Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow - Personality Theory in A Cultural Context - OpenStax CNX

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CarlRogersandAbrahamMaslowPersonalityTheoryinaCulturalContextOpenStaxCNX
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8 CarlRogersandAbrahamMaslow
Pageby:MarkKelland
Summary
Incontrasttoboththeoftendark,subconsciousemphasisofthepsychodynamictheoristsandthe
somewhatcold,calculatedperspectivesofbehavioral/cognitivetheorists,thehumanistic
psychologistsfocusoneachindividualspotentialforpersonalgrowthandselfactualization.Carl
Rogerswasinfluencedbystrongreligiousexperiences(bothinAmericaandinChina)andhis
earlyclinicalcareerinachildrenshospital.Consequently,hedevelopedhistherapeutictechniques
andtheaccompanyingtheoryinaccordancewithapositiveandhopefulperspective.Rogersalso
focusedontheuniquecharacteristicsandviewpointofindividuals.
AbrahamMaslowisbestknownforhisextensivestudiesonthemostsalientfeatureofthe
humanisticperspective:selfactualization.Heisalsotheonewhoreferredtohumanistic
psychologyasthethirdforce,afterthepsychodynamicandbehavioral/cognitiveperspectives,and
hespecificallyaddressedtheneedforpsychologytomovebeyonditsstudyofunhealthy
individuals.Hewasalsointerestedinthepsychologyoftheworkplace,andhisrecognitioninthe
businessfieldhasperhapsmadehimthemostfamouspsychologist.
HenryMurraywasanenigmaticfigure,whoseeminglyfailedtoproperlyacknowledgethewoman
whoinspiredmuchofhiswork,andwhobelievedhislifehadbeensomethingofafailure.Perhaps
hefeltremorseasaresultofmaintaininganextramaritalaffairwiththeaforementionedwoman,
thanksinlargeparttotheadviceandhelpofCarlJung!Murrayextendedaprimarily
psychodynamicperspectivetothestudyofhumanneedsinnormalindividuals.HisThematic
ApperceptionTestwasoneofthefirstpsychologicaltestsappliedoutsideofatherapeuticsetting,
anditprovidedthebasisforstudyingtheneedforachievement(somethingakintoalearnedform
ofselfactualization).
CarlRogersandHumanisticPsychology
CarlRogersisthepsychologistmanypeopleassociatefirstwithhumanisticpsychology,buthedid
notestablishthefieldinthewaythatFreudestablishedpsychoanalysis.Afewyearsolderthan
AbrahamMaslow,andhavingmovedintoclinicalpracticemoredirectly,Rogersfeltaneedto
developanewtheoreticalperspectivethatfitwithhisclinicalobservationsandpersonalbeliefs.
Thus,hewasproposingahumanisticapproachtopsychologyand,morespecifically,
psychotherapybeforeMaslow.ItwasMaslow,however,whousedthetermhumanisticpsychology
asadirectcontrasttobehaviorismandpsychoanalysis.AnditwasMaslowwhocontactedsome
friends,in1954,inordertobeginmeetingsthatledtothecreationoftheAmericanAssociationfor
HumanisticPsychology.Rogerswasincludedinthatgroup,butsowereErichFrommandKaren
Horney,bothofwhomhaddistinctlyhumanisticelementsintheirowntheories,elementsthat
sharedacommonconnectiontoAlfredAdlersIndividualPsychology(Stagner,1988).Inaddition,
thespiritualaspectsofhumanisticpsychology,suchaspeakexperiencesandtranscendence,have
rootsintheworkofCarlJungandWilliamJames,andgoevenfurtherbackintimetoancient
http://cnx.org/contents/lISyy6OT@1.1:6xIQ4iAP@1/CarlRogersandAbrahamMaslow
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rootsintheworkofCarlJungandWilliamJames,andgoevenfurtherbackintimetoancient
philosophiesofYogaandBuddhism.
Inatleastoneimportantway,RogerscareerwassimilartothatofSigmundFreud.Ashebegan
hisclinicalcareer,hefoundthatthetechniqueshehadbeentaughtwerenotveryeffective.So,he
beganexperimentingwithhisownideas,anddevelopinghisowntherapeuticapproach.Asthat
approachdeveloped,sodidauniquetheoryofpersonalitythataimedatexplainingthe
effectivenessofthetherapy.Rogersfounditdifficulttoexplainwhathehadlearned,buthefelt
quitepassionatelyaboutit:
therealmeaningofawordcanneverbeexpressedinwords,becausetherealmeaningwould
bethethingitself.Ifonewishestogivesucharealmeaningheshouldputhishandoverhismouth
andpoint.ThisiswhatIshouldmostliketodo.Iwouldwillinglythrowawayallthewordsofthis
manuscriptifIcould,somehow,effectivelypointtotheexperiencewhichistherapy.Itisaprocess,
athinginitself,anexperience,arelationship,adynamic(pp.ixRogers,1951)
BriefBiographyofCarlRogers
CarlRansomRogerswasbornonJanuary8,1902,inChicago,Illinois.Hisparentswerewell
educated,andhisfatherwasasuccessfulcivilengineer.Hisparentslovedtheirsixchildren,of
whomRogerswasthefourth,buttheyexertedadistinctcontroloverthem.Theywere
fundamentalistChristians,whoemphasizedacloseknitfamilyandconstant,productivework,but
approvedoflittleelse.TheRogershouseholdexpectedstandardsofbehaviorappropriateforthe
electofGod:therewasnodrinkingofalcohol,nodancing,novisitstothetheater,nocardgames,
andlittlesociallifeatall(DeCarvalho,1991Thorne,2003).
Rogerswasnotthehealthiestofchildren,andhisfamilyconsideredhimtobeoverlysensitive.The
morehisfamilyteasedhim,themoreheretreatedintoalonelyworldoffantasy.Hesought
consolationbyreadingbooks,andhewaswellabovehisgradelevelforreadingwhenhebegan
school.In1914thefamilymovedtoalargefarmwestofChicago,amovemotivatedprimarilybya
desiretokeepthechildrenawayfromthetemptationsofsuburbancitylife.Theresultwaseven
moreisolationforRogers,wholamentedthathedonlyhadtwodatesbytheendofhighschool.
Hecontinuedtolearn,however,becomingsomethingofanexpertonthelargemothsthatlivedin
thearea.Inaddition,hisfatherencouragedthechildrentodeveloptheirownventures,andRogers
andhisbrothersraisedavarietyoflivestock.Giventheseinterests,andinkeepingwithfamily
tradition,RogersenrolledintheUniversityofWisconsinMadisontostudyscientificagriculture
(DeCarvalho,1991Thorne,2003).
Duringhisfirstyearofcollege,RogersattendedaSundaymorninggroupofstudentsledby
ProfessorGeorgeHumphrey.ProfessorHumphreywasafacilitativeleader,whorefusedtobe
conventionalandwhoencouragedthestudentstomaketheirowndecisions.Rogersfoundthe
intellectualfreedomverystimulating,andhealsobegantomakeclosefriends.Thisincreased
intellectualandemotionalenergyledRogerstoreexaminehiscommitmenttoChristianity.Given
hisstrongreligiousfaith,hedecidedtochangehismajortohistory,inanticipationofacareerasa
Christianminister.HewasfortunatetobechosenasoneofonlytwelvestudentsfromAmericato
attendaWorldStudentChristianFederationconferenceinPeking,China.Hetraveledthroughout
China(alsovisitingKorea,HongKong,Japan,thePhilippines,andHawaii)for6months,
surroundedbyotherintelligentandcreativeyoungpeople.Hekeptadetailedjournal,andwrote
lengthyletterstohisfamilyandHelenElliott,achildhoodfriendwhomheconsideredtobehis
sweetheart.Hismindwasstretchedinalldirectionsbythisprofoundcrossculturalexperience,
andtheintellectualandspiritualfreedomhewasembracingblindedhimtothefactthathis
fundamentalistfamilywasdeeplydisturbedbywhathehadtosay.However,bythetimeRogers
wasawareofhisfamilysdisapproval,hehadbeenchanged,andhebelievedthatpeopleofvery
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wasawareofhisfamilysdisapproval,hehadbeenchanged,andhebelievedthatpeopleofvery
differentculturesandfaithscanallbesincereandhonest(Kirschenbaum,1995Thorne,2003).As
acurioussidenote,RogersroommateonthetripwasaBlackseminaryprofessor.Rogerswas
vaguelyawarethatitwasstrangeatthattimeforaBlackmanandaWhitemantoroomtogether,
buthewasparticularlysurprisedatthestarestheyreceivedfromtheChinesepeopletheymet,
whohadneverseenaBlackpersonbefore(Rogers&Russell,2002).AfterhisreturnfromChina,
Rogersgraduatedfromcollege,and2monthslaterhemarriedHelen.Againhisfamily
disapproved,believingthattheyoungcoupleshouldbemoreestablishedfirst.ButRogershad
beenacceptedtotheUnionTheologicalSeminaryinNewYorkCity,andbothheandHelenwanted
tobetogether.HisfamilymayhavewantedthemtowaitbecauseUnionTheologicalSeminary
was,perhaps,themostliberalseminaryinAmericaatthetime(DeCarvalho,1991Rogers&
Russell,2002Thorne,2003).
