years of 1980 and 1992; and among white females it increased 233% (Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report, 1995). Some studies have reported that levels of suicide
ideation may be positively associated with experiences of negative life stress, family
arguments, and intensity of stressful life events in general (Wetzler et al., 1996). School
counselors must address this growing issue. Schools should establish suicide prevention
programs and be prepared for the event of a suicide or attempted suicide. Similarly,
deliberate self-harm (DSH) may take the form of continuously cutting oneself or any
other deliberate, nonhabitual act that causes self-harm or may have the potential to do so
(Goddard, Subotsky, & Fombonne, 1996). School counselors must be vigilant in keeping
abreast of current information and studies as well as in noticing behaviors and signs that
would indicate incidences of DSH in their students.
50
The rate of African American youth adolescents has greatly increased in the last
20 years. In 1999, African American adolescents' seventh leading cause of death was
suicide and for young African American adults it was the third cause of death (Compton,
Thompson, and Kaslow, 2005). In the years from 1989 to 1992, the rate of suicide among
African American males increased dramatically, by 300%, and the suicide rate for Native
Americans is four times higher than that for 10- to 14-year-olds of all races (Morbidity
and Mortality Weekly Report, 1995). Few studies are available for suicide rates among
Hispanic youth, although some suggest a steady increase in this group (Rew, Thomas,
Horner, Resnick, & Beuring, 2001). A lack of available health services for students is a
significant issue for the school counselor. It is essential for counselors to properly
intervene and prevent the social factors that contribute to suicide (Day-Vines, 2007).
A similar topic that has become the focus of some researchers (Austin & Kortum,
2004; Froeschle & Moyer, 2004; Kress, 2003; Kress, Gibson, & Reynolds, 2004) is selfharm. The visibility of this disorder has become increasingly apparent in the school
setting, which is leaving many school officials, especially school counselors, feeling
confused and frustrated because of the lack of literature on how to address this topic
(Austin & Kortum, 2004). Estimates of self-injury vary depending on the population
sample and definition of self-injury (Suyemoto & Kountz, 2000), but with regard to the
general adolescent population, a recent study found that 13% of adolescents surveyed
reported engaging in self-injurious behavior (Ross & Heath, 2002).
Pregnancy. The rate of adolescent pregnancy continues to increase. Although the
pregnancy rate for young women aged 15 to 19 is declining, the rate for those 14 and
younger is actually increasing (Carlson & Lewis, 1993). Minority students' between the
51
ages of 10 and 17 have a high pregnancy rate. They account for almost half of all
unplanned pregnancies belonging to African American youth and Hispanic youth at a
close 30% (Hamilton, Sutton, & Ventura, 2003).
Few studies focus on the school counselor's role in addressing the issue of teen
mothers and fathers. A study by Kiselica, Gorezynski and Capps (1998), which included
counselors of middle/junior and senior high school students, addressed the gaps in the
literature regarding the services provided by school counselors in response to the needs of
teen parents. Their findings indicate that counselors view both teen mothers and fathers
as needing a host of assistance and services.
There are, however, difference among female adolescents of different racial and
ethnic groups in the United States. Whites have considerably lower pregnancy rates than
Hispanics or African-Americans (Ventura, Martin, Curtin, & Matthews, 1997). The rate
of early sexual activity and pregnancy in adolescence is higher for girls living in socially
and economically disadvantaged families and neighborhoods, with the risk of nonmarital
pregnancy being highest among African American adolescents in urban neighborhoods
characterized by high rates of poverty, social disorganization, and social isolation (Sucoff
& Upchurch, 1998). This is not to say that all adolescents in impoverished neighborhoods
engage in early sexual activity. Adolescents in these neighborhoods who are able to
participate in the more cohesive and supportive aspects of their environment may also be
less likely to initiate early sexual activity (Moore & Chase-Lansdale, 1999). School
counselors need to be aware of the needs of these individuals and the referral sources
available to address these needs.
52
HIV/AIDS. The epidemic proportions of individuals infected with HIV/AIDS is an

issue for children. A growing number of children and adolescents have HIV, which may
manifest itself in a number of ways, from asymptomatic HIV infection to full-blown
AIDS. Approximately 31,293 children and adolescents had been diagnosed with AIDS as
of the year 2000. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2002) scientist argue
that HIV infection diagnosis for teenagers to young adults predict a trend of incidence
because of the promiscuous behaviors this age group participates in.
HIV/AIDS affects the lives of more African Americans and Hispanics than any
other racial/ethnic group (CDCP, 2002). African Americans in 1999 made up an
estimated 12% of the population but almost 38% of all AIDS cases in the United States.
African American children represent almost two thirds (65%) of all pediatric AIDS cases.
Among young people (ages 13-24), 65% of HIV diagnoses were among African
Americans. Hispanics account for 13% of the population but accounted for 19% of the
total new AIDS cases reported in 2000 (CDC, 2001). In addition, economic conditions,
such as higher rates of poverty or limited access to or use of health care, may increase the
risk for infection in people in lower socioeconomic levels (CDCP, 2002).
The role of school counselors as it relates to this disease is clearly stated by
ASCA: "The school counselor should focus on AIDS as a disease and not as a moral
issue; promote prevention, health and education; provide a vital link to the well being of
the students, staff, parents, and the community" (p. 1). The number of children and
adolescents who have parents with HIV/AIDS is increasing, and the responsibilities of
middle school counselors in addressing their needs affect the role.
53
Justice System. Although almost one million people are currently in prison, many
researchers believe this rate will continue to increase at an exponential rate considering
that during the past two decades, there has been a big rise in the number of people
imprisoned. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (1994) over 2 million juveniles
were arrested in 1993; in addition, most youths in detention facilities are minorities (i.e.,
African Americans or Hispanic) from areas of high poverty (Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, 1994). The majority of adult prison inmates, as well as
juvenile offenders, come from and returns to disadvantaged, minority communities
(Moore, 1996). Returning to disadvantaged communities may increase the possibility of
eventual return to the prison system.
A growing number of children in the United States have parents who are
incarcerated. Current estimates indicate that as many as 1.5 million children have an
incarcerated parent at some point in their lives. Children of incarcerated parents from
lower socioeconomic levels are greatly affected, particularly because of sudden lack of
resources that had been provided by the incarcerated adult or the lack of a primary
caregiver in the case of the incarcerated mother. Since the number of incarcerated people
grows each year (Gillard & Beck, 1998), youths with incarcerated parents will also rise.
The limited, existing literature indicates that youths who have parents who are
incarcerated are exposed to a variety of negative experiences (Johnston, 1995). A
thorough investigation of the high numbers of minority youths in the juvenile justice
system unveils that different mannerisms of cultures, reaction of correctional personnel,
and racial biases are evident in the juvenile justice system.
54
African American youth are more likely than white youth to be arrested for status
offenses and index offenses. In 1993, African Americans accounted for 28.1% of all
juvenile arrests (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1994). Although they were more likely than
white youth to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated for the same category offences, a
recent study concluded that there are no significant differences between African
American and white youth in their rates of self-reported delinquency (Building Blocks for
Youth Initiative, 2000). A meta-analysis of research done on the juvenile justice system
and race found youths' consequences vary depending on their race. Hispanic and African
American youth are imprisoned more than white youths and sentenced for at least 60
days more than white youth (Building Blocks for Youth Initiative, 2000). The
implications of having students who are dealing with the many issues surrounding having
incarcerated parents or being incarcerated themselves can be significant. The school
counselor may be responsible for not only the student but also for educating the staff on
the difficulties surrounding different students' lifestyles.
Counselors and Diversity
This section of the literature review will present numerous interpretations of
counseling across difference, found throughout the research. Within the existing body of
literature, a number of terms are used interchangeably to describe the act of counseling
individuals belonging to a group different from that of the counselor, including
multicultural counseling, cross-cultural counseling, and intercultural counseling. From a
historical perspective, these terms were developed in order to describe the counseling
relationship occurring between white European American counselors and American
minority clients (Das, 1995). However, most researchers and practicing counselors, of the
55
current time, utilize the term multicultural counseling in a much broader sense.
Generally, this term is considered to encompass diversity issues related to gender, social
class, sexual orientation, and ability, in addition to racial, ethnic, and cultural background
(Baruth & Manning, 2000; Constantine, 2001).
Commonly accepted definitions for multicultural counseling throughout the
literature include these: "A situation in which two or more people with different ways of
perceiving their social environment are brought together in a helping relationship"
(Pedersen, as cited in Das 1995, p. 45), and "Counseling in which the counselor and
counselee are culturally different because of socialization acquired in distinct cultural,
subcultural, racioethnic, socioeconomic environments" (Vontress, as cited in Baruth &
Manning, 2000, p. 243). Similarly, the literature indicates that multicultural counseling
competence is achieved by counselors who are knowledgeable about and sensitive to
their clients' cultural differences, who possess and apply the skills that are necessary to
meet the unique needs of culturally diverse clients, and who demonstrate a
nonjudgmental, value-free approach to counseling (Arredondo-Dowd & Gonsalves, as
cited in Hobson-Kanitz, 1996; Holcomb-McCoy & Myers, 1999; Sue, Arredondo, &
McDavis, 1992).
However, while these definitions are widely accepted, the work of many experts
in the field suggests that they fall short of defining the complete essence of multicultural
counseling. Many studies (Arredondo, as cited in Estes, n.d.; Carey & Reinat, 1990;
Holcomb-McCoy & Meyers, 1999; Pope-Davis & Otavi, 1994; Sue, Arredondo, &
McDavis, 1992; Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000) identify the issue of counselor self-awareness
as an integral component of multicultural counseling. Tomlinson-Clarke (2000)
56
recognized that only when counselors' self-knowledge and self-awareness are increased
will the existing understanding of multicultural counseling be extended.
Along the same lines, Das (1995) identified an additional way in which the
accepted definitions of multicultural counseling are subcomprehensive. Das contended
that because the existing definitions of multicultural counseling are stated in such general
terms, the following types of multicultural counseling relationships often go overlooked:
a) an ethnic minority counselor and a white client, b) an ethnic minority counselor and an
ethnic minority client belonging to a minority group different from that of the counselor,
c) any other combination in which the counselor and client differ with respect to social
class, sexual orientation, ability, etc. The concern exists that the accepted definitions of
multicultural counseling fail to identify the variety of counselor-client relationship types
that are likely to occur.
Unfortunately, it cannot be generalized that all school counseling education
programs have paid the warranted attention to multicultural education and counseling.
Even for those who did receive some type of instruction, there was no consistency with
regard to program objectives or instructional methods (Das, 1995; Pope-Davis, & Otavi,
1994; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Newer research (Herring, 1998; HolcombMcCoy, & Meyers, 1999; Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000) has acknowledged attempts by
counselor education programs to include more training in multicultural competence and
counseling, but it is unclear whether these attempts represent comprehensive, quality
curricula or are programs that are designed to meet accreditation requirements. Although
a substantial number of studies focusing on multicultural counseling have been
conducted, it hasn't been until recent years that researchers have acknowledged the
57
importance of counselor self-awareness as it relates to culture (Das, 1995; Pope-Davis &

Otavi, 1994). Similarly, Baruth and Manning (2000) also stated the importance of
counselor self-awareness in their study. According to these researchers, culturally
competent counselors should have "an awareness of their own cultural characteristics, an
awareness of how their own cultural backgrounds may affect counseling decisions"
(Baruth & Manning, 2000, p. 245). In summary, multicultural counseling involves
preparation and practice that integrate culture-specific awareness, knowledge, and skills
into counseling interactions (Arredondo & D'Andrea, 1995; Arredondo et al., 1996). This
counseling process will be referred to as diversity counseling for the purpose of this
dissertation study.
Counselor's Role in Diversity
Many researchers (Constantine, 2001; Day-Vines, Patton, & Baytops, 2003; Sue
& Sue, 2003) have stated that the American demographic changes require that school
counselors have the skills, knowledge, and awareness to work with all diverse students.
Population projections propose that by the year 2050, minorities will be the majority of
individuals (Sue & Sue, 2003). The difference in the student demographics and the
traditional, white school counseling practice creates incongruence within the school
counseling relationship (Clarkson & Nippoda, 1997). The inadequacy of traditional
school counseling programs for today's student body calls for a restructure of culturally
sensitive school counseling (Sue et al., 1998).
The concept of counseling for diversity is relatively new. According to Das
(1995), the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s and 1970s served as a catalyst for
the birth of multicultural counseling. During this time, issues of ethnic and cultural
58
diversity gained attention. In 1965, the American Counseling Association (ACA)

recognized the need for the development of multicultural counseling practices (Burn, as
cited in Hobson & Kanitz, 1996). In 1972, the AC A established the Association for NonWhite Concerns in Personnel and Guidance (Association for Multicultural Counseling
and Development, n.d.). This branch still exists today, but it is called the Association for
Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD).
School Counselor's Role in Diversity
The ideal of standardizing the role of the school counselor in American has been
in the works for quite some time (Education Trust, 1997). This is mainly because the role
of the school counselor varies from state to state. A study done by Sciarra (2004) even
found that within the same district, the role of the school counselor is different from
school to school. This movement is a slow process because the appropriate role of the
school counselor is still a topic of debate (Brown & Trusty, 2005; Education Trust, 1997;
Sink, 2005) and accountability issues in the school have become an intense issue.
Accountability of school personnel, including school counselors, is an area where there
has been limited research in, especially to advocate for the profession of school
counselors (Baker, 2000; Sink, 2005).
Sensing the need for unification of the profession of school counseling and in
response to the movement for accountability of school counselors, ASC A, in conjunction
with the Education Trust, developed a set of national standards for school counseling
programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). These National Standards, and the subsequent
ASC A National Model, were designed to provide a unified, professional role for school
counselors to be uniformly implemented across the nation. According to the National
59
Standards, the emphasis of school counseling programs is to promote and enhance

student learning (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). In addition, the authors suggest that a
collaborative model for helping students with academic, emotional, and behavioral
problems, which includes key figures in students' lives (e.g., teachers, administrators,
parents, community members), is the most effective way to help the students (Adams &
Juhnke, 2001; Baker & Gerler, 2004; Handron, Dosser, McCammon & Powell, 1998).
With the increasing number of children from diverse backgrounds entering the
U.S. school system, it is imperative that school counselors gain a working knowledge of
how to best serve these children. One of the major challenges facing the field of school
counseling today is the preparation of school counselors who are able to address the
needs of an increasingly diverse student population (Hobson & Kanitz, 1996; House &
Martin, 1998).
In response to an urgent need to address the diversity of students, ASCA adopted
a position statement encouraging school counselors to take action to ensure that students
of diverse backgrounds have access to appropriate services and opportunities that
promote the maximum development of the individual (ASCA, 1999). It emphasized the
vitality of school counselors' cultural awareness by stating that, "Professional school
counselors have the responsibility ... to increase awareness and understanding of
culturally diverse persons and populations and to enhance the total school and community
environment and climate." Furthermore, school counseling professionals have suggested
that cultural knowledge, sensitivity, and awareness be integrated into existing school
counseling training programs. For instance, the Council for the Accreditation of
Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) specifies that school
60
counseling students need curricular experiences that explore the implications of

sociocultural, demographic, and lifestyle diversity relevant to school counseling
(CACREP, 1994). However, despite ASCA's position statement on multiculturalism and
the inclusion of multicultural content in the CACREP standards, the emphasis in the
literature placed on the competencies necessary for school counselors to effectively serve
diverse populations has been limited (Holcomb-McCoy, 2004).
ASC A (2002) identified cultural differences among students as an issue that
deserved special attention from all school personnel and from school counselors in
particular. ASC A (2002) also indicated that it is the responsibility of the school counselor
to consult with school personnel and address policies and attitudes within the school that
serve as obstacles to these students' educations.
School Counselor Strategies
Properly addressing diverse students, which entails creating a comfortable school
atmosphere, is one of the most difficult issues that school counselors have to deal with in
today's school system. This includes academic, career, and social/personal success in the
21st century. School counselors facilitate empowerment for the students and foster
advocacy around the campus community to ensure that the students' social/personal,
career, and academic needs are met.
One of the main issues that counseling in school settings presents is that idea that
"most counseling theories and interventions, which are commonly used in school
settings, have not been tested among students from diverse student populations"
(D'Andrea and Daniels, 1995, p. 143). Based on this information, it is pertinent for
school counselors to keep current with the literature as to what strategies there are for
61
working with diverse students and campus communities. The school counselor's role in
the facilitation of a positive campus climate is well research (Lapan, 2001). Facilitation
of campus-community activities were identified as the most prevalent, although a
multitude of roles was listed as belonging to counselors as well. The lack of curriculum
and activities appeared to detract from the quality of the counselors' role and
consequently from the needs of students.
Another area within this topic which has been a highly researched area is the
factors involved in multicultural counseling competence. Many researchers (e.g.,
Arredondo et al., 1996; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992) have argued that
multicultural competence development, the trainee's multicultural competence based on
the training (e.g., Allison, Crawford, Echemendia, Robinson, & Kneoo, 1994), and the
multicultural counseling course content (e.g., D'Andrea & Daniels, 1991) all have critical
parts in shaping the school counselor's ability to work with diverse students.
Based on the knowledge of existing literature, counseling competence for diverse
clients has been condensed to three areas: skills, knowledge, and awareness (HolcombMcCoy, 2005; Ponterotto & Casas, 1987; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992; Sue et al.,
1982; Sue et al., 1998). The first domain, skill, is based on the process of developing and
practicing strategies for working with diverse clients. Knowledge, the second domain, is
founded in understanding of diversity and worldviews of diverse people. The third
domain, awareness, is the self-acceptance by the counselor about personal beliefs and
biases.
School counselors realize that traditional school counseling models are not
entirely effective when helping children with various diversity issues. Advocacy in
62
counseling in school settings involves school counselors' modeling advocacy behaviors,

empowering children to become self-advocates, encouraging children and their parents to
locate and utilize resources within their communities, and helping children and their
parents identify and maintain social, communal behaviors. The American School
Counselor Association even made Ethical Standards for School Counselors with sections
that focus on diversity (see Appendix A). Instead of utilizing cultural issues, like family
unity, schools often treat parents like enemies and vice versa (Huang & Gibbs, 1992;
Noguera, 2003). For instance, school personnel use cultural values as a student's excuse
for low academic performance, while simultaneously the family thinks that the school is
insensitive (Atkinson & Juntunen, 1994). According to ASCA's Ethical Standards for
School Counselors (D.2. Responsibility to the Community), school counselors
collaborate with organizations and agencies in the school and community in the best
interest of the child being counseled. This indicates that family-school-community
collaboration is a vital construct of the school counselor's job (ASCA, 2003; Bemak,
2000). The changing role of school counselors in diversity issues means that their job
transforms from working with individual students to working with the entire school
community by advocating and empowering (Bemak, 2000; Stone & Hanson, 2002).
Current literature states that school counselors find that their school-family-community
collaboration is a vital part of their position (Bryan & Holcomb-McCoy, 2004) and that
they can be leaders and change agents (Colbert, 1996).
Bemak (2005) identified issues that inhibit the empowering of underrepresented
groups in school systems. He found that school counselors are confused and uncertain
about how to work cross-culturally with students different from themselves. This
63
indicates that even though there is a call to our profession for adapting to the changing
society and graduate programs have a mission that includes a multicultural focus, many
programs do not require multicultural counseling competencies (Sue & Sue, 2003),
especially in terms of group work. Counseling in groups has been well documented for
adolescents' diversity development (Noam, 1999). Groups give students the ability to
discuss cultural perceptions (Holcomb-McCoy & Moore-Thomas, 2001) and can give the
students a chance to discuss their diversity. The school counselor can include other
campus-wide activities to facilitate a positive diversity-based campus (i.e., guidance
lessons, school activities, and small groups).
Summary
The role of counselors has been evolutionary as the needs of adolescents in
society change. According the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (2001) school counselors should work in holistic ways, which
includes providing services for the entire school community. The research literature
clearly illustrates that there are many issues that affect the role of counselors who serve
school-aged populations and the development of these students. Although there is
compelling literature suggesting that diversity identity development is an important
component of a student's holistic development (i.e., personal/social, academic, career)
and that part of a school counselor's role is to facilitate this development, there is a need
for more research that examines the actual techniques and practices that school
counselors can use with regard to diversity issues.
Studies indicate that school counselors' self-perception of their multicultural
abilities is "somewhat competent," however there is a need to examine the link between
64
perception and application (Hofcom6-McCoy, 2005). Limited research is available as to

what school counselors and other school personnel can do to help students develop a
positive self image, regardless of difference. Based on the positive effect that self-concept
has on a student's overall academic achievement, the area of diversity development as a
school counselor's role is obvious. This study investigates the practices of self-perceived
diversity competent school counselors. The link between school counselors' perceived
multicultural competence and their actual practice will be addressed, as will how personal
characteristics (e.g., diversity experience, diversity training, ethnicity) influence practice.
65
CHAPTER THREE
The review of literature revealed that a considerable amount of data regarding
diversity and the possible negative outcomes that students might go through because of
their difference. Research, has not, addressed the actual practices of school counselors for
facilitating diversity. This sequential explanatory mixed methods study examined school
counselor's role as a facilitator in the systemic transformation for students, especially
diverse and minority populations, and what practices that are utilized. The research
design was a mixed paradigm which was mainly qualitative, but had an initial
quantitative component. Both methods of research were employed in this study to
provide breadth and depth in addressing the research questions. Using survey research
methods followed by focused interviews with 7 school counselors (selected as the top of
the survey respondents), gave voice to the participants surveyed on practices of school
counselors who have implemented diversity strategies in their school.
The research methodology included a survey, focusing on school counselor's
involvement in diversity initiatives. Selected school counselors also took part in semistructured telephone interviews, providing further perspectives on the processes of school
counselors when facilitating diversity on their campus.
This chapter provides an overview of the characteristics of mixed methods
research and the philosophical assumptions of the study, followed by a description of
mixed methods sequential explanatory design. Details provided about the sampling
procedures employees, the procedures for data analysis for both the quantitative and
qualitative phases are detailed, as well as the plans for connecting to the two phases
(mixing). This is followed by results of the quantitative pilot study procedures. The
66
chapter concludes with a description of ethical considerations, the role of the researcher
in the study, and the feasibility of the research.
Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research
The mixed-methods design mixes aspects of the qualitative and quantitative
paradigms within different phases of the research process (Creswell, 2003; Tashaokkori
& Teddlie, 1998). Originally recognized by quantitative researchers Campbell and Fiske
(1959) as a way to more accurately measure psychological traits, the concept later was
expanded as a way to triangulate quantitative and qualitative data. "By combining
multiple observers, theories, methods, and data sources, researchers can hope to
overcome the intrinsic bias that comes from single-methods, single-observer, and singletheory studies" (Denzin, 1989, p. 307). During the 1980's, mixing methods within a
single research project came to be accepted as a beneficial research practice (Tashakkori
& Teddlie, 1998).
Quantitative research relies on a researcher being an observer who does not
influence the study. Using a postpositive perspective, a researcher develops knowledge
through use of measurements and observation, collecting data through the use of
experiments or instruments that yield statistical data (Creswell, 2003). Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is based on constructivist, advocacy, or participatory
knowledge claims, in which a researcher looks for meaning, and contexts, and brings
personal values into the study. Qualitative research employs the use of subjective data,
such as observations, interviews, open-ended questions, and journals (Creswell, 2003).
Creswell (2003) also included that those using mixed methods, "the researcher
bases the inquiry on the assumption that collecting diverse types of data best provides an
67
understanding of a research problem" (p. 21). In this type of research, knowledge claims
are based on pragmatic grounds which recognize the weaknesses of other research
paradigms, and seek to find a way to address research questions using a what-works-best
approach (Creswell, 2003). Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) stated that this type of
study uses induction (discover patterns), deduction (testing theories and hypotheses), and
abduction (uncovering and relying on the best set of explanation for understanding one's
results. This type of research collects both quantitative and qualitative data, sequentially
or concurrently. This study was done sequentially.
Philosophical Assumptions
This study was based on pragmatic philosophies, which seek to find the most
practical approach to a research problem. Rather than dwelling on philosophies, it seeks
action and is consequence-oriented (Onwudgbuzie & Johnson, 2004). Pragmatism does
not view either quantitative or qualitative research as better or superior to the other, and
rejects rigid notions that the research approach selected dictates the research questions or
implementation. For the sake of finding truths (which exist in the present moment),
pragmatism seems to embrace experimentation and freedom from a particular
philosophy. The pragmatist is always open to new possibilities, seeks fresh insights, and
tries to keep a distance from assumptions. Among the weaknesses of pragmatism are that
it may be difficult for the researcher to define what is meant by "what works," or for
whom the pragmatic solutions are useful (Onwudgbuzie & Johnson, 2004).
Guba & Lincoln (1985) identified six assumptions of a researcher which may
shape the development of a study. They are: ontology, epistemology, axiology,
generalizations, causal linkages, and deductive logic. This researcher believes that the
68
nature of reality (ontology) can be different for different people, and that determining
how school counselors practice diversity must include studying more than numerical
data. Thus, this study included both quantitative and qualitative data, with a qualitative
emphasis. For the epistemology of this study the research assumed that it was impossible
to account for all of the factors which played a part in determining the nature of reality.
Thus, a pragmatic approach in this situation led to the collection of both quantitative and
qualitative data, with the acceptance that although results may be contradictory, they
nevertheless were important. The role of values in the study, axiology, were particularly
important because of the researcher's employment and extensive background in diversity.
The researcher's own values towards diversity no doubt influenced the gathering of data
and the interpretation of it. Thus, the researcher's own biases and experiences have been
bracketed. The researcher believes that because of the changing nature of school
counseling, time- and context-freegeneralizations would be challenging. Because of so
many factors which influence diversity in the American school system, the experiences of
some school counselors facilitating diversity in their campus may not hold true for others
in another time and place.
Additionally, the researcher leaned toward a constructivist approach to causal
linkages, believing that it was difficult to neatly distinguish causes from effects. There
were certain causes (intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, culture) that may have led school
counselors to make certain choices in facilitating diversity on their campus (effects).
Deductive/inductive logic refers to the emphasis on arguing from the general to the
particular, or vice-versa. Because this study was primarily qualitative, I looked
69
specifically at how school counselors facilitate diversity at their campus, and then made
generalizations about those practices.
Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Design
This study used a sequential explanatory design, a two-phase process whereby
quantitative data were gathered and analyzed first. The information gained was used to
guide the collection of qualitative data in the second-step. After the data from the
qualitative phase was analyzed, data from both steps was integrated to enable the
researcher to interpret the converged results. The research design did not require a
specific theoretical perspective (Creswell, 2003).
In the quantitative phase, numeric data was collected using a web-based survey.
The data were subjected to descriptive and normative analysis. The goals of the first
phase were to gather descriptive data regarding school counselor practices, which
included certain demographic factors, school counseling experience, and self-perception
of diversity to identify top responders for the qualitative study. The second phase
employed a multiple case study approach utilizing telephone semi-structured interviews.
This phase explored in-depth the processes by which school counselors learned to
facilitate diversity, and how they facilitated diversity at their campus. The rationale for
this approach was that the quantitative data would provide baseline and generalized
information. The qualitative data explored the experiences of the school counselors indepth, providing rich, detailed accounting of their journeys in facilitating diversity on
their campus.
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Four Considerations of Mixed Methodology

Creswell, Piano-Clark, Guttman, and Hanson (2003) have identified four
considerations when selecting a mixed methodology approach: implementation, priority,
integration, and theoretical perspective. Implementation refers to the sequence of the data
collection, or whether qualitative or quantitative data will be collected first, or
concurrently. The second factor, priority, refers to whether greater weight will be given to
the quantitative or the qualitative approach. Consideration also should be given to the
stage in the research in which data will be integrated, and is related to whether data is
collected sequentially or concurrently. Finally, the theoretical consideration refers to
whether or not a theory guides the framework for the study (Creswell, 2003).
Priority was given to the qualitative phase of the study, as the quantitative data
was used primarily to provide baseline data for the in-depth exploration of the qualitative
phase. The quantitative phase connected with the qualitative phase during the process of
developing interview questions and selecting participants for the interviews, based on
results gained from the quantitative data. Finally, findings from the quantitative and
qualitative sections were integrated in the interpretation phase of the project. A visual
model of this design is presented in Figure 1 (Ivankova, Creswell, & Stick, 2006), see
appendix B.
Ethical Considerations
As required by the Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, Institutional Review
Board (IRB), a Request for Review Form was filed, including information about the
investigator, project type, subjects, project significance, and method (Appendix C-l).
Once reviewed and approved by the IRB committee, an approval letter was sent to the
71
researcher (Appendix C-2). For phase I of the study, an informed consent form was
posted on the web. Prior to completing the survey, participants expressed their permission
by electronically signing, typing their name, and saying, "I agree to complete this survey
(Appendix D-l)." For phase II of the study, each selected participant was asked to
verbally consent "I agree to participate (Appendix D-2)." Participants in both phases
were advised the information would be used in a doctoral dissertation and subsequently
in professional distribution, but only aggregate data would be reported. Thus, anonymity
to each participant would be preserved. Informed consent letters also included an
explanation of the study, and the voluntary nature of the response.
The study did not refer to participants in any way in which they can be personally
identified. In the case studies, pseudonyms were used for their names to protect their
anonymity. All data, both quantitative and qualitative, is locked in the researcher's office
in a filing cabinet.
Quantitative Component of the Study
Research Design
The quantitative portion of the study was designed to generate normative data
about the survey participants' backgrounds (i.e., ethnicity, gender) and experience (i.e.,
training and work experience) in order to set a criterion for the qualitative portion of the
study.
Independent variables, including those measured by a short answer, were treated
as categorical scale measurement so that comparisons could be made. Independent
variables, including those measured by Likert scale, were treated as interval scale
72
measurements, so that test of means could be applied. Survey items were prepared using
the information gained in the literature review and ASCA standards.
A defining quality of experimental research is the manipulation of the
independent variables and the control of extraneous variables through randomization
(Pedhazur, 1997). The independent variables in this study were characteristics of the
participants and therefore, could not be manipulated be the researcher. Hence, the design
of this study was quasi-experimental.
Kerlinger (1964) stated that as many as half of the studies conducted in
psychology, as well as education, are quasi-experimental designs. Kerlinger (1964) also
notes that there are those in the field of psychology who argue that the most important
and interesting research problems do not lend themselves to an experimental approach.
Sample Size
The sample size for the quantitative data was determined by using a power
analysis. A power analysis involves four variables: power, alpha coefficient, degrees of
freedom, and effect size. Using these four variables, sample size tables were used to
determine the number of participants for the current study. Using an alpha of .05, power
of 70%, an effect size of .25, and degrees of freedom 1, it was determines that
approximately 28 participants were needed for quantitative analyses.
Participants for the quantitative data collection were 130 American School
Counselor Association members available on the website's directory during the summer
of 2007. The American School Counselors Association's member directory is split up
into four separate databases by geography: South, East, West, and North. The people
73
were chosen by counting down those four split directories numerically. All chosen
members selected provided some form of electronic mail address.
The participants were 103 (79.8%) White, 14 African-American (10.9%), 7
Hispanic (5.4%), 4 (3.1%) Other, and 1 Asian American (0.8%). One hundred and five
(81.4%) of the participants were female, and 24 (18.6%) were male. Many of the
participants ranged in age from 20-29 (31%) and 50-59 (24%). Ninety-four of the
participants had a master's degree (73.4%). In addition, 75 (59.5%) participants
graduated from a CACREP accredited counseling program.
Instrumentation
Because the study was primarily qualitative, the primary purpose of the survey
instrument was to gain basic descriptive information regarding the practices and
preferences of school counselor's self-perception of their diversity facilitation. Thus, the
method employed inter-method mixing, in that the survey was quantitative and followed
by a qualitative survey.
Surveys enable researchers to obtain statistical data about characteristics or
attitudes of a population. Surveys can be used to determine the strengths of relationships
among variables, and to complement other forms of observations or data (Newsted, Cin,
Ngwenyama, & Lee, 1997). This research employed the cross-sectional survey design,
meaning that the data was collected at one point in time (Creswell, 2003). The survey
was internet-based, and the participants were led to a URL through an e-mail recruitment
letter. This is an inexpensive method which allowed respondents to self-administer the
surveys, and data was automatically stored in a database where it could easily be
transformed.
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The survey contained two types of items: a categorical scale for demographic
information and an interval scale for diversity competency self-perception. The
demographic section included categorically scaled questions. The diversity competency
section had a variety of Likert-type scale questions measuring self-efficacy of the school
counselors. Table 1 presents the relationship between the survey items, research
questions, and variables. Other items on the survey included categorical questions and
short answer questions. The questionnaire consisted of 18 questions, organized into three
sections as explained below. Importantly, a number of primary questions contained
subcomponents, which meant the entire survey tool sought responses to 22 items
(Appendix E).
The first section of the survey asked questions related to demographics about the
school counselor. This section was categorical for the participant. Gender, age range,
ethnicity, highest educational attainment, years worked in school system, years
experience as a school counselor, and accreditation of graduate school program attended
were included in this section that the literature indicated might influence self-perceived
diversity competence.
The second section of the survey was based on questions that pertained to selfperceived diversity competence of the school counselors. There were Likert-type scale
questions which asked about overall diversity knowledge and knowledge of ASCA
Ethical Standards for school counselors which focus on diversity. These questions used a
5-point Likert scale of "very knowledgeable," "knowledgeable," "somewhat
knowledgeable," "not at all knowledgeable," to "unsure". There were questions about
actually integrating diversity issues in their guidance program, having a top-quality
75
campus based diversity program, ability to establish a relationship with students, and
district-wide diversity program. These questions used a categorical question of "yes,"
"partial," "no," or "unsure." There were questions for the participant to rate their own
proficiency in various diversity-based ASCA standards (i.e., caution with assessment
techniques, advocates for equal access, developing curricular/environmental conditions
for all, personal awareness, acquiring additional training for working with diversity).
These questions used a 5-point Likert scale of "very often," "often," "somewhat often,"
"not at all," to "unsure". Within this section there are also two questions which lend to
open-ended responses after the categorical response. One question asks about specific
strategies, theories, or ideas that are used for facilitating diversity. The other asks about
diversity training or literature that assists with diversity facilitation, thus allowing
participants to indicate specific conferences, workshops, classes, curriculum, books, and
workbooks.
The third and final section of the survey asked questions which allowed the
researcher to identify which participants would be willing to participate in the qualitative
portion of the study and their contact information. Participants for the qualitative phase
were selected based on their identification as a top case in the quantitative analysis as
described below.
Procedures
Survey Recruitment. On May 19, 2007 the researcher investigated the available
members on the American School Counselor Association website's available member
directory. At that time, there were 13,967 members available in the directory. The
directory was split into four smaller lists, separated by geographic region. The researcher
76
decided that 1000 randomly selected American School Counselor Association members
from the website's available member directory would be chosen. The researcher
randomly recruited 250 members from each of the four directories. A recruitment flyer
(Appendix F-l), with a cover letter describing the project, expectations for participation,
and contact information for the researcher, was distributed to the 1000 ASCA members
via electronic mail. In addition, the approximate date of the survey by e-mail was also
included. Thirty one e-mails were returned as inactive or incorrect e-mails. The returned
e-mails were corrected and the survey was sent again to these individuals on May 23,
2007.
Data Collection
The data collection took place between May 26, 2007 - June 16, 2007. The
randomly selected, 1000 ASCA members from the website's directory were sent a letter
describing the project with a link to the online survey and the online consent form
(Appendix F-2). A database with the names of each potential participant was maintained,
and receipt of surveys was noted as they were submitted automatically by the survey
software. After one week, an e-mail reminder (letter with link and consent form,
Appendix F-3) was sent to non-respondents. After two weeks, those who had not
responded were sent a third and final reminder (letter with link and consent form,
Appendix F-4) through e-mail.
Out of 1000 surveys, 130 participants responded. However, 4 surveys were blank
or had very few questions completed in the demographic section. Thus, the usable
surveys constituted a 97% response rate.
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Data Analysis
The quantitative portion of the research was a web-based survey which
participants accessed through a URL. An advantage of a web-based survey is that the
responses are automatically stored into a database. After all responses were submitted,
the data was exported into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences Software (SPSS).
Research Question 1: To what degree do participants' background (i.e., ethnicity, gender)
and experience (i.e., training and work experience) predict level of self-perceived
diversity competence?
Descriptive and normative statistics of school counselor responses were
developed. These statistics were used primarily to achieve an understanding of the total
population surveyed and the sample of the population that was interviewed.
Validity. The quasi-experimental design of this study did not allow for control of
threats to internal validity (e.g. history, maturation, instrumentation, testing). External
validity addresses the generalizability of research findings. Given that the study was
conducted with 1000 ASCA members, the results may not be generalizable to other
school counselors not in the American School Counselor Association. In addition, given
that participants in this study were volunteers, the personal histories of these individuals
may have been different from people who did not volunteer to participate in the study.
Reliability. Reliability refers to the ability of an instrument to consistently provide
the same results without error, and to actually measure what is intended (Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 1998). The reliability analysis of this study assessed how well the quantitative
survey reflected the attitudes and practices of school counselors' facilitating diversity.
78
Reducing Coverage Errors. Coverage errors for the survey were reduced by using
both the American School Counselor Association website and information from
contacting ASCA administrators to try to obtain a complete list of members whose
contact information might not be available on the website's member directory during the
summer of 2007. A careful manual check was made to ensure that names were not
duplicated or left out. Sampling errors were reduced by attempting to survey a random
sample of ASCA members during a given time so that a typical portion of the total
population was reached.
In order to maximize the number of response, the survey was designed to be more
appealing to potential respondents in order to increase response rates. This included
establishing trust and making the survey seem legitimate through the cover letter. The
affiliation of the researcher with Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi was mentioned.
Intrinsic motivation included making the survey enjoyable, easy to understand, less than
15 minutes long to compete, and not personally intrusive (Dillman, 2000).
Qualitative Component of the Study
Research Design
Research examining issues of diversity has, for the most part, been conducted
using quantitative paradigms. Recommendations for the utilization of qualitative
methodology in studying multicultural issues can be found in literature (Helms, 1989;
Hoshmund, 1989). Merchant and Dupuy (1996) suggest that the philosophical and
epistemological perspectives of multiculturalism and qualitative research are a good fit.
Consistent with the ideals of multicultural research, qualitative analysis attempts to
represent reality through the eyes of the participant. Qualitative research paradigms
79
include recognition of nonlinear causality and interreiatedness, the need to make social
and cultural contexts explicit, and valuing interpersonal relationships and subjectivity
(Merchant & Dupuy, 1996). Rogler (1999) also suggests that traditional research
methodology is a major source of cultural insensitivity. Qualitative methods provide a
mechanism for understanding the phenomenon of interest with respect for the worldview
of the participants, thus increasing cultural sensitivity. The qualitative analysis may
provide an understanding of how practices of diversity are facilitated in a school.
Sample Size
Case selection in mixed methodology presents the first opportunity to connect the
quantitative and qualitative date (Hanson, Creswell, Piano Clark, & Petska, 2005).
Qualitative researchers are interested in what components of a system should be included
to provide a valid representation of that system (Luborsky & Rubinstein, 1995). The
ideals of sampling in qualitative research prevent the identification of an exact number of
participants needed for data analysis. The researcher used the quantitative results to select
the participants needed for the qualitative portion. Seven American School Counselor
Association members were interviewed for the qualitative section of the study. This study
used a procedure to select top participants from the sample. This design was based on one
described by Ivankova, Creswell, and Stick (2006). Because this was an explanatory
study, the researcher chose to focus on the top cases, outlier cases (Ivankova et al., 2006),
for the respondent group. These members were chosen because they had the top ranked
scores, based on typical cases identified in the quantitative component. As the goal of
sampling is to maximize information to the point of saturation or redundancy (Guba &
Lincoln, 1985), sampling was terminated when no new information was forthcoming.
80
Potential participants initially were contacted by e-mail to assess their willingness