Rogersspent2yearsattheseminary,includingasummerassignmentasthepastorofasmall
churchinVermont.However,hisdesirenottoimposehisownbeliefsonothers,madeitdifficultfor
himtopreach.HebegantakingcoursesatnearbyTeachersCollegeofColumbiaUniversity,
wherehelearnedaboutclinicalandeducationalpsychology,aswellasworkingwithdisturbed
children.HethentransferredtoTeachersCollege,andafterwritingadissertationinwhichhe
developedatestformeasuringpersonalityadjustmentinchildren,heearnedhisPh.D.inClinical
Psychology.Then,in1928,hebeganworkingattheRochesterSocietyforthePreventionof
CrueltytoChildren(DeCarvalho,1991Thorne,2003).
RogerswasimmersedinhisworkinRochesterfor12years.Hefoundthateventhemost
elaboratetheoriesmadelittlesensewhendealingwithchildrenwhohadsufferedsevere
psychologicaldamageaftertravelingthroughthecourtsandthesocialworksystems.SoRogers
developedhisownapproach,anddidhisbesttohelpthem.Manyofhiscolleagues,includingthe
director,hadnoparticulartherapeuticorientation:
WhenIwouldtrytoseewhatIcoulddotoaltertheirbehavior,sometimestheywouldrefusetosee
methenexttime.Idhaveahardtimegettingthemtocomefromthedetentionhometomyoffice,
andthatwouldcausemetothink,WhatisitthatIdidthatoffendedthechild?Well,usuallyitwas
overinterpretation,orgettingtoosmartinanalyzingthecausesofbehaviorSoweapproached
everysituationwithmuchmoreofaquestionofWhatcanwedotohelp?ratherthanWhatisthe
mysteriouscauseofthisbehavior?orWhattheorydoesthechildfitinto?Itwasaverygood
placeforlearninginthatitwaseasytobeopentoexperience,andtherewascertainlynopressure
tofitintoanyparticularpatternofthought.(pg.108Rogers&Russell,2002)
EventuallyRogerswroteabookoutlininghisworkwithchildren,TheClinicalTreatmentofthe
ProblemChild(Rogers,1939),whichreceivedexcellentreviews.Hewasofferedaprofessorshipat
OhioStateUniversity.BeginningasafullprofessorgaveRogersagreatdealoffreedom,andhe
wasfrequentlyinvitedtogivetalks.Ithasbeensuggestedthatonesuchtalk,inDecember1940,at
theUniversityofMinnesota,entitledNewerConceptsinPsychotherapy,wastheofficialbirthday
ofclientcenteredtherapy.Verypopularwithhisstudents,Rogerswasnotsowelcomeamongsthis
colleagues.Rogersbelievedthathisworkwasparticularlythreateningtothosecolleagueswho
believedthatonlytheirownexpertisecouldmakepsychotherapyeffective.Afteronly4years,
duringwhichhepublishedCounselingandPsychotherapy(Rogers,1942),Rogersmovedonto
theUniversityofChicago,whereheestablishedthecounselingcenter,wroteClientCentered
Therapy(Rogers,1951)andcontributedseveralchapterstoPsychotherapyandPersonality
Change(Rogers&Dymond,1954),andin1956receivedaDistinguishedScientificContribution
AwardfromtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.Then,in1957,heacceptedajoint
appointmentinpsychiatryandpsychologyattheUniversityofWisconsintostudypsychotic
individuals.RogershadseriousdoubtsaboutleavingChicago,butfeltthatthejointappointment
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individuals.RogershadseriousdoubtsaboutleavingChicago,butfeltthatthejointappointment
wouldallowhimtomakeadramaticcontributiontopsychotherapy.Itwasaseriousmistake.Hedid
notgetalongwithhiscolleaguesinthepsychologydepartment,whomheconsideredtobe
antagonistic,outdated,ratoriented,anddistrustfulofclinicalpsychology,andsoheresigned.He
kepthisappointmentinthepsychiatrydepartment,however,andin1961publishedperhapshis
mostinfluentialbook,OnBecomingaPerson(Rogers,1961).
In1963,RogersmovedtoCaliforniatojointheWesternBehavioralSciencesInstitute,atthe
invitationofoneofhisformerstudents,RichardFarson.Thiswasanonprofitinstitutededicatedto
thestudyofhumanisticallyorientedinterpersonalrelations.Rogerswasleeryofmakinganother
majormove,buteventuallyagreed.Hebecameveryactiveinresearchonencountergroupsand
educationaltheory.Fiveyearslater,whenFarsonlefttheinstitute,therewasachangeinits
direction.Rogerswasunhappywiththechanges,sohejoinedsomecolleaguesinleavingand
establishingtheCenterforStudiesofthePerson,whereheremaineduntilhisdeath.Inhislater
years,Rogerswrotebooksontopicssuchaspersonalpowerandmarriage(Rogers,1972,1977).
In1980,hepublishedAWayofBeing(Rogers,1980),inwhichhechangedtheterminologyofhis
perspectivefromclientcenteredtopersoncentered.Withtheassistanceofhisdaughter
Natalie,whohadstudiedwithAbrahamMaslow,heheldmanygroupworkshopsonlife,family,
business,education,andworldpeace.Hetraveledtoregionswheretensionanddangerwere
high,includingPoland,Russia,SouthAfrica,andNorthernIreland.In1985hebroughttogether
influentialleadersofseventeenCentralAmericancountriesforapeaceconferenceinAustria.The
dayhedied,February4,1987,withoutknowingit,hehadjustbeennominatedfortheNobel
PeacePrize(DeCarvalho,1991Kirschenbaum,1995Thorne,2003).
PlacingRogersinContext:APsychology2,600YearsintheMaking
CarlRogerswasanextraordinaryindividualwhoseapproachtopsychologyemphasized
individuality.RaisedwithastrongChristianfaith,exposedtoEasterncultureandspiritualityin
college,andthenemployedasatherapistforchildren,hecametovalueandrespecteachperson
hemet.Becauseofthatrespectfortheabilityofeachpersontogrow,andthebeliefthatweare
innatelydriventowardactualization,Rogersbeganthedistinctlyhumanisticapproachto
psychotherapythatbecameknownasclientcenteredtherapy.
Takentogether,clientcenteredtherapyandselfactualizationofferafarmorepositiveapproachto
fosteringthegrowthofeachpersonthanmostotherdisciplinesinpsychology.Unliketheexisting
approachesofpsychoanalysis,whichaimedtouncoverproblemsfromthepast,orbehavior
therapies,whichaimedtoidentifyproblembehaviorsandcontrolorfixthem,clientcentered
therapygrewoutofRogerssimpledesiretohelphisclientsmoveforwardintheirlives.Indeed,he
hadbeentrainedasapsychoanalyst,butRogersfoundthetechniquesunsatisfying,bothintheir
goalsandtheirabilitytohelpthechildrenhewasworkingwithatthetime.Theseeminglyhandsoff
approachofclientcenteredtherapyfitwellwithaTaoistperspective,somethingRogershad
studied,discussed,anddebatedduringhistriptoChina.InAWayofBeing,Rogers(1980)quotes
whathesaysisperhapshisfavoritesaying,onewhichsumsupmanyofhisdeeperbeliefs:
IfIkeepfrommeddlingwithpeople,theytakecareofthemselves,
IfIkeepfromcommandingpeople,theybehavethemselves,
IfIkeepfrompreachingatpeople,theyimprovethemselves,
IfIkeepfromimposingonpeople,theybecomethemselves.