and availability to participate. That e-mail explained the purpose of the interviews in
relationship to the survey, and described the nature and expected length of the interview
(Appendix F-5). All those initially recruited agreed to participate.
The qualitative sample for the document data consisted of all ASCA members
who completed the interview. The most common strategy for selecting participants in the
qualitative research is purposeful sampling. Merriam (1998) indicated that "Purposeful
sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand,
and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned"
(p. 61). The recruitment of participants to be interviewed by the researcher occurred after
the survey had been closed. The participants had already volunteered to be interviewed.
The participants were 6 (85.7%) White and 1 African-American (14.3%). Five
(71.4%) of the participants were female and 2 (28.6%) were male. The most frequent
participant age range was 40-49 (42.9%), 20-29 and 50-59 both had (28.55%). Five of
the 7 of them, had a master's degree (71.4%). In addition, 6 (85.7%) of participants
Procedures
The qualitative interviews began three weeks following the closing of the survey
and were conducted by the researcher. All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed
by the researcher. The researcher carefully scrutinized the effectiveness of the interview
process in obtaining the data necessary to answer the research questions. Given that the
interviewer is the primary instrument of data collection, it is recommended that
81
interviewers monitor their own interviewing technique, appraise their recordings, and ask
others to review the tapes (Britten, 1995). Based on this recommendation, the researcher
listened to each interview in full or part prior to conducting further data collection. The
tapes were reviewed to assure that the research topics were explored in necessary depth
and that the content was sufficiently clarified to accurately understand the meaning
ascribed to the experiences by the participants (Britten, 1995).
Interview Protocol Development. The purpose of the interview was to further
explore the results of the quantitative phase, and to better understand the facilitation of
diversity for a school setting. Thus, the interview questions were not developed until the
quantitative data was analyzed.
The protocol included five open-ended questions (see Appendix G). The first
question asked participants to tell the interviewer about their exemplary campus-based
program on diversity. The second question asked participants to describe their district's
systemic program which focuses on diversity. The third question asked about what helps
most with working competently with diverse populations. The fourth question asked the
participant to explain ways that they design, facilitate, and implement diversity
competent programming in their campus. The final question explored ways that students,
parents, the campus, and surrounding community are impacted by having a diversity
competent school counselor.
Data Collection
Interviews were conducted by telephone, because of the distance between the
interviewer and interviewees. Each interview was about 60 minutes in length, and
included open-ended questions, which were guided by the first, quantitative phase of the
82
research. Semi-structured interviews include more open-ended questions or are a mixture

or structured and open-ended questions (Merriam, 1998). Use of semi-structured
interviews was appropriate because "the researcher knows enough about the study topic
to frame the needed discussion in advance" (Merriam, 1998). Interview questions sought
to gain insight into the process by which the respondents learned to facilitate diversity in
a school setting, and other issues as identified in the quantitative findings. As Patton
(1990, p. 196) stated, "The purpose of interviewing is to allow us to enter into the other
person's perspective."
At the beginning of each interview, the interviewer explained the intent of the
research to each participant, plans for using the results of the interview, and built a
relationship with the interviewee. The predetermined protocol was used in each interview
as a place for researcher to organize information and record notes. A qualitative protocol
for was designed for this study to obtain the information about a) experiences of
counselors, b) practices, and c) experiences of the campus community. These interviews
were used to further explicate information obtained from the questionnaires.
Data Analysis
For the qualitative part of the research, the interviews were transcribed by the
researcher, coded and analyzed to identify shared themes regarding school counselors'
diversity practices. The researcher checked the transcriptions for accuracy by replaying
them and comparing the audio to the test. The researcher than examined the transcripts
using the constant comparative method of qualitative analysis originally developed by
Glaser and Strauss (1967). Following an initial reading of the data, the general review of
all of the information in the data set, accompanied by note-taking serves as an initial
83
sorting-out process. The text was labeled and data coded. Then, themes were developed
by connecting similar responses. During the across case analysis the themes and subthemes that emerged within each case were compared to identify common and different
patterns. Following the initial development of themes, it is important to check the
accuracy of the themes with participants. Developing diagrams or graphs may also assist
in the identification and formulation of categories during the preliminary stage of data
analysis (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992).
The step-by-step process of data analysis involves reading through one transcript
at a time, noting pieces of information relevant to the research questions, continuing with
subsequent transcripts until categories and themes emerge. The process of qualitative
research ends when the information has been exhausted and saturated (Guba & Lincoln,
1981).
Research Question 1: What are the experiences of counselors who are self-perceived
diversity competent and have a top-quality campus-based diversity program?
Research Question 2: What practices have been used successfully by self-perceived
diversity competent school counselors in working with diverse populations?
Research Question 3: What experiences do the students, parents, and surrounding campus
communities express when school counselors perceive themselves as diversity
competent?
Validity and reliability in qualitative research refer to the "believability" or
"trustability" of findings (Lincoln, 1995). The qualitative paradigm rests upon the notion
that there are multiple ways to know and that there are multiple constructs of the same
84
reality. Therefore, the idea of a "valid" study that represents one "truth" is not the goal of
this study. Instead, the intent of the methodology is to produce a believable account
achieved through rigorous methods that strikes "truth" within the reader.
Validity. Merriam (1998) has suggested six strategies to enhance validity:
triangulation, member checks, peer examination, researcher's biases, participatory or
collaborative modes of research, and long-term observation. I used triangulation, member
checks, peer examination, and researcher's biases. Triangulation is good research
practice (Mathison, 1988). That means to use multiple methods, data sources, and
researchers to enhance the validity of research findings. The validity of the research is
enhanced when multiple methods and data sources point to the same conclusions.
Member checks are often considered the most important way to establish credibility
(Lincoln, 1985). This entails taking the data and tentative findings to the participants to
ask about plausibility. This was done by telephone and electronic mail. Peer examination
involves collaborating with colleagues on findings. I used two doctoral students from my
University for this. These students had previous experience with qualitative research.
Researcher's biases are viewed as a virtue that permits the researcher to make a
contribution to the study (Peshkin, 1988). My biases are my worldview and my beliefs
about diversity. I examined my own biases throughout my analysis.
Reliability. The goal of qualitative research is to gain an understanding of a
phenomenon from the perspective of the participants. Since there are many possible
perspectives and individual perspectives are constantly changing, "there is no benchmark
by which one can take repeated measures and establish reliability" (Merriam, 1998, p.
295). Therefore reliability in qualitative research is considered "dependability" or
85
"consistency" of the results (Lincoln, 1985). Dependability and consistency is achieved

through triangulation, statement of assumptions, and audit trail. The audit trail was
created by describing how data was collected, analyzed, interpreted, and how decisions
regarding the direction of the study were made. I maintained a journal with my feelings
and logic behind the study.
Qualitative Verification. Three procedures were utilized to verify the data from
the qualitative phase. The term verification is used rather than validity or reliability as it
was viewed as more appropriate in that it "shifts the focus from tests, threats,
instruments, and databases to perspective and understanding" (Creswell, 1995, p. 20).
In addition to presenting the qualitative findings through thick, rich descriptions,
researcher biases were bracketed (Creswell & Miller, 2000). This involved identifying
the researcher's experiences and judgments regarding diversity facilitation in schools.
Member checks of findings were utilized to determine if the overall account of the
interview was accurate. Lincoln and Guba (1985) called this "the most critical technique
for establishing credibility" (p. 314). This method was particularly useful for this study
because it relies on the perspective of the participants, and was relatively easy to conduct.
The researcher presented each participant with the narrative interpretation of the study to
find out it the themes and findings represented the reality of their experiences. Their
reactions were incorporated into the final narrative. Finally, the researcher utilized
triangulation (across data sources) to sort through and compare the data obtained from the
interviews, selected questions from the quantitative surveys, and related information.
86
Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher differed in the two phases of the study. In the
quantitative phase, the researcher objectively collected numerical data and factual
information through the administration of a survey, and employed standard procedures to
check the validity and reliability of the instrument. The statistical data gained was
analyzed to provide a framework for the second phase of the study.
In the qualitative phase, the researcher took on an observer-as-participant role
through interactions with the research participants. The researcher was a doctoral
candidate at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi and a school counselor. She is a
Hispanic student who has worked with diversity, trained other school personnel in
diversity issues, and facilitated diversity in a school setting. Also, she has presented,
published, and taught on various diversity topics.
The researcher did not want to make any pre-study judgments or bring any
preconceived ideas into this project; therefore, the researcher's experiences, biases and
judgments were bracketed or identified prior to conducting the study. This allowed the
focus to be placed on the meanings identified by the participants as they described their
lived experiences. Researcher biases included her following pre-study beliefs: School
counselors who come from diverse backgrounds, such as minority groups, tend to be
more competent in their counseling; school counselors who are more involved in extra
activities will not have time to participate in the study; and younger school counselors
will be more culturally competent then older school counselors.
87
Feasibility and Advantages/Disadvantages

Feasibility
The researcher had the tools and resources available to complete this research.
Access to American School Counselor Association member's e-mail directory was
obtained easily because the researcher is currently a member of ASCA. The researcher
had the statistical software from a graduate class.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sequential Explanatory Design
Several strengths and weaknesses of this research design have been identified in
the literature (Creswell, 2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Advantages of the
sequential explanatory design include: it is relatively easy to implement because the steps
fall into clear phases; the results of the first phase can be used to inform the design of the
second phase; it is easier to report than concurrent strategies; and it is especially useful
when results of the quantitative phase are surprising. Disadvantages of this design
include: the time required to carry out the research in two separate phases may be more
lengthy than it the research were done concurrently; and as with any mixed methods
approach, it requires that a researcher be knowledgeable about both quantitative and
qualitative methods.
The following chapter (four) provides the quantitative results of the survey,
including demographic information and results of quantitative research questions.
Findings of significance are detailed and explained.
88
CHAPTER FOUR
Participant Demographic Information
The 130 participants who responded to the survey were compared on the
following demographic and background characteristics: ethnicity, gender, age group,
knowledge, and experience.
Ethnicity
All participants reported their ethnicity. Table 4.1 (below) presents the
information on ethnicity according to six categories: African American, American Indian,
Asian American, Hispanic, White, and other. The most typical ethnicity was White
(79.8%), followed by African American (10.9%), and Hispanic (3.1%). The least
reported ethnicity for the participants was American Indian (0%).
Table 4.1
Participant Race
Response Percent
Race
10.9%
African American
American Indian
0.0%
0.8%
Asian American
5.4%
Hispanic
79.8%
White
Other
3.1%
100.0%
Total
Note. One participant skipped this question.
Response Count
14
0
1
7
103
4
129
Gender
All but one participant reported gender. Table 4.2 below presents the gender of
the respondents. Females accounted for 81.4% of the total participants. Males were
18.6%.

Table 4.2
Participant Gender
Gender
Female
Male
Total
Response Percent
81.4%
18.6%
100.0%
Response Count
105
24
129
Note. One participant skipped this question.

Age Range
The largest age range groups were 20-29 (31%) and 50-59 (24%), followed
closely by 30-39 (21.7%). Table 4.3 displays the age range of all respondents.
Table 4.3
Participant Age Range
Age Range
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
Other
Total
Note. One participant skippec
Response Percent
31.0%
21.7%
19.4%
24.0%
3.9%
100.0%
this question
Response Count
40
28
25
31
5
129
Knowledge
Most participants, 94 of them, had a master's degree (73.4%). The participants'
highest degree attained can be seen in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4
Participant Highest Degree Attained
Highest Degree Attained
Bachelor's Degree
Master's Degree
Doctorate Degree
Other
Total
Response Percent
10.2%
73..4%
6.3%
10.2
100.0%
Note. Two participants skipped this question.
Response Count
13
94
8
13
128
89
90
In addition, 75 (59.5%) participants graduated from a CACREP accredited counseling

program. Accreditation status of the programs from which participants graduated is
available on Table 4.5.
Table 4.5
Accreditation of Graduate School Attended
Accreditation Status
Response Percent
17.5%
Not Accredited
59.5%
CACREP Accredited
Other
23.0%
100.0%
Total
Note. Four participants skipped this question.
Response Count
22
75
29
126
When rating their self-perceptions of their diversity knowledge, 65 (56.5%) of the

participants responded "knowledgeable," 31 (27%) "very knowledgeable," and 19
(16.5%) "somewhat knowledgeable." None of the 115 respondents of that question
responded "not at all knowledgeable" or "not sure" (Table 4.6).
Table 4.6
Participants Perceptions of their Diversity Knowledge
Self-perception
Response Percent
27.0%
Very Knowledgeable
56.5%
Knowledgeable
16.5%
Somewhat Knowledgeable
0.0%
Not at all Knowledgeable
Unsure
0.0%
Total
100.0%
Note. Fifteen participants skipped this question.
Response Count
31
65
19
0
0
115
As far as self-perception ratings of the American School Counselor Association's Ethical

Standards for school counselors which address diversity, 50 (43.1%) of participants rated
themselves as "knowledgeable." See Table 4.7 below for the responses of all participants.
91
Table 4.7
Participants Perceptions of their ASCA Ethical Standards Knowledge on Diversity
Self-perception
Response Percent
Very Knowledgeable
20.7%
Knowledgeable
43.1%
32.8%
Somewhat Knowledgeable
Not at all Knowledgeable
3.4%
0.0%
Unsure
100.0%
Total
Note. Fourteen participants skipped this question.
Response Count
24
50
38
4
0
116
Experience
All but 3 participants indicated the number of years they had worked in a public
school (any profession). The largest percent of the respondents, 38.6%, have worked in
the public school system for "more than 10 years" (Table 4.8).
Table 4.8
Participants' Number of Years Working in a Public School
Years working in a School
Response Percent
7.1%
None
Less than 1
8.7%
1-5
29.1%
6-10
16.5%
More than 10
38.6%
100.0%
Total
Note. Three participants skipped this question.
Response Count
9
11
37
21
49
127
When asked how many years the American School Counselor Association members had
worked in a public school as a school counselor, two answers were commonly chosen.
Twenty-seven and a half percent of participants had been a school counselor for 1 - 5
years, while 26.6% of respondents had been a school counselor for more than 10 years
(Table 4.9).
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Table 4.9
Participants' Number of Years Working as a Public School Counselor
Years working as Counselor Response Percent
18.0%
None
10.9%
Less than 1
27.3%
1-5
17.2%
6-10
More than 10
26.6%
100.0%
Total
Note. Two participants skipped this question.
Response Count
23
14
35
22
34
128
Section Summary
The typical participants were White (79.8%), followed by African American
(10.9%), and Hispanic (3.1%). Females accounted for 81.4% of the total participants.
Males were 18.6%. The majority of the participants ranged in age from 20-29 (31%) and
50-59 (24%). Many participants, 94 of them, had a master's degree (73.4%). In addition,
75 (59.5%) participants graduated from a CACREP accredited counseling program.
participants responded "knowledgeable." As far as self-perception ratings of the
American School Counselor Association's Ethical Standards for school counselors which
address diversity, 50 (43.1%) participants rated themselves as "knowledgeable." A large
portion of the respondents, 38.6%, have worked in the public school system for "more
than 10 years." When asked how many years the American School Counselor
Association members had worked in a public school as a school counselor, two answers
were commonly chosen. Twenty-seven and a half percent of participants had been a
school counselor for 1 - 5 years, while 26.6% of respondents had been a school counselor
for more than 10 years.
93
Quantitative Research Question Analyzed

Research Question One
The goal guiding of the quantitative phase of this study was to generate normative
data about the survey participants' backgrounds (i.e., ethnicity, gender) and experience
(i.e., training and work experience) in order to set a criterion for the qualitative portion of
the study.
The typical participants were White (79.8%), and females accounted for 81.4% of
the total participants. A large portion of the participants ranged in age from 20-29 (31%).
Almost all participants, 94 of them, had a master's degree (73.4%). In addition, 75
(59.5%) of the participants graduated from a CACREP accredited counseling program.
participants responded "knowledgeable." As far as self-perception ratings of the
American School Counselor Association's Ethical Standards for school counselors which
address diversity, 50 (43.1%) of the participants rated themselves as "knowledgeable." A
large percentage of the respondents, 38.6%, have worked in the public school system for
"more than 10 years." When asked how many years the American School Counselor
Association members had worked in a public school as a school counselor, the common
answer was that most participants had been a school counselor for 1 - 5 years.
Summary of the Quantitative Results
In summary, the most frequent characteristics of participants were White, females
with an age range from 20-29. Almost all participants had a master's degree from a
CACREP accredited counseling program. When rating their self-perceptions of thendiversity knowledge most the respondents answered "knowledgeable." They also
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responded "knowledgeable" in regards to their ratings of the American School Counselor

Association's Ethical Standards for school counselors. Most commonly participants had
worked in the public school system for "more than 10 years," and had been a school
counselor for 1 - 5 years.
Case Selection
The second, qualitative phase of this study focused on exploring the experiences
of the participants who ranked highest in the quantitative portion of the study, for further
depth. This section presents the information regarding how cases for the interviews were
selected as well as the development of the interview questions and protocol. Narrative
summaries of the individual interviews and supporting data are also provided. Finally, the
results of a cross-case analysis are presented.
Case selection in a mixed methodology presents the first opportunity to connect
the quantitative and qualitative data (Hanson, Creswell, Piano Clark, & Petska, 2004).
Because this was an explanatory study, the researcher chose to focus on outlier cases
(Ivankova et al., 2006). Outlier cases were chosen because a goal of the current study was
to provide practices of exemplary, diversity-based school guidance programs. Using these
outlier cases gave the opportunity to provide important insight as to the practices of
certain school counselors as they facilitated a diversity competent guidance program.
The researcher used a three-step process to select the cases for investigation in the
qualitative portion of the study. The first step sought to eliminate survey participants
based on how they answered the last question on the survey ("In order to gain additional
information about your guidance program, can the researcher a-mail you to set-up a brief
follow-up telephone interview?"). An answer of "yes" meant that the participant would
95
be considered for the second step of the case selection process. The second step of the
selection process was based on the following question from the survey: "Do you
currently integrate diversity issues within your guidance program?" Participants who
answered "yes" and indicated specific strategies/ideas in the answer moved on to the next
step of the selection process. The third and final step of the selection process came from
the answer to another survey question. Participants who answered "yes" to "Do you have
a top quality campus-based systemic program that focuses on diversity?" were selected
case studies.
Nine total cases were selected by the researcher to participate out of the initial
130. Each potential participant was sent a recruitment letter by electronic mail. The letter
provided information about why the participant was selected, as well as the goals of the
qualitative portion of the study. The nine possible case study participants were contacted.
Seven of them agreed to participate in the follow-up telephone interview and 2 did not
respond. The qualitative portion of this study consisted of 7 case studies.
The participants were 6 (85.7%) White and 1 African-American (14.3%). Five
(71.4%) of the participants were female and 2 (28.6%) were male. The most frequent
participant age range was 40-49 (42.9%), 20-29 and 50-59 both had (28.55%). Five of
the seven participants, had a master's degree (71.4%). In addition, 6 (85.7%) of
participants graduated from a CACREP accredited counseling program. The following
table (Table 4.10) describes basic information about the participants interviewed.
The purpose of the interview was to further explore the results of the quantitative
phase, and to better understand the experiences of the school counselors who facilitate
96
diversity in their guidance programs. Thus, the interview questions were not developed
until the quantitative data was analyzed. Because the quantitative data provided
information regarding the type of diversity facilitation, the qualitative questions sought to
gain further insight as to why participants chose one method over another. Questions
were also developed to either confirm or contradict certain variables identified in the
quantitative portion, such as training and experience, as having an impact on the
facilitation chosen. The qualitative questions also sought to explain in-depth the
processes by which participants learned from their prior knowledge. Finally, qualitative
questions explored participant impressions of the impact of the diversity facilitation on
the campus community.
The protocol included five open-ended questions. The first question asked
participants to tell the interviewer about their exemplary campus-based program on
diversity. The second question asked participants to describe their district's systemic
program which focuses on diversity. The third question probed on what helps most with
working competently with diverse populations. The fourth question asked the participant
to explain ways that they design, facilitate, and implement diversity competent
programming in their campus. The final question explored ways that students, parents,
the campus, and surrounding community are impacted by having a diversity competent
school counselor.
Qualitative Findings
Four themes were identified: systemic, developmentally appropriate, personcentered, and exposure. Those themes, categories, and supporting perspectives are
detailed in Tables 4.11 4.17 (see Appendix H-l).
97
Case Study J: Participant 1

Participant 1 (PI) was an African-American woman, in the age range of 40-49
years old. Her highest degree attained was a Bachelor's Degree. She has worked in a
school for 1-5 years, and has worked the same range of time as a school counselor. She is
currently enrolled in a CACREP accredited program. She rated her overall understanding
of diversity as "knowledgeable" and about the ASCA Ethical Standards for school
counselors, she indicated that she was "somewhat knowledgeable."
She is a nontraditional student. She had a job working with the federal
government in Washington, D.C. When her youngest son got married, she decided to go
back to school and got two degrees, one in English Literature and one in Secondary
Education in English. She always wanted to teach English. While teaching English, she
spent so much time talking to students about personal issues, things going on at home,
things that were going on in the school, and other parts of their lives, that she felt
counseling would be a good field for her. Although she was teaching, she felt that a lot of
her time was spent listening and investing into their students' lives some tools that they
could use to help them navigate through the system and through their lives. This is why
she is counseling now. She indicated that she loves children and that she loves seeing
them feel empowered to make choices that are going to benefit them.
PI was a pioneer at her campus with regard to diversity, and was largely
responsible for the campus' initial entry into diversity through implementing activities
that she had become familiar with while working for Campus Programs at the university
where she got her undergraduate degree. She was one of the first individuals on her
campus to push diversity issues, and persuaded many other faculty and staff to also
98
implement diversity topics into the overall campus initiative. PI offered several diversitybased ideas to integrate into curriculum at her campus. She also found innovative ways of
focusing each month on a different diversity group, especially on the differences apparent
in the make up of the school body. PI served on many campus-community collaborative
committees to try to give the students a real-world perspective on careers and overall
exposure. She persuaded her staff, administrators, teachers, and campus community to
focus on outreach and role model appropriate diversity issues. She indicated that it was
very important to get all stakeholders involved. She stated that getting everyone to be
"very comfortable with whom they are and know their own biases" was an initial step in
the campus-turnaround.
Systemic. PI was a very active participant in a campus-based diversity initiative.
She had a holistic outlook on the implementation of her ideas which included outreach,
integrated curriculum, and campus community involvement.
When PI first began school counseling at that campus, she first analyzed the
student body. She custom-made the holistic facilitation based on the student need. She
was fortunate to have a diverse staff that she was working with. They helped with role
modeling for the students. Collaboration with the teachers was imperative for her. PI
helped the teachers integrate diversity into the regular curriculum. "For example, as they
study the Underground Railroad in History, they write reflective papers in English, and
they study speed in Science." She didn't stop there. She helped get information to
broaden curriculum beyond literature and teach them about culture and customs, so they
can "have a world view perspective." In addition, she helped the whole campus to "look
at themselves, make healthy changes, and embrace diversity." Finally, PI stressed the
99
importance of involving the entire community, school board, other businesses and all
stakeholders involved so that it is "a conglomerate effort." She found that the most
effective way of initiating her ideas was campus community involvement.
Developmentally Appropriate. When PI first started school counseling, she relied
on teacher skills that she was taught while getting her undergraduate degree. She focused
on real-world applications that the students could relate to, like options for their career
perspectives. She did this while frequently delegating hands-on, experiential learning
opportunities for the students.
PI also set up hands-on tours of various cultures. For example, "We did a tour of
London. They learned about a different culture and how people aren't that different, they
were able to make universality connection." Being flexible enough to have student
interests lead instruction was essential to her facilitation. This participant preferred realworld learning experiences for the students because it provided connection for the
students. She indicated that students generally found experiential learning a more
efficient use of energy. Although it took more effort to set up, relying on staff support to
help facilitate real-world lessons, she was able to keep balanced. She indicated that the
"key is to be balanced." Appropriate use of all campus and community resources allowed
PI to do that. Unfortunately, PI expressed concern about the lack of available, hands-on
resources for school counselors on diversity. Despite a lack of resources, PI knew the
ideal way of facilitating diversity throughout the campus community and creatively
continued.
Person-Centered. When PI first started teaching, she quickly found herself
assisting students with other issues, which were not directly academic. She realized that
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there was a distinct link between buiiding relationships with students and students'
disclosure. She stated "listening to the kids, really listening to them, helps them to heal
themselves."
"The counselor has to be very comfortable with who they are biases, principles,
stereotypes, culture, and religion." This was her basic idea. She knew who she was. She
realized the experiences that had shaped her and the status of her current biases. She did
not conform to society. She stated that facilitating a diversity-based program is about
being open-minded. It "requires looking at things differently than society does. It's
change. It's about listening to the student, not looking at the color of their skin."
Throughout the interview she frequently expressed her empathy and unconditional
positive regard towards the students.
Exposure. PI was a product of the Civil Rights Movement. Her grandparents were
mixed and growing up she went to a segregated school. She was exposed to diversity
issues since a young age. "My mom said that she didn't want us to be ignorant about our
religious choices, so we went to a Mosque, Kingdom Hall, Catholic Church, we had the
Koran, the Holy Bible, and the Jehovah Witness."
During her undergraduate program, she worked for Campus Programs. The school
is set up pro-diversity. There were Latinos, African Americans, LGBT, socioeconomic,
and spiritual organizations. She was able to be exposed to programs that facilitated the
expression of a variety of differences. "We created and developed programs for those
different groups on campus." Although PI had many positive diversity experiences, she
realized that on a school campus the ability to smoothly facilitate diversity issues
throughout the campus was going to be challenging. During the first activity, she felt
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resistance. "This was thefirsttime that something like this was done at this school, so a
lot of parents were very leery initially about having their students go." Despite the initial
discomfort with these activities, she found tremendous support after she continued.
Participant 2 (P2) was a White man, in the age range of 50-59 years old. His
highest degree attained was a master's degree plus 33 hours. He has worked in a school
for 6-10 years, and has also been a school counselor for 6-10 years. He did not graduate
from a CACREP accredited program, because he does not have a degree in school
counseling. He rated his overall understanding of diversity as "very knowledgeable" and
about the ASCA Ethical Standards for school counselors, he indicated that he was
"knowledgeable."
His academic background is in human development, with a focus on human
sexuality and adolescent development. In addition, he has 33 hours in school
administration (i.e., school law, counseling, theory and application). His work experience
is in social services. He has worked in the public sector for most of his life. He is both a
social worker and a counselor. He's licensed as a social worker in Maine and certified as
a school counselor in Maine and Arizona. He stated that his focus is on school settings
and addressing at risk issues among adolescents.
In regards to diversity, P2 had a large part in the facilitation of the diversity
program at his campus. He stressed the importance of self-acceptance and acceptance of
others, as they are without regard to their difference. He realized that a community effort
to working with a school campus is the most efficient. He found it important to first
model his acceptance of all in order to increase the number of students who would access
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him for services. The next step to his facilitation was to get student advocates on his side.
He advised a civil rights group on his campus, which served as an outlet for school-wide
presentations, in house mediation, and insight into what students are interested in.
Although he felt resistance among the school community at first, after including them, P2
indicated that the administrative support was wonderful.
Systemic. P2's approach was to primarily use the students as a medium to cofacilitate the diversity program throughout the campus community. Although his initial
emphasis was to peak the students' interest, he quickly found how all stakeholders could
benefit from this type of program. "We achieve a higher level of functionality at school
because with everyone's participation social barriers are reduced and understanding is
increased."
P2 identified what a valuable asset it is to have campus staff investment. He
indicated that he also works with teachers whenever possible to look at their biases and
prejudices. Incorporation of campus staff helped to refute the initial resistance to his
program and get administrative support. The administration was able to realize his vision
and visualize the positive effect that it was going to have on the overall campus climate.
"We can't be passive participants in schools, we need to be leaders. We need to work
with principals, superintendents, and all staff to advocate."
Developmentally Appropriate. P2's credited his ability to positively facilitate the
diversity program throughout the school community to student buy-in. He purposely
chose the activities, presentations, and leaders that he felt would best fit the campus.
Based on his prior knowledge of development of adolescents he decided that
student mentors would be the best route for distributing diversity knowledge to the
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school. He devised a civil rights group that he served as the advisor for. "The civil rights
team educates the school through presentations. You can call it peer education." He did
this to show that setting boundaries and providing structure can be done in a manner that
is respectful. Showing respect for the powerful impact that students can have on each
other displayed that he had clear knowledge of adolescent development.
Person-Centered. At the start of the interview, P2 was extremely adamant that an
understanding of his point of view was exactly that, his point of view. Throughout the
interview he emphasized a clear understanding of who he is and what factor that plays on
all of the aspects of his life. "I'm a middle-aged white guy. That's who I am. That's
where all my decisions and my thought processes, all of the things about me are based on,
that's who lam."
He commented on how important it is to truly listen and try to understand and
accept people as individuals, without judging them. "I interact with people on an
individual basis, accepting those people for who they are." He added how it is easy to fall
into the trap of stereotyping people before you get a chance to know them based on their
physical appearance. He gave the example that, "Although my school is predominately
white, there are differences. A 14-year-old girl who comes in to see me deserves respect.
Just because she is white, like me, doesn't mean we are the same." He strongly felt that
there aren't any outward indicators that can help form opinions about people. P2 stressed
that he had to get to know his students. "I can't look at someone and tell, by their
religion, color of skin, or sexual orientation, very much about them. I have to get to know
them." His entire interview included person-centered ideology.
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Exposure. Although P2 did not express any type of formal training on diversity
issues, he believed that his personal experiences growing up were sufficient. He grew up
in an area where physical appearance made a difference as to how people were treated,
especially race.
"In our community, in 1984, a gay man was thrown off a bridge in town and
killed. We have history to deal with here." Instead of being a passive observer, P2
realized the great opportunity he had to advocate, empower, and model acceptance of all
for adolescents. He indicated that initially there was a lot of resistance by all. Exposing
the students to difference was the way that he neutralized the situation. He had an overall
voice of appreciation and respect of all people, to the point where he was even irrelevant
to differences. He actually had a strong attitude which seemed like he was telling people
to get over it already. He even stated that "the whole discussion on civil rights just needs
to go away already, especially issues about race." He strategically exposed the students to
differences, until they felt the way that he did.
Participant 3 (P3) was a White man, in the age range of 20-29 years old. His
highest degree attained was a master's degree. He has worked in a school for 1-5 years,
and has also been a school counselor for 1-5 years. His graduate program was a CACREP
accredited program. He rated his overall understanding of diversity as "very
knowledgeable" and about the ASC A Ethical Standards for school counselors, he
indicated that he was "very knowledgeable."
P3 quickly disclosed some personal information about himself. He spoke about
growing up in New York and having an Italian Israeli background. His dad is Italian and
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his mom is Israeli. He also told stories about his bestfriendwho wasfromHaiti and how
he learned many things about people and culturesfromthese experiences.
When P3 started counseling at the campus he works, the district had just adopted
a new diversity-based initiative in which he was able to participate. Since he had previous
experience with diversity, he became a very active part of initiating this on a campus
level. He was able to attend district meetings on this topic, determine the feasibility of
some of the ideas, and implement strategies on his campus. He recalled that at the time
that he was hired there was already a large amount of support by various school officials.
Systemic. A systems-based approach to diversity was the only way that P3 seemed
certain of its positive effect. He would facilitate school-wide guidance, which meant
being in the classroom every other week discussing the guidance topic with the students.
He also branched outfromclassroom guidance, to the hallway messages, thenfinallyto
teacher, staff, administration, and campus community buy-in.
Campus awareness and advocacy for self and others was a common theme in his
interview, from a bulletin board in the primary school hallway displaying the week's
topic, to consulting and collaborating with the teachers and staff. "Teacher support is
important. I constantly share information with the teachers to help get them motivated
and involved." Once the campus is involved, there was a great opportunity to use liaison
staff and outreach to the community. P3 got students involved for various fundraisers for
organizations. "We have school diversity team, that some people have sold to the city and
now it's a city-wide initiative." There are many functions that the community now
facilitates, for example, multicultural night.
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Developmentally Appropriate. A primary reason that his program is so successful