LaoTsu,c600B.C.Note:Thistranslationdifferssomewhatfromtheone
citedintheReferences.IhaveincludedthetranslationRogersquoted,
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citedintheReferences.IhaveincludedthetranslationRogersquoted,
sincethedifferencelikelyinfluencedhisimpressionofthissaying.
Rogers,likeMaslow,wantedtoseepsychologycontributefarmoretosocietythanmerelyhelping
individualswithpsychologicaldistress.Heextendedhissinceredesiretohelppeoplelearntoreally
communicate,withempathicunderstanding,toeffortsaimedatbringingpeacetotheworld.Onthe
dayhedied,hehadjustbeennominatedfortheNobelPeacePrize.SinceaNobelPrizecannotbe
awardedtosomeonewhohasdied,hewasnoteligibletobenominatedagain.Ifhehadliveda
fewmoreyears,hemaywellhavereceivedthataward.Hislateryearswerecertainlycommittedto
peaceinawaythatdeservedsuchrecognition.
BasicConcepts
Rogersbelievedthateachofuslivesinaconstantlychangingprivateworld,whichhecalledthe
experientialfield.Everyoneexistsatthecenteroftheirownexperientialfield,andthatfieldcan
onlybefullyunderstoodfromtheperspectiveoftheindividual.Thisconcepthasanumberof
importantimplications.Theindividualsbehaviormustbeunderstoodasareactiontotheir
experienceandperceptionofthefield.Theyreacttoitasanorganizedwhole,anditistheirreality.
Theproblemthispresentsforthetherapististhatonlytheindividualcanreallyunderstandtheir
experientialfield.ThisisquitedifferentthantheFreudianperspective,inwhichonlythetrainedand
objectivepsychoanalystcanbreakthroughthedefensemechanismsandunderstandthebasisof
thepatientsunconsciousimpulses.Onesperceptionoftheexperientialfieldislimited,however.
Rogersbelievedthatcertainimpulses,orsensations,canonlyenterintotheconsciousfieldof
experienceundercertaincircumstances.Thus,theexperientialfieldisnotatruereality,butrather
anindividualspotentialreality(Rogers,1951).
Theonebasictendencyandstrivingoftheindividualistoactualize,maintain,andenhancethe
experiencingoftheindividualor,inotherwords,anactualizingtendency.Rogersborrowedthe
termselfactualization,atermfirstusedbyKurtGoldstein,todescribethisbasicstriving.
Thetendencyofnormallifeistowardactivityandprogress.Forthesick,theonlyformofself
actualizationthatremainsisthemaintenanceoftheexistentstate.That,however,isnotthe
tendencyofthenormalUnderadequateconditionsthenormalorganismseeksfurtheractivity.
(pp.162163Goldstein,1934/1995).
ForRogers,selfactualizationwasatendencytomoveforward,towardgreatermaturityand
independence,orselfresponsibility.Thisdevelopmentoccursthroughoutlife,bothbiologically(the
differentiationofafertilizedeggintothemanyorgansystemsofthebody)andpsychologically
(selfgovernment,selfregulation,socialization,eventothepointofchoosinglifegoals).Akey
factorinunderstandingselfactualizationistheexperientialfield.Apersonsneedsaredefined,as
wellaslimited,bytheirownpotentialforexperience.Partofthisexperientialfieldisanindividuals
emotions,feelings,andattitudes.Therefore,whotheindividualis,theiractualself,iscriticalin
determiningthenatureandcourseoftheirselfactualization(Rogers,1951).Wewillexamine
Maslowsworkonselfactualizationinmoredetailbelow.
Whatthen,istheself?InRogers(1951)initialdescriptionofhistheoryofpersonality,the
experientialfieldisdescribedinfourpoints,theselfactualizingtendencyinthreepoints,andthe
remainingelevenpointsattempttodefinetheself.Firstandforemost,theselfisadifferentiated
portionoftheexperientialfield.Inotherwords,theselfisthatpartofourprivateworldthatwe
identifyasme,myself,orI.Beyondthat,theselfremainssomewhatpuzzling.Cantheself
existinisolation,outsideofrelationshipsthatprovidesomecontextfortheself?Musttheselfbe
synonymouswiththephysicalbody?AsRogerspointedout,whenourfootgoestosleepfroma
lackofcirculation,weviewitasanobject,notasapartofourself!Despitethesechallenging
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lackofcirculation,weviewitasanobject,notasapartofourself!Despitethesechallenging
questions,Rogerstriedtodefineanddescribetheself.
Rogersbelievedtheselfisformedinrelationtoothersitisanorganized,fluid,yetconsistent
conceptualpatternofourexperientialinteractionswiththeenvironmentandthevaluesattachedto
thoseexperiences.Theseexperiencesaresymbolizedandincorporatedintothestructureofthe
self,andourbehaviorisguidedlargelybyhowwellnewexperiencesfitwithinthatstructure.We
maybehaveinwaysinconsistentwiththestructureofourself,butwhenwedowewillnotown
thatbehavior.Whenexperiencesaresoinconsistentthatwecannotsymbolizethem,orfitthem
intothestructureofourself,thepotentialforpsychologicaldistressarises.Ontheotherhand,
whenourconceptofselfismatureenoughtoincorporateallofourperceptionsandexperiences,
andwecanassimilatethoseexperiencessymbolicallyintoourself,ourpsychologicaladjustment
willbequitehealthy.Individualswhofinditdifficulttoassimilatenewanddifferentexperiences,
thoseexperiencesthatthreatenthestructureoftheself,willdevelopanincreasinglyrigidself
structure.Healthyindividuals,incontrast,willassimilatenewexperiences,theirselfstructurewill
changeandcontinuetogrow,andtheywillbecomemorecapableofunderstandingandaccepting
othersasindividuals(Rogers,1951).
Theabilityofindividualstomakethechoicesnecessaryforactualizingtheirselfstructureandto
thenfulfillthosechoicesiswhatRogerscalledpersonalpower(Rogers,1977).Hebelievedthere
aremanyselfactualizedindividualsrevolutionizingtheworldbytrustingtheirownpower,without
feelinganeedtohavepoweroverothers.Theyarealsowillingtofosterthelatentactualizing
tendencyinothers.WecaneasilyseetheinfluenceofAlfredAdlerhere,bothintermsofthe
creativepoweroftheindividualandseekingsuperioritywithinahealthycontextofsocialinterest.
Clientcenteredtherapywasbasedonmakingthecontextofpersonalpoweraclearstrategyin
thetherapeuticrelationship:
theclientcenteredapproachisaconsciousrenunciationandavoidancebythetherapistofall
controlover,ordecisionmakingfor,theclient.Itisthefacilitationofselfownershipbytheclient
andthestrategiesbywhichthiscanbeachievedbasedonthepremisethatthehumanbeingis
basicallyatrustworthyorganism,capableofmakingconstructivechoicesastothenextstepsin
life,andactingonthosechoices.(pp.1415Rogers,1977)
DiscussionQuestion:Rogersclaimedthatnoonecanreallyunderstandyourexperientialfield.
Wouldyouagree,ordoyousometimesfindthatclosefriendsorfamilymembersseemto
understandyoubetterthanyouunderstandyourself?Aretheserelationshipscongruent?
PersonalityDevelopment
AlthoughRogersdescribedpersonalitywithinthetherapistclientrelationship,thefocusofhis
therapeuticapproachwasbasedonhowhebelievedthepersonhadarrivedatapointintheirlife
wheretheyweresufferingfrompsychologicaldistress.Therefore,thesameissuesapplyto
personalitydevelopmentasintherapy.Averyimportantaspectofpersonalitydevelopment,
accordingtoRogers,istheparentchildrelationship.Thenatureofthatrelationship,andwhetherit
fostersselfactualizationorimpedespersonalgrowth,determinesthenatureoftheindividuals
personalityand,consequently,theirselfstructureandpsychologicaladjustment.
Achildbeginslifewithanactualizingtendency.Astheyexperiencelife,andperceivetheworld
aroundthem,theymaybesupportedinallthingsbythosewhocareforthem,ortheymayonlybe
supportedundercertainconditions(e.g.,iftheirbehaviorcomplieswithstrictrules).Asthechild
becomesselfaware,itdevelopsaneedforpositiveregard.Whentheparentsofferthechild
unconditionalpositiveregard,thechildcontinuesmovingforwardinconcertwithitsactualizing
tendency.So,whenthereisnodiscrepancybetweenthechildsselfregardanditspositiveregard
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tendency.So,whenthereisnodiscrepancybetweenthechildsselfregardanditspositiveregard
(fromtheparents),thechildwillgrowuppsychologicallyhealthyandwelladjusted.However,ifthe
parentsofferonlyconditionalpositiveregard,iftheyonlysupportthechildaccordingthedesires
andrulesoftheparents,thechildwilldevelopconditionsofworth.Asaresultoftheseconditions
ofworth,thechildwillbegintoperceivetheirworldselectivelytheywillavoidthoseexperiences
thatdonotfitwithitsgoalofobtainingpositiveregard.Thechildwillbegintolivethelifeofthose
whosettheconditionsofworth,ratherthanlivingitsownlife.
Asthechildgrowsolder,andmoreawareofitsownconditionintheworld,theirbehaviorwilleither
fitwithintheirownselfstructureornot.Iftheyhavereceivedunconditionalpositiveregard,such
thattheirselfregardandpositiveregardarecloselymatched,theywillexperiencecongruence.In
otherwords,theirsenseofselfandtheirexperiencesinlifewillfittogether,andthechildwillbe
relativelyhappyandwelladjusted.But,iftheirsenseofselfandtheirabilitytoobtainpositive
regarddonotmatch,thechildwilldevelopincongruence.Consider,forexample,childrenplaying
sports.Thatalonetellsusthatparentshaveestablishedguidelineswithinwhichthechildrenare
expectedtoplay.Thenwehavesomechildrenwhoarenaturallyathletic,andotherchildrenwho
aremoreawkwardand/orclumsy.Theymaybecomequiteathleticlaterinlife,ornot,butduring
childhoodtherearemanydifferentlevelsofabilityastheygrow.Ifaparentexpectstheirchildtobe
thebestplayerontheteam,butthechildsimplyisntathletic,howdoestheparentreact?Dothey
supportthechildandencouragethemtohavefun,ordotheypressurethechildtoperformbetter
andbelittlethemwhentheycant?Childrenareverygoodatrecognizingwhothebetterathletes
are,andtheyknowtheirplaceinthehierarchyofathletics,i.e.,theirathleticselfstructure.Soifa
parentdemandsdominancefromachildwhoknowstheyjustarentthatgood,thechildwill
developincongruence.Rogersbelieved,quiteunderstandably,thatsuchconditionsarethreatening
toachild,andwillactivatedefensemechanisms.Overtime,however,excessiveorsuddenand
dramaticincongruencecanleadtothebreakdownanddisorganizationoftheselfstructure.Asa
result,theindividualislikelytoexperiencepsychologicaldistressthatwillcontinuethroughoutlife
(Rogers,1959/1989).
DiscussionQuestion:Conditionsofwortharetypicallyfirstestablishedinchildhood,basedon
therelationshipbetweenachildandhisorherparents.Thinkaboutyourrelationshipwithyour
ownparentsand,ifyouhavechildren,thinkabouthowyoutreatthem.Aremostoftheexamples
thatcometomindunconditionalpositiveregard,orconditionalpositiveregard?Howhasthat
affectedyourrelationshipwithyourparentsand/oryourownchildren?
Figure1.
Sometimesparentscreateconditionsofworthbyoveremphasizingtheimportanceofcompetition.
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Evenatriptothepumpkinpatchcanbeachallengetogetthebiggest,bestpumpkin.
AnotherwayinwhichRogersapproachedtheideaofcongruenceandincongruencewasbasedon
anindividualsdualconceptofself.Thereis,ofcourse,theactualselfstructure,orrealself.In
addition,thereisalsoanidealself,muchlikethefictionalfinalismdescribedbyAdlerorthe
idealizedselfimagedescribedbyHorney.Incongruencedevelopswhentherealselffallsfarshort
oftheaccomplishmentexpectedoftheidealself,whenexperiencedoesnotmatchthe
expectationsoftheselfstructure(Rogers,1951,1959/1989).Onceagain,therelationship
betweenparentsandtheirchildrenplaysanimportantroleinthisdevelopment.Ifparentsexpect
toomuch,suchasallAseverymarkingperiodinschool,butthechildjustisntacademically
talented,oriftheparentsexpecttheirchildtobethefootballteamsquarterback,butthechildisnt
agoodathlete,thentheidealselfwillremainoutofreach.Perhapsevenworse,iswhenachildis
physicallyoremotionallyabused.Suchachildsidealselfmayremainatarelativelylowstandard,
buttherealselfmaybesoutterlydepressedthatincongruenceisstilltheresult.Animportant
aspectoftherapywillbetoprovidearelationshipinwhichapersoninthisunfortunatecondition
canexperiencetheunconditionalpositiveregardnecessarytobeginreintegratingtheself
structure,suchthatthegapbetweentherealselfandtheidealselfcanbegintoclose,allowingthe
persontoexperiencecongruenceintheirlife.
Whataboutindividualswhohavedevelopedcongruence,havingreceivedunconditionalpositive
regardthroughoutdevelopmentorhavingexperiencedsuccessfulclientcenteredtherapy?They
become,accordingtoRogers(1961),afullyfunctioningperson.Healsosaidtheyleadagood
life.Thegoodlifeisaprocess,notastateofbeing,andadirection,notadestination.Itrequires
psychologicalfreedom,andisthenaturalconsequenceofbeingpsychologicallyfreetobeginwith.
Whetherornotitdevelopsnaturally,thankstoahealthyandsupportiveenvironmentinthehome,
orcomesaboutasaresultofsuccessfultherapy,therearecertaincharacteristicsofthisprocess.
Thefullyfunctioningpersonisincreasinglyopentonewexperiences,theylivefullyineach
moment,andtheytrustthemselvesmoreandmore.Theybecomemoreableandmorewillingto
experiencealloftheirfeelings,theyarecreative,theytrusthumannature,andtheyexperiencethe
richnessoflife.Thefullyfunctioningpersonisnotsimplycontent,orhappy,theyarealive:
Ibelieveitwillbecomeevidentwhy,forme,adjectivessuchashappy,contented,blissful,
enjoyable,donotseemquiteappropriatetoanygeneraldescriptionofthisprocessIhavecalled
thegoodlife,eventhoughthepersoninthisprocesswouldexperienceeachoneofthesefeelings
atappropriatetimes.Buttheadjectiveswhichseemmoregenerallyfittingareadjectivessuchas
enriching,exciting,rewarding,challenging,meaningful.Thisprocessinvolvesthecouragetobe.
thedeeplyexcitingthingabouthumanbeingsisthatwhentheindividualisinwardlyfree,he
choosesasthegoodlifethisprocessofbecoming.(pp.195196Rogers,1961)
DiscussionQuestion:Rogersdescribedselfactualizedpeopleasfullyfunctioningpersonswho
arelivingagoodlife.Doyouknowanyonewhoseemstobeafullyfunctioningperson?Arethere
aspectsoftheirpersonalitythatyouaspiretoforyourself?Doesitseemdifficulttobefully
functioning,ordoesitseemtomakelifebotheasierandmoreenjoyable?
ConnectionsAcrossCultures:SelfRealizationasthe
PathtoBeingaFullyFunctioningPerson
Rogersdescribedaninnatedrivetowardselfactualization,hetalkedaboutanidealself,andhe
saidthatafullyfunctioningpersonlivedagoodlife.Butwhatdoesthisactuallymean?Inthe
Westernworldwelookforspecific,tangibleanswerstosuchquestions.Wewanttoknowwhatthe
selfactualizationdriveis,wewanttoknowwhichideals,orvirtues,arebestorright,andwewant
todefineagoodlife.Alltoooften,wedefineagoodlifeintermsofmoney,power,and
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todefineagoodlife.Alltoooften,wedefineagoodlifeintermsofmoney,power,and
possessions.TheEasternworldhas,forthousandsofyears,emphasizedaverydifferent
perspective.Theybelievethereisanaturalordertolife,anditisimportantthatweletgoofour
needtoexplaintheuniverse,anditisespeciallyimportantthatweletgoofourneedtoownpieces
oftheuniverse.IntheTaoTeChing,LaoTsu(c.600B.C./1989)writes:
Somethingmysteriouslyformed,
Bornbeforeheavenandearth.