is because of the appropriateness if the content for the age group. Since he taught for a
few years, he was able to quickly understand the learning strategies that would benefit
students of this age.
He used classroom guidance activities, with hands-on activities, games, and role
playing to captivate the audience. He also consulted with the teachers of all grades and
ensure vertical alignment was occurring for the lessons. He wanted the lessons to build
on themselves, "so that once they get to third, fourth, and fifth grade, they are at the point
where they understand diversity." He worked very hard at being proactive and positive
with the students. He discovered that experiential activities were pertinent to the students
understanding the concepts. "In school we did activities where the students got to see
what it is like having a disability. For example, to show a student how it feels to be blind,
they were blindfolded." He would also use various media to get to the students; for
example, he used puppets on the morning show. He trained and included peer mediators
for certain situations. "They love it. They get it. They like activities."
Person-Centered. The most evident theme in his interview was the use of personcentered theory. He constantly stressed the importance of listening, building a
relationship, and being open-minded with the students.
"You need to be very open-minded. Listen to everything that everyone says
because every single student needs different things." P3 declared that you should be
knowledgeable about differences of the student, but to empower each student, you really
had to take time to know the student. He expressed how important it is to be flexible to
meet each individual student's needs. For example, he spoke about playing basketball
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with a child. He indicated that while playing basketball, you can build a trust with a
student. The next thing you know, that student is disclosing important information to you.
Being congruent and showing the student unconditional positive regard was important to
P3.
Exposure. Since P3 could remember, he was exposed to diversity. He knew the
differences in his parents' family backgrounds. In addition, he quickly realized that many
of his friends growing up were also quite different than him and his family. "Exposure to
difference when I was young helped me to be a very accepting person and open-minded.
If I hadn't been, I could've been thrown off by some of the situations that are brought in a
school setting."
As he stated, experiencing diversity at an early age helped him to prepare for
school, society, and facilitating diversity knowledge at the campus he works in. He
specifically said that an "aftermath of just exposure to different cultures, experiences,
seeing first hand certain situations helps me to be open-minded about differences." He
was very grateful for the modeling that his parents did for him while growing up. He
shared that his parents own a business where they employ individuals with disabilities.
His parents would train and employ disabled people that many business owners will not
hire because they are uncertain of their ability. He witnessed a great transformation of
these individuals from the first day of training to a couple of months on the job. He
witnessed how empowerment and believing in people can help them achieve. The role
modeling that he was able to see in his parents, he was returning to his students.
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Participant 4 (P4) was a White woman, in the age range of 40-49 years old. Her
highest degree attained was a master's degree. She has worked in a school for more than
10 years, and has also been a school counselor for the same amount of time. She
graduated from a CACREP accredited program. She rated her overall understanding of
diversity as "very knowledgeable" and about the ASCA Ethical Standards for school
counselors, he indicated that he was "somewhat knowledgeable."
P4 was born in Ontario, but raised just over the border of Michigan in a small,
homogeneous town, where she got her undergraduate degree in music. She moved to Los
Angeles and taught music there for three years. P4 returned to Michigan and continued
her education in counseling. She finished her degree in counseling and began working as
a school counselor in a very diverse area of Michigan. Even though her first choice at a
profession was teaching music, she stressed that the reward of counseling at a school was
an incredible experience. She was adamant about her love for counseling and
empowering the students.
Her diversity knowledge was not something that she experienced at an early age.
She grew up in a very homogeneous area. Everyone in town was demographically like
her. It wasn't until she moved and began working in Los Angeles County that she truly
got to know what diversity meant. It was extremely diverse. When she returned to
Michigan to begin counseling, although not as diverse, there was quite a lot of variance in
the district where she worked. She was fortunate to enter the counseling field in a district
that had a diversity operation already in process. She indicated that she kind of "fell into
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i t . . . we have a really huge push within our district to address diversity issues. She
quickly embraced the opportunity to help facilitate diversity within her campus.
Systemic. Initial district-wide investment made her job holistic and systemic.
Since the district was pushing this topic, administrative support at her campus was a
constant. This made her job much easier. Not only was her immediate administration
supportive, her principal was the head of the diversity planning community within the
district.
These factors collaboratively increased the campus-wide involvement. For
example, she shared about one school-wide event, National Diversity Week. "We
celebrate National Diversity Week, where we focus on five cultures which the teachers
also use in their curriculum." Although she plans and instigates a lot of what is done on
campus, most of the activities are teacher directed. P4 shared how counselor-campus
community collaboration is one of the main keys to successful facilitation. Their campus
has a school newsletter that helps keep the principal, teachers, and parent-teacher
organization involved. The parent teacher organization helps keep the families involved
and gives the students real-world experience with differences. When outside help is
needed, the campus faculty, staff, and parents reach out to the community for leaders.
"Guest speakers come in from different backgrounds, performers come to dance and do
musicals." Overall, "I get so much support from my principal and my district as a
whole . . . it's a team effort."
Developmentally Appropriate. P4 described herself as a kinesthetic and audio
learner. She sought diversity lessons that focused on learning-by-doing, since she least
enjoyed learning through books or just reading.
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Although the state has a model of counseling to follow, her students thought that
it was most useful for her to be flexible and custom-make the lessons to suit them. "We
have a model but we adapt that for the needs of our district." She described many
experiential activities that the students gained a lot from. For example, "We have a lot of
students in our special education program, so a disabilities workshop where the kids have
exercises about disabilities, helps kids learn about disabilities." This sample lesson is one
that students ask for every year. Even if they have already participated in the activity, she
indicated that the students are always eager to do the exercises again. P4's students
engage most when the activities are hands-on, flexible, and real-world situations.
Person-Centered. P4 was very positive about the diversity program and support
offered by her district. She praised her campus administrators and staff for their openness
and flexibility of her ideas. Throughout her interview, she failed to give herself credit for
her part in the program's success.
Besides the positive, campus community activities, her entire interview had an
underlying theme of person-centered therapy. She constantly was building relationships.
She fostered relationships with students, faculty, administrators, parents, and the outlying
community. "Taking time to know each student as an individual helps give the campus a
real family feeling. It helps build the community." She gave unconditional positive
regard, one student at a time. She also indicated that she never took outward physical
characteristics as who the student is. For example, she stated, "I think people look at
diversity as a race issue, but there are many other aspects to a student." She modeled a
caring, congruent person.
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Exposure. Although growing up, P4 did not have exposure to diversity, she was
fortunate to experience it in her early adult life. She recalled what an awesome
experience it was to be able to meet such a broad array of individuals.
She was born and grew up in a mostly homogeneous small town. College was an
eye-opening experience for her. Then, while working out in Los Angeles County, she was
introduced to many more types of differences. "I think at one time there were 130
different languages spoken in this area." Being thrown into the opportunity to work with
such a variety of people was a life-changing experience for her. This gave her a jumpstart into her current counseling position and her job facilitating the campus' diversity
program. Even though most people were onboard with the program, she found that the
holiday season is always a tough time for their campus. Being diversity competent at
their district means not celebrating any holidays. This idea was her toughest challenge.
"When the district diversity team decided we weren't going to have Christmas events
anymore, it upset a lot of people." She has successfully coped and mediated the differing
views on campus about this and many other concerns.
highest degree attained was a master's degree. She has worked in a school for more than
10 years, and has also been a school counselor for the same amount of time. She
graduated from a CACREP accredited program. She rated her overall understanding of
diversity as "very knowledgeable" and about the ASCA Ethical Standards for school
counselors, she indicated that she was "very knowledgeable."
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At an early age it was stressed to P5 that everyone is equal. She went to a Catholic
school for grade school. The nuns who ran the school were radicals and had the students
help them in many forms of advocacy for peace and other civil liberties.
Her prior experience of advocating for others made her job as a school counselor
an easy transition. Although she had experienced struggles before, being the fore-runner
in the diversity program at her campus was quite a challenge. There were many obstacles
that she had to overcome and a lot of educating others to get campus community and
stakeholders investment.
Systemic. P5 used a systemic approach by reaching out to parents early in the
program's development. She started by doing things that she thought were
commonsensical, like having translators for the migrant farm worker parents and
allowing families to attend various school educational programs.
"For diversity month, a whole school-wide program is done. It includes mailing
information to parents, inviting guest speakers, allowing parents to bring homemade
food, and having the teachers do lessons." Once she had parental investment, she
collaborated with campus staff to enhance the teacher-parent relationship. P5 did not
want to give anybody more work; rather, she was trying to help the campus be more
efficient with time and effort spent by building a holistic approach to learning. "The
teachers are all very, very supportive. All of the activities that I pulled, they incorporated
into the curriculum." She stated that once the campus faculty, staff and administration
had invested in the program, incorporation of broader community agencies and business
people was very welcomed and extremely beneficial to the overall environment.
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Developmental Appropriate. P5's community-campus activities were extensive

because she served as both instigator and facilitator of various diversity-based school
programs. She based the activities that she used on strategies that she learned as a
teacher.
One strategy was that the program's activities were largely student led and
modeled. For example, she had a leadership group called "Class Meetings." These
meetings were a very simple, democratic program in which she would allow the students
to delegate. In these meetings they help other students with lifetime problem solving
skills. She also gave students opportunity to participate in school-wide guidance. Like in
Mix-It-Up at Lunch Day, her student group modeled and got many other students to do
the activities. She understands how important student identity is for this age-group and
allowed student interest to dictate the direction of the program. She said, "I ask the kids. I
kind of go off in that direction."
Person-Centered. A great portion of the support offered by P5 to the campus was
on a one-to-one basis, with assistance of other students, parents, and the community. In
fact, much of the activities and exercises were custom designed to fit the needs of
individual students.
She modeled and trained others on how to be build relationships, be empathic, be
congruent, and show unconditional positive regard. She had an understanding of the
importance of knowing other cultures and being well-rounded, but she also cited an
emphasis on the "need to take each student as an individual." She added that "you may
think you know about someone just by looking at them, but letting the kids express their
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difference is great." Throughout the interview she expressed the love that she had for
listening and learning about different people.
Exposure. P5's preparation to facilitate a diversity-based program came primarily
through her experiences as a young child. She disclosed information about her own
disability and how she was raised to believe that "that everybody is equal."
Besides her family influence and her own disability, she expressed that her grade
school experiences of advocacy have largely shaped her current life. Since she went
through a similar situation, she understands what learning about diversity can do to
positively effect a student's life. She realizes how hesitant students can be. "The kids
don't like being out of their comfort zone, so having food, music, and other activities,
helps." P5 recognized that the students that she works with are in an isolated town and
that if they don't have any outside experiences, they will be less willing to go away for
college. She urges her students to talk to people that they wouldn't usually talk to. "I
think you have to make it an exciting, real-life experience for the students."
highest degree attained was a master's degree. She has worked in a school in the range of
1-5 years, and has also been a school counselor for 1-5 years. She graduated from a
CACREP accredited program. She rated her overall understanding of diversity as
"somewhat knowledgeable" and about the ASCA Ethical Standards for school
counselors; he indicated that he was "somewhat knowledgeable."
P6 got an undergraduate degree in Communications and Political Science,
because she wanted to pursue a degree in politics. She followed her original plan and
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moved to Washington, D.C., where she worked in politics. After four years of working in
that setting, she decided that was not what she really wanted to do with her life. While
working in politics, she discovered that she wanted to interact and make a difference in
people's lives. She loved working with kids, so she decided to get her master's degree in
School Counseling. She found a school that had a community counseling component to
the school counseling program. She was able to get a broad array of counseling
experiences during her graduate school. Besides a school counseling certificate, she is
also a Nationally Certified Counselor and was within a few weeks of getting her license
to be a professional counselor in Illinois.
Her diversity experience has been very positive. The campus where she started as
a school counselor had already begun a diversity-based program. She mentioned that she
was fortunate to get a position where support and initiative was present. The in-school
activities and community outreach that P6 developed has been extremely helpful in the
transformation of the campus climate.
Systemic. When P6 began working at her campus, the holistic approach to the
implementation of their diversity program was evident. There was a great deal of
administrative support, teacher collaboration, and community outreach.
For example, the school where she works had many higher-level classes available.
Since it is located in a high socio-economic area, there is a district initiative to reach out
to all students in the city who want to take those challenging classes. "We reach out to all
different socioeconomic status families throughout the area." Since some of the students
in the school come from different areas, the school is constantly trying to build the
relationship between school and home. At the beginning of the year, the campus
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administrators identify specific needs and diversity issues that need to be covered, based
on the demographics of the student body. P6 is then given the task to tailor-make
activities and functions for the various groups. "We do a number of classroom guidance
lessons which are subject-specific." In addition, she is in charge of a student group that
goes around the community doing justice-like activities. The campus administrator is
supportive of community outreach and involvement. "The administration feels strongly
about enhancing the experiences for our students and they are committed to back us up.
Diversity is definitely an issue that the school is committed to expanding on. We want the
students to be exposed to different world ideas."
Developmentally Appropriate. Based on adolescent development theories, P6 has
made sure that all of the programs that she implements are conductive to adolescent
achievement. She uses activities that are student facilitated, based on student interest, and
empowerment focused.
P6 collaborates with the students to arrange what diversity-based topics should be
covered. She stated, "Go to the kids. Get them fired up. If they buy into it, there's nothing
you can't do." This is her main strategy. She allows student interest to determine the
issue and activities they are going to participate in. She then empowers the students to
facilitate the exercise throughout the campus community. An example that P6 mentioned
was about two week-long activities that the student-body participates in. She indicated
that the students have justice and peace week and a diversity week, where the student
body decides what topics to cover. The students always prefer real-world activities that
they can relate to. "Diverse students from around the area are brought in to be guest
speakers. They get the students talking. They like talking about diversity."
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Person-Centered. P6's most valuable strategy with the students came from what
she learned growing up. Through her personal life experiences, she learned about having
unconditional positive regard and empathy towards others.
She thought that it would be better if she could find a training manual for other
people to follow that would show them how to treat others as individuals. "It's hard for
some of the closed-minded people to understand that race is just color of skin. It doesn't
make you who you are." She mentioned how fortunate she felt she was to be in the
position to give guidance to adolescents. She also shared that it is difficult at times,
during guidance, for students who are different. She stated that the class looks to them as
representatives of their culture. "I try to help students realize that they are not
representatives of their culture." She takes these instances as opportunities to display
intragroup differences to the students. Throughout her interview, she mentioned that
taking people as individuals is the most important lesson that the students can learn. "I
don't know all there is to every culture. I think everyone is an individual and I try to take
it from there."
Exposure. P6 acknowledged that occasionally topics are brought up that she is not
completely comfortable discussing with the students. Instead of avoiding the topic
because of lack of knowledge, she made it a point to get exposed to the particular culture.
She learned by experience diversity at a late age. She grew up in a rural area,
with little difference, among people. She continued to be sheltered throughout college
because she stayed with people who were like herself. Although she was taught
unconditional positive regard, when young, she was never exposed to difference. During
her master's program, she finally was exposed to diversity. "It opened my eyes. I've
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made sort of a personal commitment to get to know people who are different than me. It's
wonderful." She feels that hands-on experience and real-world situations are the most
beneficial for people to be empathic. "I really think the thing that makes me feel as
competent as possible is exposing myself to different cultures, being aware of what's out
there." She says using this same technique with the students seems to work. "At the end
of the year, the feeling is sort of a nirvana. It's just a very positive environment."
highest degree attained was a Doctorate's Degree. She has worked in a school in the
range of 6-10 years, and has also been a school counselor for 6-10 years. She graduated
from a CACREP accredited program. She rated her overall understanding of diversity as
"knowledgeable" and about the ASCA Ethical Standards for school counselors, he
indicated that he was "very knowledgeable."
P7 has three degrees. She started out an art education major, but switched it to
psychology. She got her master's degree in counseling. Her doctorate is in counselor
education. While getting her doctoral degree, she was employed in the Student Affairs
Office at her university. She worked there a couple of years, then became a career
counselor at the same university. She enjoyed working with incoming college freshman,
and their career choices, so she decided that she wanted to work in a high school setting.
So, she got her certification to become a school counselor. As a school counselor, she has
been given the opportunity to work with all levels: high school, middle school, and
elementary school. In addition, she has counseling experience in a technical school,
vocational school, and college.
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P7 had most of her diversity knowledge through training at the university. While
she worked on her doctorate, she worked at the university's Student Affairs Office. The
university she attended had a strong push towards diversity awareness and training. She
was able to attend and learn many strategies for teaching about diversity. She was also in
the position to get feedback from the students as to what did and what did not work in
regards to activities.
Systemic. Since her diversity training was from a university setting, she had very
global views about what diversity was. This outlook was very evident in the activities and
exercises that she involved the students and campus community in.
P7 used various means to get a diversity-based program. She advocated and got
support from many stakeholders. "The district is very supportive. They paid for a
consultant to come in and get us working." Once they started to see the positive
improvement, the school board even became very supportive and gave her money for
diversity lessons and extra counselors. Once these stakeholders were involved, it was not
long before the community began to take interest in the school's objective. This allowed
guest speakers to talk to the students and participate in other school functions. Her main
ally in the program's implementation was the campus staff. "The teachers implement
various activities in the classroom and do units on different cultures." The overall support
from everyone has made huge returns for the campus. The students are even given the
opportunity to learn about diversity issues integrated throughout their curriculum. "Our
students take a global studies class, were they learn about culture, education, religion,
politics, geography, and other things about various places."
120
Developmentally Appropriate. She attended much training regarding diversity

issues. She stated that the opportunity that she had actually in the classroom, in the career
center, and in the Student Affairs Office gave her knowledge about age-appropriate
instruction.
She learned that student facilitated, hands-on activities were the most influential
for the students she worked with. With this knowledge, she tweaked exercises to make
age-appropriate learning lessons for her campus. She began by facilitating the students'
understanding about their own culture and customs. She then fostered the students'
ability to lead each other. "For Mix It Up at Lunch Day, the students learned about it and
promoted it." Although she instigated ideas, she allowed the students to take those ideas
and develop them in their own kid-friendly way. P7 also did group guidance lessons that
focused on race, religion, culture, gender, and social class. She demonstrated proper
debating techniques and let the students discuss their differences. She also helped
teachers with other extra-therapeutic activities. For example, there was a multicultural art
after-school program. "I did a lot of cultural programs for the students." An important
point that she mentioned was that she was not the expert; she also got information from
other people and resources. "Start advocating. Find information that shows what other
schools are doing. Show what they can do, how they contribute to the school."
Person-Centered. Throughout the interview, P7 continuously pointed out that she
listens and tries to understand the students for who they are. She also said that would not
be possible, if she didn't know herself. She knows her biases, limitations, and strengths.
"Counselors must also gain self-understanding. This includes our strengths and
limitations." She stressed the importance of avoiding judgments of the students. "I am
121
'you centered' as a counselor. Listening to the client and just understanding is what is
important." Being able to interact and work amongst a variety of age groups, especially
adolescents and young adults, she was able to realize that respect and understanding was
an extremely important tenet to their everyday life. With this knowledge she indicated
that "I always take each student as an individual."
Exposure. Her family background and personal experience was very limited. She
came from a white, middle-class area. It was a very homogenous area. Her first
experience with different cultures was as a program coordinator on a cruise.
She was a children's program coordinator on a cruise that sailed around the world
in 100 days. "I was exposed to different cultures." This was an eye-opening experience
for her. The trip peaked her interest as she noticed how receptive the young children on
the cruise were to diversity. Later in life, during her work in the Student Affairs Office
she was able to relate the cultures that she learned about during the trip to the students on
the campus. It was interesting for her to see such a broad range of ideals from similar
cultured people. Her experiences pushed one of her main career objectives to be exposing
others to diversity and advocating for social justice issues. She has found the idea is also
the big trend in counseling, "learn about different cultures and understanding social
justice."
Cross Case Analysis
The four themes, systemic, developmentally appropriate, person-centered, and
exposure were explored across seven cases. Tables 4.18 (see Appendix H-2) provide the
themes and categories for each group.
122
Systemic. The participants used a variety of methods as they facilitated their

diversity-based program. All seven of the interviewees participated in a systemic program
which included students, parents, faculty, administration, and outside community.
Not all of the participants initially had full support from campus staff available to
them. Those worked hard on the campus climate until investment in all activities was
made. All seven participants explained that most of their implementation had come from
the teachers. Either the counselor had collaborated with the teachers to integrate
curriculum or the teachers instigated a diversity-based project based on student interest in
the topic. For example, P3, who goes into the classrooms every other week to do
guidance, mentioned that on the weeks that he does not go into the classroom, two
teachers conduct class like a guidance session. The teachers use a diversity-based topic
for discussion and implement an activity for it. Although he does not mandate that these
teachers do this, he believed that his role as a counselor provided the teachers with insight
about real-world connections that can be used for teaching. "I am on the master schedule,
but I feel that even if I was taken off, many of the teachers would base their assignments
on real-life situations. I think the sharing that we've done had made an impression on
everyone."
Although none of the participants worked alone, at the beginning of the program,
three of the seven counselors began without any type of support. One of the interviewees,
P4, indicated that working without parents, staff, or community stakeholders "would 've
been impossible." He indicated that he was very fortunate that his district already had a
diversity-based initiative. Many of the interviewees were very thankful for the support
they received. They provided examples and instances where community involvement was
123
pertinent. For example, P7 had such a broad ideal of diversity it would've been
impossible to portray all the information alone. "The community involvement was the
backbone to our program."
Developmentally Appropriate. Most of the participants discussed execution of the
strategies as a critical factor in the implementation of their program. Those who had been
teachers prior to becoming school counselors already had an idea of what strategies were
effective with youths. P3 stated, "I try to integrate curriculum and use hands-on, realworld activities for the students to learn from." P5 echoed these sentiments: "Real
situations and fun activities are the most efficient ways of getting your point across to the
students. Having teachers help by integrating the topics in with the content lesson is
great."
Another common category that emerged among the school counselors was the use
of student facilitators. Besides experiential activities that paralleled real life, the students
also tend to be particularly fond of student-led ideas. This means that the participants
used student interest to guide the topics. The students were also used as peer role models
and leaders. PI stated that "Students will much rather follow another student's lead than
an adult. This makes training student helpers important." P2 and P5 had similar ideas.
They both were advisor for student activist groups, which instigated many of the school
functions.
P7 emphasized an important part of a developmentally appropriate program. She
stressed the importance of flexibility in the program's structure. Although PI and P4
stated that boundaries were necessary, P7 included that adaptability in the program is
essential. "Custom-make your diversity program to fit your student body's needs."
124
Person-Centered. In spite of the vast number of multicultural tenets and practices,