Inthesilenceandthevoid,
Standingaloneandunchanging,
Everpresentandinmotion.
Perhapsitisthemotheroftenthousandthings.
Idonotknowitsname,
CallitTao.
Forlackofabetterword,Icallitgreat
ThegreatestVirtueistofollowTaoandTaoalone
Taofollowswhatisnatural.
Ataboutthesametime,some2,600yearsago,theBhagavadGitawasalsowrittendown
(Mitchell,2000).Inthesecondchapteronefinds:
Whenamangivesupalldesires
Thatemergefromthemind,andrests
ContentedintheSelfbytheSelf,
Heiscalledamanoffirmwisdom
Inthenightofallbeings,thewiseman
SeesonlytheradianceoftheSelf
Butthesenseworldwhereallbeingswake,
Forhimisasdarkasnight.
Ineachofthesesacredbooks,wearetaughtthatthereissomethingdeeperthanourselvesthat
permeatestheuniverse,butitisbeyondourcomprehension.Itisonlywhenwestopattemptingto
explainit,ourwayoftryingtocontrolit,andbecontenttojustbeourselves,thatwecanactually
attainthatgoal.Toachievethisgoalseemstorequiretheabsenceofconditionsofworth.If
someonehasbeengivenunconditionalpositiveregardthroughouttheirlife,theywillbecontentto
livethatlifeasitis.Rogerswaswellawareofthischallenge,andhedescribedthegoodlifeasa
process,notsomethingthatyoucouldactuallyget,butsomethingthatyouhadtoBe.Still,isit
possiblethatafullyfunctioningpersonmighthavetheinsightnecessarytounderstandthe
essenceoftheuniverse?NotaccordingtoSwamiSriYukteswar:
ManpossesseseternalfaithandbelievesintuitivelyintheexistenceofaSubstance,ofwhichthe
objectsofsensesound,touch,sight,taste,andsmell,thecomponentpartsofthisvisibleworld
arebutproperties.Asmanidentifieshimselfwithhismaterialbody,composedoftheaforesaid
properties,heisabletocomprehendbytheseimperfectorgansthesepropertiesonly,andnotthe
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properties,heisabletocomprehendbytheseimperfectorgansthesepropertiesonly,andnotthe
Substancetowhichthesepropertiesbelong.TheeternalFather,God,theonlySubstanceinthe
universe,isthereforenotcomprehensiblebymanofthismaterialworld,unlesshebecomesdivine
byliftinghisselfabovethiscreationofDarknessorMaya.SeeHebrews11:1andJohn8:28.
Nowfaithisthesubstanceofthingshopedfor,theevidenceofthingsnotseen.
ThensaidJesusuntothem,Whenyehaveliftedupthesonofman,thenshallyeknowthatIam
he.
JnanavatarSwamiSriYukteswarGiri,1894/1990
SowhetherwebelieveinGod,Tao,aneternalSelf,amortalSelf,ormerelyanactualizing
tendency,forthousandsofyearstherehasbeenthebelief,amongstmanypeople,thatourlives
areaboutmorethanjustbeingaliveforalimitedperiodoftime.Anditisintherecognitionand
acceptance,indeedtheembracing,ofthatsomethingmore,evenifwecantconceiveitinour
consciousmind,thatwefindandliveagoodlife.WhenParamahansaYogananda,adirectdisciple
ofSwamiYukteswar,cametotheUnitedStatesin1920toestablishapermanentYogasociety,it
wassuggestedthathenamehissocietyGodRealization.However,sincehebelievedlifeisabout
realizing(oractualizing,inpsychologicalterms)ourselves,heestablishedhisorganizationasthe
SelfRealizationFellowship(Yogananda,1946).
Selfrealization,inthecontextofYoga,referstobecomingawareofonesconnectiontothespark
ofdivinitythatexistswithinus,whichmaywellbethesourceofouractualizingtendency.Itisnot
thesameasthesenseofIormethatwenormallythinkof.Afterall,areweourbodyorour
mind?Considerthebody.Isitthebodywewerebornwith,orthebodywehavenow?Isourmind
whatwearethinkingnow,orwhatwewerethinking2yearsago?Boththebodyandthemindare
transient,buttheSelfcontinues.ItisthatSelfthatYogis,Buddhists,andTaoistsseektorealize,
anditmaywellbethatSelfwhichseeksitsownactualization(separatefromtheconsciousness
createdbythebrainunderlyingourmindseeFeuerstein,2003KabatZinn,1994).Thisisalsothe
SelfofBeingandtranscendence,asdescribedbyMaslow.
SocialRelationshipsandMarriage
SocialandpersonalrelationshipswereveryimportanttoRogers,bothintherapyandineveryday
life.Duringeachmoment,wehaveourawareness(orconsciousness),ourexperience(our
perceptionofwhatishappening),andourcommunication(ourrelationalbehavior).Forthefully
functioningperson,thereiscongruencebetweeneachofthesephenomena.Unfortunately,we
tendtobeapoorjudgeofourowncongruence.Forexample,ifsomeonebecomesangrywith
anotherpersonatameetingorinatherapygroup,theymayremainunawareoftheiranger,even
thoughitmaybequiteobvioustoeveryoneelseintheroom.Thus,ourrelationshipwithotherscan
reflectthetruenatureofourownpersonality,andthedegreetowhichwearecongruent.Ifothers
arecongruent,andthereforearewillingtotalktousopenlyandhonestly,itwillencourageusto
becomemorecongruentand,consequently,morepsychologicallyhealthy(Rogers,1961,1980).
Curiously,thereasonthisbecamesoimportanttoRogerswasthelackofsuchmeaningful
relationshipsinhisownlife.Becausehisfamilyfollowedstrict,fundamentalistrules,they
discouragedrelationshipswithpeopleoutsidetheirfamily.Theconsequenceswererather
disturbingforRogers:
theattitudestowardpersonsoutsideourlargefamilycanbesummedupschematicallyinthis
way:Otherpersonsbehaveindubiouswayswhichwedonotapproveinourfamily.Manyofthem
playcards,gotomovies,smoke,dance,drink,andengageinotheractivities,some
unmentionable.Sothebestthingtodoistobetolerantofthem,sincetheymaynotknowbetter,
buttokeepawayfromanyclosecommunicationwiththemandtoliveyourlifewithinthefamily
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buttokeepawayfromanyclosecommunicationwiththemandtoliveyourlifewithinthefamily
IcouldsumuptheseboyhoodyearsbysayingthatanythingIwouldtodayregardasacloseand
communicativeinterpersonalrelationshipwithanotherwascompletelylackingduringthatperiodI
waspeculiar,aloner,withverylittleplaceoropportunityforaplaceintheworldofpersons.Iwas
sociallyincompetentinanybutsuperficialcontacts.Myfantasiesduringthisperiodweredefinitely
bizarre,andprobablywouldbeclassedasschizoidbyadiagnostician,butfortunatelyInevercame
incontactwithapsychologist.(pp.2830Rogers,1980)
Asnotedabove,thedevelopmentofhealthyrelationshipstakesplacewheneveronepersoninthe
relationshipiscongruent.Theircongruenceencouragestheotherpersontobemorecongruent,
whichsupportsthecontinuedopencommunicationonbehalfofthefirstperson.Thisinterplay
goesbackandforth,encouragingcontinuedandgrowingcongruenceintherelationship.Aswewill
seebelow,thisisbasicallythetherapeuticsituation,inwhichthetherapistisexpectedtobe
congruent.However,itcertainlydoesnotrequireatrainedtherapist,sinceitoccursnaturallyinany
situationinwhichonepersoniscongruentfromthebeginningoftherelationship.
Oneofthemostimportant,andhopefullymeaningful,relationshipsinanyoneslifeismarriage.
Rogerswasmarriedfor55years,andastheendofhiswifeslifeapproachedhepouredouthis
lovetoherwithadepththatastonishedhim(Rogers,1980).Asrelationshipsbecamemoreand
moremeaningfultohim,hewantedtostudytheextraordinaryrelationshipsthatbecomemorethan
temporary.Althoughthisisnotnecessarilysynonymouswithmarriage,itmosttypicallyis.Sohe
conductedaseriesofinformalinterviewswithpeoplewhowere,orhadbeen,inlengthy
relationships(atleast3years).Incomparingtherelationshipsthatseemedsuccessful,as
comparedtothosethatwereunhappyorhadalreadycometoanend,Rogersidentifiedfour
factorsthathebelievedweremostimportantforlongterm,healthyrelationships:dedicationor
commitment,communication,thedissolutionofroles,andbecomingaseparateself(Rogers,
1972).
Dedication,Commitment:Marriageischallenging:loveseemstofade,vowsareforgottenorset
aside,religiousrulesareignored(e.g.,WhatthereforeGodhasjoinedtogether,letnomanput
asunder.Matthew19:6HolyBible,1962).Rogersbelievedthatinorderforarelationshiptolast,
eachpersonmustbededicatedtotheirpartnership.Theymustcommitthemselvestoworking
togetherthroughoutthechangingprocessoftheirrelationship,whichisenrichingtheirloveand
theirlife.
Communication:Communicationencompassesmuchofhumanbehavior,anditcanbeboth
subtleandcomplex.Communicationitselfisnotagoodthing,sincemanynegativeandhurtful
thingscanbecommunicated.However,Rogersbelievedthatweneedtocommunicatepersistent
feeling,whetherpositiveornegative,sothattheydontoverwhelmusandcomeoutin
inappropriateways.Itisalwaysimportanttoexpresssuchcommunicationintermsofyourown
thoughtsandfeelings,ratherthanprojectingthosefeelingsontoothers(especiallyinangryand/or
accusatoryways).Thisprocessinvolvesrisk,butonemustbewillingtorisktheendofa
relationshipinordertoallowittogrow.
DissolutionofRoles:Cultureprovidesmanyexpectationsforthenatureofrelationships,whether
itbedatingorsomethingmorepermanentlikemarriage.AccordingtoRogers,obeyingthecultural
rulesseemstocontradicttheideaofagrowingandmaturingrelationship,arelationshipthatis
movingforward(towardactualization).However,whenindividualsmakeanintentionalchoiceto
fulfillculturalexpectations,becausetheywantto,thentherelationshipcancertainlybeactualizing
forthem.
BecomingaSeparateSelf:Rogersbelievedthatalivingpartnershipiscomposedoftwopeople,
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eachofwhomowns,respect,anddevelopshisorherownselfhood(pg.206Rogers,1972).
Whileitmayseemcontradictorythatbecominganindividualshouldenhancearelationship,as
eachpersonbecomesmorerealandmoreopentheycanbringthesequalitiesintothe
relationship.Asaresult,therelationshipcancontributetothecontinuedgrowthofeachperson.
DiscussionQuestion:ConsiderRogerscriteriaforasuccessfulmarriage,whichbeginswith
commitmenttothemarriage.Giventhedivorcerate(whichstudiesnowplaceatover60%),and
ongoingpoliticaldebatesaboutwhatmarriageisorisnot,whatisyouropinionofthestatusof
marriageinsocietytoday?
ClientCenteredandPersonCenteredTherapy
CentraltoRogersviewofpsychotherapyistherelationshipbetweenthetherapistandtheclient,
andwemustagainemphasizethedistinctionbetweenaclientandapatient.Thisinvolvesshifting
theemphasisintherapyfromapsychologist/psychiatristwhocanfixthepatienttotheclient
themselves,sinceonlytheclientcantrulyunderstandtheirownexperientialfield.Thetherapist
mustprovideawarm,safeenvironmentinwhichtheclientfeelsfreetoexpresswhateverattitude
theyexperienceinthesamewaythattheyperceiveit.Atthesametime,theclientexperiencesthe
therapistassomeonetemporarilydivestedoftheirownself,intheircompletedesiretounderstand
theclient.Thetherapistcanthenaccuratelyandobjectivelyreflectthethoughts,feelings,
perceptions,confusions,ambivalences,etc.,oftheclientbacktotheclient.Inthisopen,congruent,
andsupportiveenvironment,theclientisabletobegintheprocessofreorganizingand
reintegratingtheirselfstructure,andlivingcongruentlywithinthatselfstructure(Rogers,1951).
In1957,RogerspublishedanarticleentitledTheNecessaryandSufficientConditionsof
TherapeuticPersonalityChange(Rogers,1957/1989).Thelistisfairlyshortandstraightforward:
1. Theclientandthetherapistmustbeinpsychologicalcontact.
2. Theclientmustbeinastateofincongruence,beingvulnerableoranxious.
3. Thetherapistmustbecongruentintherelationship.
4. Thetherapistmustexperienceunconditionalpositiveregardfortheclient.
5. Thetherapistmustexperienceempathicunderstandingoftheclientsframeofreference
andendeavortocommunicatethisexperiencetotheclient.
6. Theclientmustperceive,atleasttoaminimaldegree,thetherapistsempathic
understandingandunconditionalpositiveregard.
AccordingtoRogers,thereisnothingelsethatisrequirediftheseconditionsaremetovera
periodoftime,therewillbeconstructivepersonalitychange.WhatRogersconsideredmore
remarkablearethosefactorsthatdonotseemnecessaryforpositivetherapeuticchange.For
example,theseconditionsdonotapplytoonetypeofclient,buttoallclients,andtheyarenot
uniquetoclientcenteredtherapy,butapplyinalltypesoftherapy.Therelationshipbetweenthe
therapistandclientisalsonotunique,thesefactorsholdtrueinanyinterpersonalrelationship.And
mostsurprisingly,theseconditionsdonotrequireanyspecialtrainingonthepartoftherapist,or
evenanaccuratediagnosisoftheclientspsychologicalproblems!Anyprogramdesignedforthe
purposeofencouragingconstructivechangeinthepersonalitystructureandbehaviorof
individuals,whethereducational,military,correctional,orindustrial,canbenefitfromthese
conditionsandusethemasameasureoftheeffectivenessoftheprogram(Rogers,1957).
Cananyoneoftheseconditionsbeconsideredmoreimportantthantheothers?Althoughtheyare
allnecessary,Rogerscametobelievethatthecriticalfactormaybethetherapistsempathic
understandingoftheclient(Rogers,1980).TheDalaiLama(2001)hassaidthatempathyisan
essentialfirststeptowardacompassionateheart.Itbringsusclosertoothers,andallowsusto
recognizethedepthoftheirpain.AccordingtoRogers,empathyreferstoenteringtheprivate
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worldoftheclient,andmovingaboutwithinitwithoutmakinganyjudgments.Itisessentialtoset
asideonesownviewsandvalues,sothattheotherpersonsworldmaybeenteredwithout
prejudice.Notjustanyonecanaccomplishthissuccessfully:
Insomesenseitmeansthatyoulayasideyourselfthiscanonlybedonebypersonswhoare
secureenoughinthemselvesthattheyknowtheywillnotgetlostinwhatmayturnouttobethe
strangeorbizarreworldoftheother,andthattheycancomfortablyreturntotheirownworldwhen
theywish.(pg.143Rogers,1980)
Finally,letusconsidergrouptherapysituations.Withinagroup,allofthefactorsdescribedabove
holdtrue.Rogers,wholateinhiscareerwasbecomingmoreandmoreinterestedinthegrowthof
allpeople,includingthosereasonablywelladjustedandmaturetobeginwith,becameparticularly
interestedinTgroupsandencountergroups.Thesegroupsweredevelopedfollowingthe
propositionbyKurtLewinthatmodernsocietywasoverlookingtheimportanceoftraininginhuman
relationsskills(theTinTgroupstandsfortraining).EncountergroupswerequitesimilartoT
groups,exceptthattherewasagreateremphasisonpersonalgrowthandimprovedinterpersonal
communicationthroughanexperientialprocess.Eachgrouphasaleader,orfacilitator,whofosters
andencouragesopencommunication.Thegroupservesasareflectionofthecongruence,orlack
thereof,inthecommunicationofwhoeveriscurrentlyexpressingthemselves.Asaresult,the
grouphopefullymovestowardcongruence,andthesubsequentpersonalgrowthandactualization
oftheeachindividual(Rogers,1970).