each interviewee insisted that they treated each student as an individual. They indicated
that it was important to have a basic knowledge of various cultures, but that each person
should be treated as an individual. Among the seven participants, all of them hinted at use
of person-centered ideology. For example, P2 stated, "Although my school is
predominately white, there are differences. A 14 year old girl who comes in to see me
deserves respect. Just because she is white, like me, doesn't mean we are the same."
Many of the interviewees described similar situations where they distinguished
between diverse groups. Three of the seven gave personal experience of when they were
treated unfairly for their outward appearance. PI said, "I am a woman, a nontraditional
student, and mixed. I don't want to be judged for any of those traits," while P5 indicated
that her disability was not something that she wanted people to group her by. Having
unconditional positive regard for all students, was an important issue for the counselors.
Relationship building also was an effective means for most participants because
of the increased trust and respect that it gave them in their student's eyes. For P3, "things
like playing basketball with a child. You'll be able to build a trust and the next thing you
know while he is shooting baskets, he is telling you everything that you wanted to know."
The interviews all had examples of relationship building among students and all facets of
the campus community. P6 included that one of the most important lessons that she
learned while facilitating her diversity-based program is that the first step in
implementing a program like this is to "know yourself first." She and four others
verbalized the importance of knowing your biases, limitations, and strengths. "I don't
125
know all there is to every culture. I think everyone is an individual and I try to take it
from there."
Exposure. The role of exposure in helping to facilitate a diversity-based program
is also imperative. Although not all participants had the same family background,
personal experience, or depth of exposure to diversity, they all were at one time in a
diverse situation. Most interviewees relied heavily on their experience as they
implemented their campus program.
For example, P3 shared that his family owns two businesses where they have
individuals with disabilities who work for them. His family's business is one of the only
places in town that will hire them. "We help show people what they can do." He
recollected that early experiences of discrimination against those individuals were
something that he vowed to fight against. While growing up PI also experience diversitybased problems, "I am a product of the civil rights movement. My grandparents were
mixed and I went to a segregated school." She shared many memories of how these
events affected her and how she wanted to help other students who were in similar
situations.
Other interviewees, who lacked diversity experience growing up, had a very
strong exposure at a later age. P6 shared that she "grew up in a very rural area . .. went to
college and I sort of stayed with people who were like me. During my master's program,
Ifinallywas exposed to diversity. It opened my eyes. I've made sort of a personal
commitment to get to know people who are different than me. It's wonderful." The
interviewees were split in this category. Some had early experiences, while others had
126
their diversity experience later in life. Regardless of the time, each participant claimed
that exposure to diversity helped them be open-minded and accepting of others.
Qualitative Research Questions Analyzed
Research Question 1
What are the experiences of counselors who perceive themselves as diversity competent
and have a top-quality campus-based diversity program?
Counselors who perceive themselves as competent in diversity shared experiences
of respect for all people, regardless of differences. The participants interviewed had an
admiration of others and a want for learning about others. Although they experienced
resistance at the beginning, these counselors were respected and supported by their entire
campus community.
Research Question 2
What practices have been used successfully by school counselors who perceive
themselves as diversity competent in working with diverse populations?
The practices that these counselors used were systemic implementation,
developmentally appropriate delivery, person-centered approach, and exposure to
diversity.
Research Question 3
What experiences do the students, parents, and surrounding campus communities express
when school counselors perceive themselves as diversity competent?
According to the counselors, the students, parents, and surrounding campus
community is positively affected by their diversity competence. Although there may be
127
resistance at the initial onset of the programming, the end of the year always seems to
have positive outcomes.
Summary
The seven participants interviewed varied greatly in their training and
experiences, yet common themes and categories could be made from their stories.
According to the participants, a systemic program is imperative. This means that all
campus personnel (i.e., teachers, counselors, administrators), family members, and
outlying community be in included in the program facilitation. Although their
responsibilities and duties differed in each program, they were educated and included in
various activities. Those who participated used developmentally appropriate techniques.
This meant that they used strategies that work for youths and adolescents like hands-on
activities and real-world situations.
In addition to the above, the counselors in the study also were person-centered.
Unconditional positive regard, congruence, and empathy were valued as essential. They
built relationships with their students and helped other campus community members
build relationships. They realized that knowing themselves and taking time to know
others was vital. Finally, these interviewees shared in common the fact that they had all
been exposed to diversity at one stage in their life. They believed that this was important
in helping them facilitate their program.
128
CHAPTER FIVE
This chapter is divided into four sections: the summary of the study, the
conclusions made from the findings, the implications, and the researcher's
recommendations for school counselors and counselor educators that have interest in
facilitating diversity throughout their campus.
Summary of the Study
This study has demonstrated how school counselors can focus on diversity, which
transitions traditional school campus' into holistic, diversity-based campus communities.
This sequential explanatory mixed methods study examined school counselor's role as a
facilitator in the systemic transformation for all students, especially diverse and minority
populations, and what practices that they exhibit.
In the first phase, a quantitative survey collected baseline information regarding
the demographic information about the American School Counselor Association
members who participated and various practices of the total population surveyed. In the
second, qualitative phase, seven purposefully selected interviews explored how school
counselors facilitate diversity throughout their campus.
Priority was given to the qualitative phase of the study. The quantitative data was
used to identify areas for in-depth explorations during the qualitative phase, interviews.
The quantitative phase was used for the process of developing the interview questions
and selecting participants for the interviews. Findings from the quantitative and
qualitative sections were integrated in the interpretation phase of the project.
129
Quantitative Phase
Data Collection
In the quantitative phase, numeric data was collected using a web-based survey
(N=130). The survey was self-developed and based on issues identified in the literature
regarding common types of facilitation and training of diversity. The questionnaire
consisted of 22 total items, organized into three sections: demographics information, selfperceived diversity competence, and case selection information. Overall 130 participants
responded. On average, per question, there were 126 usable surveys.
Data Analysis
All participants reported their ethnicity. The most typical ethnicity was White
(79.8%), followed by African American (10.9%), and Hispanic (3.1%). The least
reported ethnicity for the participants was American Indian (0%). All but one participant
reported gender. Females accounted for 81.4% of the total participants. Males were
18.6%. Many of the participants ranged in age from 20-29 (31%) and 50-59 (24%).
Ninety-four of them, had a master's degree (73.4%). In addition, 75 (59.5%) of
participants graduated from a CACREP accredited counseling program. When rating
their self-perceptions of their diversity knowledge, 65 (56.5%) of the participants
responded "knowledgeable," 31 (27%) "very knowledgeable," and 19 (16.5%)
"somewhat knowledgeable." As far as self-perception ratings of the American School
Counselor Association's Ethical Standards for school counselors which address diversity,
50 (43.1%) of participants rated themselves as "knowledgeable." All but 3 participants
indicated the amount of years that they had worked in a public school (any profession). A
large percentage of the respondents, 38.6%, have worked in the public school system for
130
"more than 10 years." When asked how many years the American School Counselor
Association members had worked in a public school as a school counselor. Twenty-seven
and a half percent of participants had been a school counselor for 1 - 5 years, while
26.6% of respondents had been a school counselor for more than 10 years.
Findings
Participants were compared on the following demographic and background
characteristics: ethnicity, gender, knowledge, and experience. The most frequent
respondents were White, females who ranged in age from 20-29 and 50-59, who had a
master's degree and graduated from a CACREP accredited counseling program. When
rating their self-perceptions of their diversity knowledge and ASC A Ethical Standards of
diversity knowledge, most of the participants responded "knowledgeable." The majority
of the respondents, worked in the public school system for "more than 10 years," and
generally had been school counselors for either 1 - 5 years or for more than 10 years.
Qualitative Phase
Data Collection
In the second, qualitative phase of the study, seven American School Counselor
Association members were interviewed. The interviews were about 60 minutes in
duration, and consisted of questions based on the survey analysis. Using the interview
transcriptions, notes and respondents' answers to the questions, case studies were written.
After the initial transcriptions were coded, member checks were conducted with each of
the respondents to verify the accuracy of the processes and practices.
131
Data Analysis
Both case-by-case and cross case analysis was conducted by the researcher. Each
transcript was read and coded to develop themes and categories. The number of themes
was reduced to combine similar codes. After all transcripts were coded and themes were
identified, case study narratives were composed for each of the interviews. Finally, a
cross-case thematic analysis was conducted.
Findings
Four common themes (systemic, developmentally appropriate, person-centered,
and exposure) were explored across the seven cases. The findings enabled integration
with the findings from the quantitative phase.
Systemic. The participants used a variety of methods as they facilitated their
diversity-based program. All seven of the interviewees participated in a systemic program
which included involvement of students, parents, faculty, administration, and outside
community. Although none of the participants worked alone, at the beginning of the
program, three of the seven counselors began without any type of support. The
interviewees were very thankful for the support they received and included that campus
community involvement was pertinent for the program's success. Developmentally
Appropriate. Most of the participants discussed implementation of strategies as a critical
factor in their program. Those who had been teachers prior to becoming school
counselors already had an idea of what strategies were effective with youths. They
integrated curriculum and used hands-on, real-world activities for the students to learn.
Another common category that emerged among the school counselors was the use of
student facilitators. The students were also used as peer role models and leaders.
132
Person-Centered. In spite of the vast number of multicultural tenets and practices,

each interviewee insisted that they treated each student as an individual. They indicated
that it was important to have a basic knowledge of various cultures, but that each person
should be treated as an individual. Among the seven participants, all of them hinted to
use of person-centered ideology. Relationship building also was an effective means for
most participants because of the increased trust and respect that it gave them in their
student's eyes. The interviews all had examples of relationship building among students
and all facets of the campus community.
Exposure. The role of exposure in helping to facilitate a diversity-based program
is also imperative. Although not all participants had the same family background,
personal experience, or depth of exposure to diversity, they all were at one time in a
diverse situation. Most interviewees relied heavily on their experience as they
implemented their campus program. Other interviewees, who did not have a personal
experience growing up, had a very strong exposure at a later age. Regardless of the time,
each participant claimed that exposure to diversity helped them be open-minded and
accepting of others. In addition, prior exposure, also very heavily influenced the
participants to expose their students to diversity.
Conclusions
The quantitative findings presented in Chapter Four formed the basis for the
conclusions listed below:
1. Most of the school counselors who responded to the initial web-based survey
were White (79%).
133
2. There was a gender majority in the school counselor's gender who responded
to the initial web-based survey. 81.4% of the survey participants were female.
3. There was good range of difference in the participant age range for the survey.
A large portion of respondents were either in the age range of 20-29 (31%) or
50-59 (24%).
4. There was little to no difference in the degree attainment of the respondents of
the initial survey. Ninety-four participants had a master's degree (73.4%).
5. There also were a large number (59.5%) of survey participants who had
6. In general, a small majority (56.5%) of the participants responded as being
"knowledgeable," in regards to overall diversity knowledge.
7. As far as self-perception ratings of the American School Counselor
Association's Ethical Standards for school counselors which address diversity,
only 43.1% of participants rated themselves as "knowledgeable."
8. The largest percentage (38.6%) of respondents indicated that they had worked
in the public school system for "more than 10 years."
9. When asked how many years the American School Counselor Association
members had worked in a public school as a school counselor, two answers
were commonly chosen. 27.5% of participants had been a school counselor
for 1 - 5 years, while 26.6% of respondents had been a school counselor for
more than 10 years.
The qualitative findings presented in Chapter Four construed the foundation for the
conclusions listed below:
134
1. Qualitatively, all participants of the telephone interview expressed similar

remarks and practices. The respondents used a holistic and systemic theory for
working with the campus community.
2. The exercises and activities that the respondents used were developmentally
appropriate and conducive to learning (i.e., hands on, student facilitated).
3. The school counselors' approach to a diversity-based program started with a
person-centered ideal. All students were viewed as individuals, regardless of
difference.
4. Prior exposure to diversity was an essential aspect for the foundation of the
school counselors' diversity knowledge and also influenced the participants to
expose their students to diversity.
Implications
This study provided insight about how selected school counselors facilitate
diversity on their campus. The study explored practices and preferences toward achieving
a diversity competent campus. It also explored how school counselors selected which
methods to use, and how those choices were influenced.
As our changing society becomes more diverse, the results of this study will
assume increasing importance to those allocating resources and developing diversitybased guidance programs. The results are aimed at school counselors and counselor
educators. By understanding which practices, processes, and methods are most utilized
and why, professionals can develop strategies to enhance the development of their own
diversity-based guidance program. The implications for this study are: (a) counselor
educators should use experiential activities for teaching graduate students, (b) diversity
135
guidance resources that focus on a systems approach should be allocated, and (c) personcentered theory should replace multicultural theories for use with diverse students.
The first implication is that counselor educators should use hands-on, engaging
activities in teaching graduate student counselors about diversity issues. The results of
this study supported research about general education teaching strategies, which
emphasize that real-world, experiential learning, which engages the student is most
effective. This study does not indicate that traditional ways of teaching are completely
ineffective, just not sufficient.
The second implication is that effort should be made to create a diversity-based
curriculum for various age groups. The interviewees all referred to creative ways of
allocating resources to use with their campus. For use with the students, they used various
media, experiential activities, and real world, community-focused exercises. Recognizing
that a ready-made curriculum for campus-wide student guidance is limited or completely
lacking of resources, researchers and practitioners must collaborate and encourage the
development of diversity-based curriculum.
The third implication is that counselors should be careful in using traditional
multicultural theories and strategies with diverse students. Few counselors who
responded to the survey used these multicultural tenets, especially not those selected for
the qualitative portion of the study. Person-centered qualities in a school counselor were
evident in the top-ranked participants. They each indicated how empathy, unconditional
positive regard, and congruence were important aspects of their counseling. They
emphasized listening, not judging, and taking each student as an individual, regardless of
their difference.
136
Recommendations for Future Research

This study examined how school counselors facilitate diversity-based guidance
programs and how to apply those practices that they use. The results will serve as a
baseline for the implementation of similar programs across the nation. Never before has
diversity-integration been so necessary in the American public school system. With the
rising importance of this topic, meeting the needs of diverse student populations will
become essential to the transformation of American public schools. Using this
information and material from other studies cited consideration should be given to:
a) A study of campuses, to determine how the various components of a diversitybased school counseling program support the overall school setting.
b) A qualitative study to explore the experiences of students with a diversitybased school counseling program.
c) Comparative research on comparable campuses, one with a diversity-based
program and one without.
d) Comparative research on multicultural graduate classes for counselors, one
with an experiential, hands-on approach and one with a traditional approach.
This study has established the school counselor's role on diversity programming
for their campus community. The focus on diversity assists in the transition between
traditional school campus' to holistic, diversity-based campus communities. This
sequential explanatory mixed methods study examined school counselor's role as a
facilitator in the systemic transformation for all students, especially diverse and minority
populations, and the practices that they demonstrate.
13 7
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Appendix A
ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors-Diversity Focus
168
169
Chart 1: ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors

A. Responsibilities to Students
A.l. Responsibilities to Students
The professional school counselor:
a. Has a primary obligation to the student, who is to be treated with respect as a
unique individual.
b. Is concerned with the educational, academic, career, personal and social needs and
encourages the maximum development of every student.
c. Respects the student's values and beliefs and does not impose the counselor's
personal values.
A. 3. Counseling Plans
a. Provides students with a comprehensive school counseling program that includes a
strong emphasis on working jointly with all students to develop academic and career
goals.
A.9. Evaluation, Assessment and Interpretation
d. Provides interpretation of the nature, purposes, results and potential impact of
assessment/evaluation measures in language the student(s) can understand.
f Uses caution when utilizing assessment techniques, making evaluations and
interpreting the performance of populations not represented in the norm group on
which an instrument is standardized.
g. Assesses the effectiveness of his/her program in having an impact on students'
academic, career and personal/social development through accountability measures
especially examining efforts to close achievement, opportunity and attainment gaps.
A. 10. Technology
a. Promotes the benefits of and clarifies the limitations of various appropriate
technological applications. The counselor promotes technological applications (1)
that are appropriate for the student's individual needs, (2) that the student understands
how to use and (3) for which follow-up counseling assistance is provided.
b. Advocates for equal access to technology for all students, especially those
historically underserved.
B. Responsibilities to Parents/Guardians
B.l. Parent Rights and Responsibilities
a. Respects the rights and responsibilities of parents/guardians for their children and
endeavors to establish, as appropriate, a collaborative relationship with
parents/guardians to facilitate the student's maximum development,
d. Is sensitive to diversity among families and recognizes that all parents/guardians,
custodial and noncustodial, are vested with certain rights and responsibilities for the
welfare of their children by virtue of their role and according to law.
C. Responsibilities to Colleagues and Professional Associates
C.l. Professional Relationships
170
Appendix A (continued)
c. Is aware of and utilizes related professionals, organizations and other resources to
whom the student may be referred.
D. Responsibilities to the School and Community
D. 1. Responsibilities to the School
a. Supports and protects the educational program against any infringement not in
students' best interest.
d. Delineates and promotes the counselor's role and function in meeting the needs of
those served. Counselors will notify appropriate officials of conditions that may limit
or curtail their effectiveness in providing programs and services.
g. Assists in developing: (1) curricular and environmental conditions appropriate for
the school and community, (2) educational procedures and programs to meet students'
developmental needs and (3) a systematic evaluation process for comprehensive,
developmental, standards-based school counseling programs, services and personnel.
The counselor is guided by the findings of the evaluation data in planning programs
and services.
D.2. Responsibility to the Community
b. Extends his/her influence and opportunity to deliver a comprehensive school
counseling program to all students by collaborating with community resources for
student success.
E. Responsibilities to Self
E.2. Diversity
a. Affirms the diversity of students, staff and families.
b. Expands and develops awareness of his/her own attitudes and beliefs affecting
cultural values and biases and strives to attain cultural competence.
c. Possesses knowledge and understanding about how oppression, racism,
discrimination and stereotyping affects her/him personally and professionally.
d. Acquires educational, consultation and training experiences to improve awareness,
knowledge, skills and effectiveness in working with diverse populations: ethnic/racial
status, age, economic status, special needs, ESL or ELL, immigration status, sexual
orientation, gender, gender identity/expression, family type, religious/spiritual identity
and appearance.
F. Responsibilities to the Profession
F. 1. Professionalism
d. Adheres to ethical standards of the profession, other official policy statements, such
as ASCA's position statements, role statement and the ASCA National Model, and
relevant statutes established by federal, state and local governments, and when these
are in conflict works responsibly for change.
ASCA's Ethical Standards for School Counselors were adopted by the ASCA Delegate
Assembly, March 19, 1984, revised March 27, 1992, June 25, 1998, and June 26, 2004.
Appendix B
Model for Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Study
171
172
Figure 1 Model for Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Study
Phase
Procedure
Product
Quantitative
Data Collection
-Web-based survey of random

sample of ASCA member
(N=130)
Numeric data
-Univariate analysis
-Frequencies
Description statistics
-Purposefully selecting top

respondents based on response
-Develop interview questions
Cases (N=7)
Interview protocol
-In-depth telephone interviews

with 7 individual participants
Interview
transcriptions
1
Quantitative
Data Analysis
1
Case Section
Interview Protocol
Development
1
Qualitative
Data Collection
I
Qualitative
Data Analysis
-Coding and thematic analysis