GiventheusefulnessofTgroupsandencounterinavarietyofsettings,aswellastheimportance
ofcontinuedpersonalgrowthandactualizationforthewelladjustedaswellasthosesuffering
psychologicaldistress,Rogersshiftedhisfocusfromsimplyclientcenteredtherapytoamore
universalpersoncenteredapproach,whichencompassesclientcenteredtherapy,student
centeredteaching,andgroupcenteredleadership(Rogers,1980seealsoRogers&
Roethlisberger,1952/1993).Rogersbelievedthatallpeoplehavewithinthemvastresourcesfor
selfunderstandingandforchangingtheirselfconcepts,attitudes,andbehaviors.Inall
relationships,whethertherapistclient,parentchild,teacherstudent,leadergroup,employer
employee,etc.,therearethreeelementsthatcanfosterpersonalgrowth:genuinenessor
congruence,acceptanceorcaring,andempathicunderstanding.Whentheseelementsare
fosteredinanysetting,thereisgreaterfreedomtobethetrue,wholeperson.Theimplicationsgo
farbeyondindividualrelationships.Weliveinwhatseemstobeanincreasinglydangerousworld.
Globalismhasbroughtwithitglobaltensionandconflict.However,Rogersarguedthataperson
centeredapproachwouldhelptoeaseinterculturaltension,byhelpingeachofustolearnto
appreciateandunderstandothers.Whethertheculturaldifferencesarepolitical,racial,ethnic,
economic,whatever,asmoreleadersbecomepersoncenteredthereisthepossibilityforfuture
growthofinterculturalunderstandingandcooperation(Rogers,1977).
AbrahamMaslowandHolisticDynamicPsychology
MaslowstandsalongsideRogersasoneofthefoundersofhumanisticpsychology.Althoughhe
beganhiscareerworkingwithtwoofthemostfamousexperimentalpsychologistsinAmerica,he
wasprofoundlyinfluencedbytheeventsthatledintoWorldWarII.Hebecamedevotedtostudying
themorevirtuousaspectsofpersonality,andhemaybeviewedasoneofthefoundersofpositive
psychology.Wellknownprimarilyforhisworkonselfactualization,Maslowalsohadasignificant
impactonthefieldofmanagement.Hisfameinbothpsychologyandbusinessmakeshima
candidateforbeing,perhaps,thebestknownpsychologistofalltime(Freudiscertainlymore
famous,butrememberthathewasapsychiatrist).AccordingtoMaslow,hisholisticdynamic
theoryofpersonalitywasablendoftheoriesthathadcomebeforehis:
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Thistheoryis,Ithink,inthefunctionalisttraditionofJamesandDewey,andisfusedwiththe
holismofWertheimer,Goldstein,andGestaltpsychology,andwiththedynamicismofFreud,
Fromm,Horney,Reich,Jung,andAdler.Thisintegrationorsynthesismaybecalledaholistic
dynamictheory.(pg.35Maslow,1970)
BriefBiographyofAbrahamMaslow
AbrahamH.MaslowwasbornonApril1,1908inBrooklyn,NewYork,thefirstofsevenchildren.
Hisfather,Samuel,hadleftKiev,Russiaatjust14yearsold.WhenSamuelMaslowarrivedin
AmericahehadnomoneyanddidnotspeakEnglish.SamuelMaslowspentafewyearsin
Philadelphia,doingoddjobsandlearningthelanguage,beforemovingtoNewYorkCity,wherehe
marriedhisfirstcousinRoseandbeganacooperagebusiness(acooperbuildsandrepairs
barrels).SamuelandRoseMaslowdidnothaveahappymarriage,andAbrahamMaslowwas
particularlysensitivetothisfact.Maslowresentedhisfathersfrequentabsences,andapparently
hatedhismother.Hismotherwasasuperstitiouswoman,whoseverelypunishedMaslowforeven
minormisbehaviorbythreateninghimwithGodswrath.Maslowdevelopedanintensedistrustof
religion,andwasproudtoconsiderhimselfanatheist(Gabor,2000Hoffman,1988Maddi&
Costa,1972).
Maslowschildhoodwasnobetteroutsidethehome.AntiSemitismwasrampantinNewYork.
Manyteacherswerecruel,andheoverheardthemsaynastythingsabouthim.Hehadnofriends,
andtherewereantiSemiticgangsthatwouldfindandbeatupJewishchildren.Atonepointhe
decidedtojoinaJewishgangforprotection,buthedidnthavetherightattitude:
Iwantedtobeamemberofthegang,butIcouldnt:theyrejectedmebecauseIcouldntkillcats
Wedstakeoutacatona[clothesline]andstandbacksomanypacesandthrowrocksatitandkill
it.
Andtheotherthingwastothrowrocksatthegirlsonthecorner.NowIknewthatthegirlslikedit,
andyetIcouldntthrowrocksatgirlsandIcouldntkillcats,soIwasruledoutofthegang,andI
couldneverbethegangsterthatIwantedtobecome.(pg.4Maslow,citedinHoffman,1988)
Withsixmorechildrenjoiningthefamily,oneeverycoupleofyears,thefamilywasconstantly
movingand,followingthetroublingdeathofoneofhislittlesisters(Maslowblamedherillness,in
part,ontheirmothersneglect),Maslowbecameaveryunhappyandshychild.Healsothoughthe
wasterriblyugly,somethinghisfathersaidopenlyatalargefamilygathering!Perhapsworstofall,
hefeltprofoundlystrangeanddifferentthanotherchildren,largelybecausehewassointellectual.
Maslowreconciledwithhisfatherlaterinlife.Duringthedepression,SamuelMaslowlosthis
business.BythattimehehaddivorcedMaslowsmother,Rose,andhemovedinwithhisson.The
twobecameclose,andafterSamuelMaslowdied,hissonrememberedhimfondly.Maslownever
forgavehismother,however.Someofthechildhoodstoriesherelatedwereshockinglycruel.
Once,hehadsearchedthroughsecondhandrecordshopsforsomespecial78RPMrecords.
Whenhefailedtoputthemawaysoonafterreturninghome,hismotherstompedthemintopieces
onthelivingroomfloor.Anothertime,Maslowbroughthometwoabandonedkittenshehadfound.
Whenhismothercaughthimfeedingthemasaucerofmilk,shegrabbedthekittensandsmashed
theirheadsagainstawalluntiltheyweredead!Laterinlife,herefusedtoevenattendherfuneral.
WhatIhadreactedtoandtotallyhatedandrejectedwasnotonlyherphysicalappearance,but
alsohervaluesandworldviewIvealwayswonderedwheremyutopianism,ethicalstress,
humanism,stressonkindness,love,friendship,andalltherestcamefrom.Iknewcertainlyofthe
directconsequencesofhavingnomotherlove.Butthewholethrustofmylifephilosophyandall
myresearchandtheorizingalsohasitsrootsinahatredforandrevulsionagainsteverythingshe
stoodfor.(pg.9MaslowcitedinHoffman,1988)
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stoodfor.(pg.9MaslowcitedinHoffman,1988)
Maslowspentmuchofhischildhoodreading,anddespitethetreatmenthereceivedfrommanyof
hisprejudicedteachers,helovedtolearn.AfterhighschoolMaslowwonascholarshiptoCornell
University,butencounteredpervasiveantiSemitismthroughouthisfirstyear.Sohetransferredto
CityCollege,wherehefirststudiedtheworkofbehavioralscientistslikeJohnB.Watson.Hewas
impressedbyWatsonsdesiretousethenewlycreatedscienceofbehaviorismtofightsocial
problems,suchasracialandethnicdiscrimination.Atthesametime,however,Maslowhadfallen
inlovewithhisfirstcousinBerthaGoodman,arelationshiphisparentsstronglyopposed.So
MaslowleftfortheUniversityofWisconsin(Gabor,2000Hoffman,1988Maddi&Costa,1972).
BerthaGoodmanfollowed,andtheyweresoonmarried.MarriageboostedMaslowsselfesteem,
andprovidedhimwithasenseofpurposeinlife.Helatersaidthatlifedidntreallystartforme
untilIgotmarriedandwenttoWisconsin(pg.128citedinMaddi&Costa,1972).