-Theme development
i
Interpretation of
Entire Analysis
Ivakova, Creswell, & Stick (2006)
Appendix C-l
Institutional Research Board Application
173
Student Diversity and the School Counsel
FORMB
Application for Review of Research Involving Human Subjects
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi
IRB #
Date Received by IRB
I. IDENTIFICATION OF PROJECT
A. Principal Investigator (PI) or Co-Principal Investigator (Co-PI)
Niki Gonzalez
College of Education, Department of Counseling and Education Psychology

Faculty Advisor
Robert L. Smith, Professor of Counseling
College of Education, Texas A&M-Corpus Christi
6300 Ocean Dr.
Corpus Christi, Texas 78412
ECDC Unit 5824
College of Education, Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology

B.
Project Classification
Counselor Education Dissertation Research
C. Title of Project
"Student Diversity and the School Counselor: A National Study of Exemplary Practices,
Processes, and Skills for American Public Schools"
D. Starting Date
Upon IRB Approval
E.
Estimated Completion Date

August 2009
F.
External Funding Qf any)

N/A
175
II. PROJECT OBJECTIVES

The objective of this mixed methods study is to examine the cultural competency practices,
processes, and skills of exemplary school guidance programs across the United States of
America. This research addresses the school counselor's role as a facilitator in the systemic
transformation for all students, especially diverse and minority populations. In the first phase, a
quantitative survey will be used to collect demographic and cultural competency results of
school counselors who are members of the American School Counselors Association. The
second phase of the study will be qualitative. Purposefully selected interviews will be used to
identify practices, processes, and skills of culturally competent school counselors and ways of
designing and implementing organizational-cultural competence in a school setting. In addition,
the interviews will also explore experiences of culturally competent school counselors. This
research may provide vital information to counselor educators, counselor directors, counselor
intern supervisors, school counselors, school counselor students, and outside agencies that
provide consultation services for school systems. The results may give assistance in techniques,
strategies, and professional development initiatives of diversity for school counselors.
III. DESCRIPTION AND SOURCE OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
Criteria for participant selection will be as follows. For this study, the researcher will conduct
criterion sampling which will include all current members of the American School Counselors
Association's available e-mail list. By e-mail, each current member will receive a pre-letter with
basic information about the study, then one week later, the informed consent with the
questionnaire. The follow-up interviews via telephone will be conducted with a purposeful
sample of the twelve individuals who ranked highest in response to the questionnaire.
IV. METHODS AND PROCEDURES
The method for acquiring data from the participants is going to be in two steps. The first
step will be a purposeful questionnaire. The first portion of the questionnaire, will be a survey
for acquiring demographic information electronically about the participant. Variables, if any,
that contribute to changes in school counselor's cultural competence facilitation ability
(ethnicity, gender, training, etc...) will be identified by the participant. The second portion of
the questionnaire will be a likert scale for the participant to identify electronically their diversity
knowledge. The final portion of the initial questionnaire will also be set up as a likert scale, for
the participant to self-evaluate their competency of portions of the ASCA Ethical Standards for
School Counselors which focuses on diversity.
The second step of the study, the qualitative section, will follow the initial questionnaire.
It will be designed as follow-up telephone interviews. The interviews will be conducted with a
sample of individuals who answered the questionnaire at the top twelve scores and agreed to be
interviewed. They will be contacted, at their convenience, to answer open-ended questions.
During, this interview, they will be asked to explore the results of their questionnaire, with a
semi-structured interview protocol which will have five grand tour questions with reflexive
follow-up questions based on the literature review of the topic. The telephone interviews will be
expected to last forty-five minutes to an hour in length. The interviews will be recorded with an
audiotape, transcribed, and coded for themes and patterns by the researcher. Each interview will
be analyzed for both what it offered individually and how it related to previous interviews. This
constant comparative or ongoing analysis will allow for continuous reflection of the data. After
multiple readings of the individual transcripts and ongoing review of the initial codes and
notations on the margins, themes or categories for the information should arise. The results will

be presented to a dissertation committee. In addition, the results will be submitted for
publication and presentations.
176
V. SPECIFIC RISKS AND PROTECTION MEANS

The risks of this study are minimal. ASCA members have been surveyed on numerous
occasions. However, it will be clearly stated to the participants that confidentiality, regarding
their identity, will be honored. Individuals and schools will not be identified. Identity of
participants will not be disclosed on transcripts and when referred to, pseudonyms will be used.
Transcripts will be kept in a locked file for three years before being destroyed.
VI. BENEFITS
A benefit for the participants involved in this study is self-awareness of the cultural competency
of school counselors. The significance of this research stems from its ability to identify variables
of the culturally competent school counselor, and distinguishes processes, practices, and skills
necessary for improving the design and delivery of similar programs across the United States.
The findings of this study will have applicability for working with our nation's increasingly
diverse student public school population.
VII. METHODS FOR OBTAINING "INFORMED CONSENT" FROM SUBJECTS
For the initial step of the study, the e-mail questionnaire, the ASCA member will be given the
informed consent attached with the questionnaire. Since it is online, the researcher will initially
know who consented to participate because the survey was completed by the member, however,
this information will be coded. For the second step, the telephone interview, consent will be
given by the ASCA member via audiotape. Participation in the questionnaire will include
contact information of the participant because of the follow-up interview study which will be a
possibility, but in no circumstance will individuals or schools be identified. Codes and
pseudonyms will be used. A written consent form will be provided for participants of the
questionnaire to sign after the researcher describes the research project and before the
participants begin.
VIII. QUALIFICATIONS OF THE INVESTIGATOR(S) TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
The researcher's qualifications include having a Masters degree in School Guidance and
Counseling, currently in the doctoral program in Counselor Education, and six years of
experience as a public school teacher.
IX. FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE RESEARCH
An instrument to audiotape the interviews will be the only equipment used in this research.
X. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PRINCIPAL/CO-PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR(S)
By complying with the policies established by the Institutional Review Board of Texas A & M
University-Corpus Christi, the principal investigators) subscribe(s) to the principles stated in
"The Belmont Report" and standards of professional ethics in all research, development, and
related activities involving human subjects under the auspices of Texas A & M UniversityCorpus Christi. The principal investigators) further agree(s) that:
A. Approval will be obtained from the Institutional Review Board before making any
change in this research project.
B.
C.
D.
Student Diversity and the School Counselor 177

Development of any unexpected risks will be immediately reported to the Institutional
Review Board.
An annual review and progress report will be completed and submitted when requested
by the Institutional Review Board.
Signed informed consent documents will be kept for the duration of the project and for at
least three years thereafter at a location approved by the Institutional Review Board.
XI. SIGNATURES
The Principal Investigator should keep the original copy of the Form B and submit a copy with
original signatures for review. Type the name of each individual above the appropriate signature
line. Add signature lines for all Co-Principal Investigators, collaborating and student
investigators, and faculty advisor(s). The following information should be typed verbatim, with
added categories where needed:
Principal Investigator
Signature
jT^A
Co-Principal Investigator
Signature
l< [DNaX T\
Date:p7
h%Y]
N/A_
Student Advisor (if any),^

ly). Robert L. Smith
Signature
I foX /. <^*^Q*
Date:
,
Date: ^
16 7
XII. EXPEDITED IRB REVIEW
Research is eligible for expedited review if it involves no more than minimal risk to the subjects,
and the only involvement of human subjects will be in one or more of the categories specified
below. Also, the IRB may use an expedited review process for minor changes in approved
research.
Is expedited review requested?
X
YES
NO
If yes, indicate the category (ies) which qualify (ies) the research for expedited review:
7.2.1 (9) Research on individual or group behavior or characteristics of individuals, such as
studies of perception, cognition, game theory, or test development, where the research
investigator does not manipulate subjects' behavior and the research will not involve stress to the
subjects.
Approved: IRB Reviewer (NAME)
Signature
Date:
XIII. FULL IRB REVIEW
ERB Recommendations:
IRB Chairperson
Signature
Date:
Appendix C-2
Institutional Research Board Approval
178
179

Graduate Studies & Research
6300 Ocean Drive, Unit 5843, Corpus Christi, Texas 78412-5843 361-825-2177 Fax 361-825-2755
01-24-07
Ms. Niki Gonzalez
Dear Ms. Gonzalez,

I am pleased to inform you that your research project entitled "Student Diversity and the
School Counselor: A National Study of Exemplary Practices, Processes, and Skills for
American Public Schools" (#09-07) has been granted approval through an exempt review
(7.1.2(2)) by the TAMU-CC Institutional Review Board (TRB). We wish you the best on
this project.
If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me or any Committee
member.
Sincerely,
Renee K. Gonzales
Contract/Grant Administrator
6300 Ocean Dr. NRC 2700
Corpus Christi, TX 78412
P.S. This was a very well written application - GREAT WORK!!
achieve.
T h e I s l a n d University
www.tamucc.edu
Appendix D-l
Initial Flyer for Survey Participation
180
181
Dear ASCA member,
You are cordially invited to participate...
A National Study of Exemplary School Guidance Programs: Diversity

Practices, Processes, and Skills
A Dissertation Study
Purpose:
The purpose of this study is to identify the diversity competency practices, processes, and
skills of exemplary school guidance programs. This research addresses the school
counselor's role as a facilitator in the systemic transformation for all students, especially
diverse and minority populations. This project is being completed for a dissertation, in
Counselor Education, at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. As a member of the
American School Counselor Association we would appreciate your feedback.
Benefits:
The findings of this study will have applicability for working with our nation's
increasingly diverse student public school population. In addition, you will be entered
into a drawing to win one of four $25.00 Barnes and Noble Online Gift Certificates, for
your time invested in this study.
As a teacher and a counselor myself, I know your time is valuable. Therefore this survey
is brief; it takes approximately 10-15 minutes to complete. Participation is voluntary,
confidential, and greatly appreciated.
In accordance with the Institutional Review Board at Texas A&M University-Corpus
Christi, participation in the survey implies informed consent. It is your decision whether
to participate in this study. Your membership in the American School Counselor
Association will not be affected by whether you participate or not. You can stop the
interview at any time; you also may also choose to not answer or reveal information that
you do not feel comfortable with.
If you have any questions or concerns about the survey, please contact me, Niki Gonzalez
at E-mail Address.
To s t a r t the survey, please click on the following

hyperlink:
http://www.surveymonkey.eom/s.asp ?u=722333167109
Thank you for your time and consideration.
Niki Gonzalez
Doctoral Candidate, Counselor Education
Counselor, Roy Miller High School, Corpus Christi, TX
Counselor Supervisor, Antonio E. Garcia Arts & Education Center, Corpus Christi, TX
Appendix D-2
Informed Consent Form for Survey
182
183
"Student Diversity and the School Counselor: A National Study of

Exemplary Practices, Processes, and Skills for American Public
Schools"
Informed Consent
Purpose of the project:
The objective of this study is to examine the cultural competency practices, processes,
and skills of exemplary school guidance programs across the United States. This
research project is being completed for a dissertation, doctoral candidacy, at Texas A&M
University-Corpus Christi in the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology.
The purpose of this project is to explore school counselors' (American School Counselor
Association members), methods of addressing diversity. In this study, I will be
examining the school counselor's role as a facilitator in the systemic transformation of all
students, especially diverse and minority populations. You were chosen for the second
phase of this study because you: are currently a member of the American School
Counselor Association and answered the initial questionnaire in the top twelve scores of
all participants.
Procedures:
If you agree to participate in this portion of the study, you will be contacted, at your
convenience, to answer open-ended questions via telephone. During this interview, you
will be asked to explore the results of the initial questionnaire, with a semi-structured
interview protocol which will have five grand tour questions with reflexive follow-up
questions based on the literature review of the topic. The telephone interview will be
expected to last forty-five minutes to an hour in length. The interview will be recorded
with an audiotape, transcribed, and coded for themes and patterns by the researcher.
Risks/Benefits:
The participant involved may have some discomfort with answering some of the
questions because of the sensitive topic that this research is based on. Benefits are
minimal. A benefit for the participant involved in this study is self-awareness of the
cultural competency of the school counselor. The findings of this study will have
applicability for working with our nation's increasingly diverse public school population
and ability to identify variables of the culturally competent school counselor, and
distinguish processes, practices, and skills necessary for improving the design and
delivery of similar programs across the United States.
Confidentiality:
Confidentiality regarding your identity will be honored. Identity of participants will not
be disclosed on transcripts and when referred to, pseudonyms will be used. Transcripts
will be kept in a locked file for three years before being destroyed.
It is your decision whether to participate in this study. Your membership in the American
School Counselor Association will not be affected by whether you participate or not.
184
You can stop the interview at any time; you also may also choose to not answer or reveal
information that you do not feel comfortable with.
If you would like to talk to someone in regards to this research you can contact the
researcher, Niki Gonzalez, at Phone Number or by e-mail at E-Mail Address. Or, you
may also contact the faculty sponsor of the project, Dr. Robert L. Smith, Professor of
Counseling for the College of Education, Texas A&M - Corpus Christi at Phone Number
or by e-mail at E-Mail Address.
If you agree to be in the study, please say, "I agree to participate.
Niki Gonzalez
Doctoral Candidate
Department in Counseling and Educational Psychology
Phone Number
E-Mail Address
*Any questions regarding your rights as a research subject may be addressed to the
Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi Institutional Review Board. All research
projects that are carried out by investigators at Texas A&M University-Corpus
Christi are governed by requirements of the university and the federal government.
Appendix E
Student Diversity and the School Counselor Online Survey
185
186
1. Please check gender.
Female
Male
2. Please check age bracket.

20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
f _ ) Other (please specify)
3. Please indicate your ethnicity.

African American
American Indian
Asian American
Hispanic
White
( ~ ) Other (please specify)
4. Please indicate your highest educational attainment.

Bachelor's Degree
Master's Degree
Doctorate Degree
C~J Other (please specify)
5. Please indicate how many years you have worked in a public school (any
profession).
More than 10
6. Please indicate how many years you have worked as a school counselor in a public
school.
187
7. Was the school counseling program you graduated from accredited?
Not accredited
CACREP accredited
C~J Other (please specify)
8. Please rate your knowledge of diversity.

Very knowledgeable
Knowledgeable
Somewhat knowledgeable
Not at all knowledgeable
Unsure
9. Please rate your knowledge of the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors
which address diversity.
Very knowledgeable
Knowledgeable
Somewhat knowledgeable
Not at all knowledgeable
Unsure
10. Do you currently integrate diversity issues within your guidance program?
8
r )
Unsure
No
Yes (please specify specific strategies, theories, or ideas that you use to integrate/celebrate diversity)
^1
11. Please indicate any diversity training (i.e. conferences, workshops, classes) or
literature (i.e. curriculum, books, workbooks) that you benefitted from. If not
applicable, indicate N/A.
12. Do you have a top quality campus-based systemic program that focuses on
diversity?
13. Do you collaborate with others to establish a relationship to facilitate the

student's maximum development?
Yes
No
Unsure
18 8
14. Our district has an outstanding systemic program which focuses on diversity.
The following diversity-based standards come from the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors (2004).
15. Rate your proficiency of the following standards:
a. Uses caution with

assessment t e c h n i q u e s ,
Somewhat
Not at all proficient
Unsure
Very proficiently
Proficiently
proficiently
m a k i n g evaluations for
performance of
populations not
represented in the norm
group on which an
instrument is
standardized.
b. Advocates for equal
access to technology for
all students, especially
those historically
underserved.
c. Assists in developing
curricular and
environmental conditions
appropriate for the school
and c o m m u n i t y .
d . Has a personal
awareness of one's own
attitudes and beliefs
affecting cultural values
and biases and striving to
attain cultural
competence.
e. Acquires educational,
consultation and training
experiences to improve
awareness, knowledge,
skills and effectiveness in
working with diverse
populations: ethnic/racial
s t a t u s , age, economic
status, special needs, ESL
or ELL, immigration
s t a t u s , sexual
o r i e n t a t i o n , gender,
gender
identity/expression,
family t y p e ,
religious/spiritual identity
and appearance.
189
16. Have you had to apply the following?
Very often
When ASCA standards,
federal standards, state
standards, and/or school
standards are in conflict,
one works responsibly for
change.
Often
Q
Somewhat often
Not at all
Unsure
17. Please enter your name and e-mail address for participation in the drawing to
win one of four Barnes and Nobles $25 online gift certificates.
18. In order to gain additional information about your guidance program, can the
researcher e-mail you for a brief follow-up telephone interview?
Yes
No
Appendix F-l
Recruitment Flyer for Online Survey
190
191
Dear ASCA member,

Purpose:
Benefits:
In two days from today, you will receive an e-mail similar to this containing a hyperlink
to the survey. As a teacher and a counselor myself, I know your time is valuable.
Therefore this survey is brief; it takes approximately 10-15 minutes to complete.
Participation is voluntary, confidential, and greatly appreciated.
at E-Mail Address.
Thank you for your consideration.
Niki Gonzalez
* If you want to do it n o w . . . http ://www. surveymonkey. com/s. asp?u=7223 33167109
Appendix F-2
First Letter to Eligible Survey Participants
192
193
Dear ASCA member,

Purpose:
Benefits:
at E-Mail Address.
To start the survey, please click on the following

hyperlink:
http ://www. surveymonkey. com/s. asp?u=72233 3167109
Niki Gonzalez
Appendix F-3
Second Reminder Letter to Eligible Survey Participants
194
195
Dear ASCA member,

Purpose:
Benefits:
at E-Mail Address.

hyperlink:
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.asp?u=722333167109
Niki Gonzalez
Appendix F-4
Third Reminder Letter to Eligible Survey Participants
196
197
Dear ASCA member,

You a r e c o r d i a l l y i n v i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e . . .

Purpose:
Benefits:
at E-Mail Address.

hyperlink:
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.asp?u=722333167109
Niki Gonzalez
Appendix F-5
Recruitment Letter to Case Study Participants
198
199
Dear ASCA Member,

Thank you for your participation in my dissertation study . ..
A National Study of Exemplary School Guidance Programs: Diversity Practices,
Processes, and Skills
Based on the survey you completed, you have been selected as one of the exemplary
counselors across the nation in regards to diversity! As mentioned on the survey, I
would greatly appreciate the opportunity to gain addition information about your program
(processes, strategies, etc.) with a brief telephone interview.
As a counselor myself, I know your time is valuable. I would love your input for my
study and was hoping that this summer would be convenient timing. I will be available
to interview you between July 9th - July 22nd from 8am to 10pm (at your convenience).
Please reply to this e-mail with a convenient date and time for me to call you for a brief,
approximately 20-30 minute telephone interview.
Benefits:
increasingly diverse student public school population. In addition, you will receive a
$25.00 Barnes and Noble Online Gift Certificates, for your time invested in this study.
If you would like to talk to someone in regards to this research you can contact the
researcher, Niki Gonzalez, at Phone Number or by e-mail at E-Mail Address.
Thank you very much, your time and consideration is greatly appreciated. Also, thank
you for being an EXEMPLARY COUNSELOR! I hope to hear from you soon.
Niki Gonzalez
Appendix G
Interview Protocol
200
201

Questions
1. Tell me about your exemplary campus-based program on diversity.
- Describe preparation and execution of successful programming.
2. Describe your district's systemic program which focuses on diversity.
- What do you recommend to other counselors/districts so that they can organize a
systemic program?
3. What do you think helps you most in working competently with diverse
populations?
- What words of wisdom would you have for someone wanting to work with
diversity?
4. Explain ways that you design, facilitate, and implement diversity competent
programming in your school setting.
- How do you successfully cope with challenges?
5. In what ways are students, parents, the campus, and surrounding community
impacted by having a diversity competent school counselor?
- Explain significant experiences that are facilitated by your programming.
Appendix H-l
Case Study Themes and Categories by Participant
202
203
Table 4.11 Themes and Categories in Participant 1 's Case.

Systemic
Developmental^
Appropriate
Holistic
"Depending on the makeup

of the student body, each
month would be a different
culture or diversity group."
Integrate curriculum
"For example, as they study

the underground railroad in
History, they write
reflective papers in English,
and they study speed in
Science."
Global perspective
"I help get information to

broaden that beyond
literature and teach them
about culture and customs,
so they can have a world
view perspective."
Outreach
"The focus is outreach to

empower."
Diverse staff
"The staff itself is diverse.

There are a lot of African
Americans, Caucasians, and
mixed marriages."
School staff involvement
"Bring in all people within

the school environment to
look at themselves, make
healthy changes, and
embrace diversity."
Community involvement
"Involve the entire

community, school board,
other businesses and all
stakeholders involved so
that it is a conglomerate
effort."
"The students need to see
that from a career
perspective, how the world
views them can have an
impact on their options."
Real world applications
Person-Centered
Exposure
204
Real world connections
"We did a tour of London,

they learned about a
different culture and how
people aren't that different,
they were able to make
universality connection."
Expose others
"The administrators liked it

as well because it exposed
the students to something
that was giving them a
greater understanding of the
world, so college and
international travel could be
possible."
"The counselor has to be
very comfortable with who
they are, biases, principles,
stereotypes, culture, and
religion."
Know self
Congruence
"You cannot be a counselor

and not be person-centered.
I am a woman, a
nontraditional student, and
mixed. I don't want to be
judged for any of those
traits."
Listen
"It requires looking at

things differently than
society does. It's change.
It's about listening to the
student, not looking at the
color of their skin."
"During my Undergraduate
program, I worked for the
Campus Programs, and the
school is set up prodiversity . . . we had
Latinos, African Americans,
LGBT. We were sensitive
to diversity . ..
socioeconomic groups,
ethnic groups, and spiritual
Prior experience
205
groups. We created and

developed programs for
those different groups on
campus."
Discomfort
"This was the first time that

something like this was
done at this school, so a lot
of parents were very leery
initially about having their
students go."
Personal experience
"I am a product of the Civil

Rights Movement. My
grandparents were mixed
and I went to a segregated
school."
Role model
"My mom said that she

didn't want us to be
ignorant about our religious
choices, so we went to a
Mosque, Kingdom Hall,
Catholic Church, we had
the Koran, the Holy Bible,
and the Jehovah Witness."
206

Systemic
Developmentally
Appropriate
School wide
communication
"We achieve a higher level

of functionality at school
because with everyone's
participation social barriers
are reduced and
understanding is increased."
Teacher consultation
"I also work with teachers

whenever I can. We look at
their biases, prejudices and
talk about diversity."
Administrative support
"It's wonderful. I have

really strong administrative
support."
School wide advocacy
"We can't be passive

participants in schools, we
need to be leaders. We need
to work with principals,
superintendents, and all
staff to advocate."
"We have Civil Rights
group that I serve as the
advisor for."
Student groups
Student facilitation
Flexible structure
Student interests
Person-Centered
Know self
"The Civil Rights team

educates the school through
presentations. You can call
it peer education."
"We need to set boundaries,
provide structure, but in a
way that is respectful,
understanding, and
accepting."
"We use students to help us
make decisions and help us
understand what we're
working with."
"I'm a middle-aged white
guy. That's who I am.
That's where all my
207
decisions and my thought

processes, all of the things
about me are based on,
that's who I am."
Exposure
Empathy
"Although my school is
predominately white, there
are differences. A 14 year
old girl who comes in to see
me deserves respect. Just
because she is white, like
me, doesn't mean we are
the same."
Unconditional positive
regard
"I interact with people on

an individual basis,
accepting those people for
who they are."
Congruence
"There aren't any outward

indicators that I can think to
make opinions or form
opinions about people, I
have to get to know them. I
can't look at someone and
tell, by their religion, color
of skin, or sexual
orientation, very much
about them. I have to get to
know them."
"I grew up in North Jersey,
so race was an issue."
Prior experience
Resistance
"Initially there was a lot of

resistance by all, but I've
been doing it now for eight
years."
Real life situations

"In our community, in
1984, a gay man was
thrown off a bridge in town
and killed. We have history
to deal with here."
208

Systemic
Developmentally
Appropriate
School-wide guidance
"I am in the classroom

every other week."
Campus awareness
"I have a board in the

primary school hallway,
with all diverse things, that
is used to show what
guidance is about this
month."
"The students get involved

in fundraisers for local
organizations, like we've
done one for leukemia
patients."
Teacher collaboration
"Teacher support is
important. I constantly
share information with the
teacher to help get them
motivated and involved."
Parent/Teacher consultation
"PTO is a great resource."
School district investment
"Diversity, it's a very

strong initiative in out
school district right now."
Community investment
"Link the community, train

the community, and allow
the community to educate
the campus, like in a
multicultural night."
Campus-school
collaboration
"We have school diversity

team, that some people
have sold to the city and
now it's a city-wide
initiative."
"Classroom guidance
curriculum on diversity, we
talk about differences. We
play games. I try to make it
interesting for them and
Strategies
209
listen to their views."
Person-Centered
Vertical alignment
"The lessons build on

themselves. So that once
they get to third, fourth, and
fifth grade, they are at the
point where they
understand diversity."
Proactive
"I'm being proactive."
Experiential activities
"In school we did activities

where the students got to
see what it is like having a
disability. For example, to
show a student how it feels
to be blind, they were
blindfolded."
Use of various media
"I like to be visual on the

morning show."
Student role models
"Whenever students are

involved in positive things,
we try to make it public."
Hands-on lessons
"The kids love it. They get

it. They like activities."
Peer led
Listen
"We train peer mediators."

"You need to be very openminded. Listen to
everything that everyone
says."
Empathy
"Every single student needs

different things."
Build relationship
"It's things like playing

basketball with a child.
You'll be able to build a
trust and the next thing you
know while he is shooting
baskets, he is telling you
everything that you wanted
to know."

Exposure
210
First-hand experience
"Aftermath of just exposure

to different cultures,
experiences, seeing first
hand certain situations
helps me to be openminded about differences."
Prior experience
"Exposure to difference
when I was young helped
me to be a very accepting
person and open-minded. If
I hadn't been, I could've
been thrown off by some of
the situations that are
brought in a school setting."
Family background
"My dad is Italian and my

mom is Israeli."
Prior knowledge
"My family owns two

businesses where we have
individuals with disabilities
work. We help show people
what they can do."
211

Systemic
Developmentally
Appropriate
District investment
"We have a huge push

within our district to
address diversity issues."
"My principal was the head

of the diversity planning
community within the
district."
Campus-wide involvement
"We celebrate National

Diversity Week, where we
focus on five cultures
which the teachers also use
in their curriculum."
Family support
"Talk with their families

about their backgrounds,
special traditions,
holidays."
Community support
"Guest speakers come in

from different backgrounds,
performers come to dance
and do musicals."
School awareness
"The school newsletter

helps keep principal,
school, teachers, and PRO
involved."
Teacher support
"I help with planning a lot

of what is done on the
campus. A lot of it is
teacher directed."
Teamwork
"I get so much support from

my principal and my
district as a whole, it's a
focus we've taken. It's a
team effort."
"We have a lot of students
in our special education
program, so a disabilities
workshop where the kids
Hands-on activities
212
have exercises about

disabilities, helps kids lean
about disabilities."
Person-Centered
Flexible
"We have a model but we

adapt that for the needs of
our district."
Real-world
"Kids learn about their own

cultures, by including their
families."
"Taking time to know each
student as an individual,
helps give the campus a real
family feeling. It helps
build the community."
Building relationship
regard
Exposure
Prior knowledge
"I think people look at

diversity as a race issue, but
there are many other
aspects to a student."
"I taught for three years out
in Los Angeles County... I
think at one time there were
130 different languages
spoken in this area."
Experience
"I was born and grew up

mostly in a homogeneous
town, but when I went to
college, it was huge and
diverse. I had a good
experience."
Discomfort
"When I first started in my

district, around the
Christmas holidays it was
really touchy. When the
district diversity team
decided we weren't going
to have Christmas events
anymore, it upset a lot of
people."
213

Systemic
Developmentally
Appropriate
Parent awareness
"The migrant farm worker

parents were skittish, so I
make sure to always have
translators were
appropriate."
Staff collaboration
"I research topics online,

then talk with teachers and
the librarian to think of
activities."
Campus/Community
involvement
"For diversity month, a

whole school-wide
program is done. It
includes mailing
information to parents,
inviting guest speakers,
allowing parents to bring
homemade food, and
having the teachers do
lessons."
Teacher consultation
"The teachers are all very,

very supportive. All of the
activities that I pulled, they
incorporated into the
curriculum."
"Class Meetings is a very
simple, democratic
program that the students
use to help with lifetime
problem solving."
Student led
Student modeled
"Kids from each lunch get

to sit with other students
that they don't know. This
is Mix it Up at Lunch."
Student interest
"I ask the kids. I kind of go

off in that direction."
Advocate
"You have to be a
cheerleader. Make it not a
burden, but an exciting
Person-Centered
Exposure
Congruence
214
experience."
"You have to be aware of
different cultures, but need
to take each student as an
individual."
Build relationship
"I love it. Give yourself the

opportunity to listen to
different people and learn
about who they are."
regard
"You may think you know

about someone just by
looking at them, but letting
the kids express their
difference is great."
"We were raised to believe
that everybody is equal."
Family background
Prior experience
"We all did marches like,

Civil Rights marches."
Discomfort
"The kids don't like being

out of their comfort zone,
so having food, music, and
other activities, helps."
Experience
"You've got to have some

experiences. If they don't
have any outside
experiences, what's going
to happen then they go
away to college."
Real-world situation
"Talk to people that you

wouldn't have and they had
things in common that they
didn't know before."
Challenge
"I think you have to make

it an exciting experience
for all. I just kind of go
blindly where no one's
gone before."
Personal experience
"I have a disability."
215

Systemic
Campus initiative
"We reach out to all

different socioeconomic
status families throughout
the area."
Community outreach
"We have a program that

goes around the community
doing justice activities."
Teacher collaboration
"We do a number of
classroom guidance lessons
which are subject specific."
District support
"Diversity is definitely an
issue that the school is
committed to expanding on.
We want the students to be
exposed to different world
ideas."
Developmentally
Appropriate
Student facilitated
"The administration feels

strongly about enhancing
the experiences for our
students and they are
committed to back us up."
"Our students also have a
justice and peace week and
a diversity week, where the
student body decides what
topics to cover."
Peer led
"Students from around the

area, who are different, are
brought in to be guest
speakers."
Student collaboration
"We work with the student

and arrange the different
issues of diversity."
Empower
"Go to the kids. Get them

fired up. If they buy into it,
there's nothing you can't
do."

Student interest
Person-Centered
Exposure
Empathy
216
"They like talking about

diversity. Get a debate
going."
"It's hard for some of the
closed-minded people to
understand that race is just
color of skin. It doesn't
make you who you are."
regard
"Sometimes it's hard,

during guidance, for
students who are different.
Everyone looks to them. I
try to help students realize
that they are not
representatives of their
culture."
Understanding
"I don't know all there is to

every culture. I think
everyone is an individual
and I try to take it from
there."
"There's more
socioeconomic diversity
than racial or ethnic
diversity."
Experience
Real-life experience
"I really think the thing that

makes me feel as competent
as possible is exposing
myself to different cultures,
being aware of what's out
there."
Campus climate
"At the end of the year, the

feeling is sort of a nirvana.
It's just a very positive
environment."
Exposure
"I grew up in a very rural

area. I went to college and I
sort of stayed with people
who were like me. During
my Master's program, I
finally was exposed to
217
diversity. It opened my
eyes. I've made sort of a
personal commitment to get
to know people who are
different than me. It's
wonderful."
218

Systemic
Developmentally
Appropriate
Global view
"Our students take a global

studies class, were they
learn about culture,
education, religion, politics,
geography, and other things
about various places."
"We have guest speakers

talk to the students."
Teacher involvement
"The teachers implement

various activities in the
classroom and do units on
different cultures."
District support
"The district is very

supportive. They paid for a
consultant to come in and
get us working."
Stakeholder support
"The school board is

supportive. They gave
money for diversity lessons
and extra counselors."
"Our students get to share
about their own culture and
customs."
Student facilitated
Hands-on
"I ran a multicultural art

after-school program. I did
a lot of cultural programs
for the students."
Student led
"For Mix It Up at Lunch

Day, the students learned
about it and promoted it."
Classroom guidance
"Our classroom guidance

lessons focus on race,
religion, culture, gender,
and social class."
Advocate
"Start advocating. Find

information that shows
Person-Centered
Exposure
Person-centered
219
what other schools are

doing. Show what they can
do, how they contribute to
the school."
"I always take each student
as an individual."
Empathy
"I am 'you centered' as a

counselor. Listening to the
client and just
understanding is what is
important."
Know self
"Counselors must also gain

self-understanding. This
includes our strengths and
limitations."
Hands-on
"Expose students to other

cultures. Integrate it into
every course."
"I was a children's program
coordinator on a cruise that
sails around the world in
100 days. I was exposed to
different cultures."
Experience
Family background
"I came from a white,

middle-class area. It was a
very homogenous area. We
live in a very diverse area
now."
Training
"Lately the big push has

been to learn about different
cultures and understanding
social justice."
Appendix H-2
Cross Case Analysis Perspectives
220
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-comfortable
with self
-don't judge
-look at things
differently
-listen to the
student
-worked for
student affairs
with various
diversity
groups
-created and
developed
programs
-leery initially
-product of
PersonCentered
Exposure
London
-student led
-universality
connection
-greater
understanding
of the world
-grew up in
North Jersey
-a lot of
resistance
-gay man was
thrown off a
bridge
-that's who I
am
-deserve
respect
-interact with
people
-accepting
people
-I have to get
to know them
-peer
education
-set
boundaries
-student help
-exposure to
different
cultures
-experiences
first hand
certain
situations
-exposure
when I was
young helped
-open-minded
-listen
-Every single
student
-build a trust
-interesting
for them
-lessons build
on themselves
-proactive
-activities
-morning
show
-130 different
languages
spoken in this
area
-college was
diverse
-it was really
touchy
-it upset a lot
of people
-know each
student as an
individual
-many aspects
to a student
-don't judge
-know self
-adapt model
-hands on
-peer
mediators
-raised to
believe
equality
-peace
marches and
Civil Rights
marches
-out of their
comfort
-some
-be aware of
differences
-student as
individual
-listen to
different
people
-let kids
express their
difference
-ask the kids

-be a
cheerleader
-exciting
experience
-activities
-around the
world in
100 days
-live in a
very diverse
area
-learn about
different
cultures
-understand
-each
student as
individual
-listen to
student
-self-understanding
-expose
students
-open-minded
-they are not
representative
s of their
culture
-everyone is
an individual
- socioeconomic
diversity
-exposing
myself
-be aware
-nirvana
-exposed to
diversity
-opened eyes
- multicultural art
after-school
program
-student
promoted
-classroom
guidance
- advocate
speakers
-get them
fired up
-get a debate
going
the Civil
Rights
Movement
-grandparents
were mixed
-went to a
segregated
school
-parent
exposure
-very
accepting
person
-mixed
ancestry
-family
modeled
-enjoyed
being
amongst
different
people
experiences
-talk to people
-go blindly
where no
one's gone
-I have a
disability
social
justice

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Running head: Student Diversity and the School Counselor: Exemplary Practices

STUDENT DIVERSITY AND THE SCHOOL COUNSELOR:

Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Education at

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

UMI Number: 3304619

All rights reserved.

STUDENT DIVERSITY AND THE SCHOOL COUNSELOR: EXEMPLARY

Robert L. Smith, Ph.D.

Richard Ricard, Ph.D.

arvarene Oliver, Ed.D.

Harvey Khull, PET)

Background of the problem

Statement of the problem

Purpose of the study

Research questions and hypotheses

Significance of the study

Population and sample

Data collection and analysis

Delimitations and limitations

Researcher and researcher bias

Organization of the remaining chapters

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Prevalence of Diversity in the United States and Schools

School-Aged Student Issues Relevant to Diversity

African American Families

Individualized Student Identity

Disabilities and Disorders

Suicide and Deliberate Self-Harm

Counselors and Diversity

Counselor's Role in Diversity

School Counselor's Role in Diversity

School Counselor Strategies

Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research

Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Design

Four Considerations of Mixed Methodology

Quantitative Component of the Study

Description of the Sample

Validity and Reliability

Reducing Coverage Errors

Qualitative Component of the Study

Description of the Sample

Interview Protocol Development

Validity and Reliability

Role of the Researcher

Feasibility and Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages/Disadvantages of Sequential Explanatory Design

Quantitative Research Question Analyzed

Research Question One

Case Study 1: Participant 1

Case Study 2: Participant 2

Case Study 3: Participant 3

Case Study 4: Participant 4

Case Study 5: Participant 5

Case Study 6: Participant 6

Case Study 7: Participant 7

Cross Case Analysis

Qualitative Research Questions Analyzed

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations for Further Research

Appendix A: ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors-Diversity Focus

Appendix B: Model for Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Study

Appendix C-l: Institutional Review Board Application

Appendix C-2: Institutional Review Board Approval