InWisconsin,Maslowstudiedthebehaviorofprimatesunderthesupervisionoftherenowned
HarryHarlow(mostfamousforhisstudiesoncontactcomfort).Oneday,whilewatchingsome
monkeysseeminglyenjoymunchingonpeanutsandothertreats,Maslowrecognizedthatappetite
andhungeraretwodifferentthings.Thus,motivationmustbecomprisedofseparateelementsas
well.Inanotherstudy,MaslowtriedtoaddressthedifferentaspectsofFreudandAdlers
psychodynamicperspectivesbyobservingdominancebehavioramongstthemonkeys.His
colleaguesandprofessors,however,hadlittleinterestinthepsychoanalyticsciencethatthey
consideredtobeaEuropeanendeavor.MaslowcompletedhisPh.D.atWisconsinin1934,and
thenreturnedtoNewYork.HeearnedapositionatColumbiaUniversitywiththerenownedEdward
Thorndike,andbeganstudyingtherelativecontributionsofheredityandenvironmentonsocial
behavior,aspartofaprojecttostudyfactorsinvolvedinpoverty,illiteracy,andcrime.Asacurious
sidenote,ThorndikehadalsodevelopedanIQtestMaslowscored195onthistest,oneofthe
highestscoreseverrecorded.DuringthistimeatColumbiaUniversity,Maslowalsobegan
relationshipswithmanyofthepsychologists,sociologists,andanthropologistswhohadfledNazi
Germany.HewasveryimpressedwithMaxWertheimer,oneofthefoundersofGestaltpsychology,
andwhohelpedtolaythefoundationforpositivepsychology:
Aretherenottendenciesinmenandinchildrentobekind,todealsincerely[and]justlywiththe
otherfellow?Arethesenothingbutinternalizedrulesonthebasisofcompulsionandfear?he
askedrhetorically.(pg.159Wertheimer,citedinGabor,2000)
MaslowwasoneofthefirststudentstostudywithAlfredAdlerinAmerica,beingparticularly
impressedwithAdlersworkhelpingacademicallychallengedchildrentosucceeddespitetheirlow
IQscores.MaslowalsostudiedwithErichFromm,KarenHorney,andRuthBenedict.Benedictwas
ananthropologistwhoencouragedMaslowtogainsomefieldexperience.Shesponsoredagrant
applicationthatMaslowreceivedtostudytheBlackfootIndians.Duringthesummerof1938,
MaslowexaminedthedominanceandemotionalsecurityoftheBlackfootIndians.Hewas
impressedbytheirculture,andrecognizedwhathebelievedwasaninnateneedtoexperiencea
senseofpurposeinlife,asenseofmeaning.Afewyearslater,shortlyafterthebeginningofWorld
WarII,Maslowhadanepiphanyregardingpsychologysfailuretounderstandthetruenatureof
people.Hedevotedtherestofhislifetothestudyofahopefulpsychology(Gabor,2000Hoffman,
1988Maddi&Costa,1972).
MaslowtaughtforafewyearsatBrooklynCollege,andalsoservedastheplantmanagerforthe
MaslowCooperageCorporation(from19471949).In1951hewasappointedProfessorandChair
oftheDepartmentofPsychologyatBrandeisUniversity,whereheconductedtheresearchand
wrotethebooksforwhichheismostfamous.Bythelate1960s,Maslowhadbecomedisillusioned
withacademiclife.Hehadsufferedaheartattackin1966,andseemedsomewhatdisconnected
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fromtheverydepartmenthehadhelpedtoform.In1969,however,heacceptedafouryeargrant
fromtheLaughlinFoundation,primarilytostudythephilosophyofdemocracy,economics,and
ethicsasinfluencedbyhumanisticpsychology.Hehadbeentroubledbywhatheviewedasaloss
offaithinAmericanvalues,andhewasgreatlyenjoyinghistimeworkinginCalifornia.Healso
attendedmanagementseminarsattheSagaCorporation,urgingtheparticipantstocommit
themselvestohumanisticmanagement.OnedayinJune,1970,hewasjoggingslowlywhenhe
sufferedamassiveheartattack.Hewasalreadydeadbythetimehiswiferushedovertohim
(Gabor,2000Hoffman,1988Maddi&Costa,1972).Hewasonly62yearsold.Shortlyafterhis
death,theInternationalStudyProjectofMenloPark,CApublishedamemorialvolumeintributeto
AbrahamMaslow(InternationalStudyProject,1972).
PlacingMaslowinContext:BeyondHumanisticPsychology
WhereasCarlRogersisoftenthoughtofasthefounderofhumanisticpsychology,inlargepart
becauseofhisemphasisonpsychotherapy,itwasMaslowwhostudiedingreatdetailthemost
significanttheoreticalaspectofit:selfactualization.Inadditiontostudyingselfactualization,he
applieditbothinpsychologyandbeyond.Hisapplicationofselfactualizationtomanagement
continuedtheclassicrelationshipbetweenpsychologyandbusiness(whichbeganwithJohnB.
Watsonandhisapplicationofpsychologicalprinciplestoadvertising).Unfortunately,Maslowdied
justashewasbeginningtostudyhisproposedfourthforce:transpersonalpsychology.
TranspersonalpsychologyofferedaconnectionbetweenpsychologyandmanyoftheEastern
philosophiesassociatedwithYogaandBuddhism,andalsoprovidedafoundationforthestudyof
positivepsychology.
Maslowsinterestinbusinessandmanagementhasquitepossiblyledtohisbeingthemost
famouspsychologistofalltime,sinceheiswellknowninbothpsychologyandbusiness.Ifhehad
continuedbeingavocaladvocatefortranspersonalpsychology(ifnotforhisuntimelydeathatan
earlyage),giventodaysgrowinginterestinEasternphilosophyandpsychologyandthe
establishmentofpositivepsychologyasagoalforthefieldofpsychologybyformerAPAPresident
MartinSeligman,Maslowmaywellhavebecomeevenmorefamous.Itisinterestingtonotethat
someonesotrulyvisionaryseemstohavebecomethatwayasaresultofstudyingpeoplewhom
hefeltwerethemselvesselfactualized.Ifpositivepsychology,thepsychologyofvirtueandvalues,
becomestheheirofMaslowsgoal,itshouldbecomeasignificantforceinthefieldofpsychology.
ThatwillbeMaslowstruelegacy.
TheImportanceofValuesintheScienceofPsychology
Acommoncriticismleveledagainstmanypersonalitytheoristsisthattheyhavenotconfirmedtheir
theoriesinastrict,scientificmanner.Whenonegoessofarastoconsidervalues,whichare
typicallyassociatedwithreligiousmorality,thereisevengreaterresistanceonthepartofthose
whowouldhavepsychologybecometrulyscientifictoconsidersuchmattersworthyof
examination.However,Maslowfeltthat:
Bothorthodoxscienceandorthodoxreligionhavebeeninstitutionalizedandfrozenintoamutually
excludingdichotomyOneconsequenceisthattheyarebothpathologized,splitintosickness,
rippedapartintoacrippledhalfscienceandacrippledhalfreligionAsaresultthestudentwho
becomesascientistautomaticallygivesupagreatdealoflife,especiallyitsrichestportions.(pg.
119Maslow,1966)
Consequently,Maslowurgedthatweneedtobefullyawareofourvaluesatalltimes,andawareof
howourvaluesinfluenceusinourstudyofpsychology.Althoughpeopleapproachtheworldin
commonways,theyalsopayselectiveattentiontowhatishappening,andtheyreshufflethe
eventsoccurringaroundthemaccordingtotheirowninterests,needs,desires,fears,etc.
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eventsoccurringaroundthemaccordingtotheirowninterests,needs,desires,fears,etc.
Consequently,Maslowbelievedthatpayingattentiontohumanvalues,particularlytoan
individualsvalues,actuallyhelpsthepsychologicalscientistachievethegoalofclearly
understandinghumanbehavior(Maslow,1970).Inasimilarvein,whenMaslowcoauthoredan
abnormalpsychologytextearlyinhiscareer,heincludedachapteronnormalpsychology.His
descriptionofthecharacteristicsofahealthy,normalpersonalityprovidesaninteresting
foreshadowingofhisresearchonselfactualization(Maslow&Mittelmann,1941).
Maslowfeltsostronglyaboutthelossofvaluesinoursocietythathehelpedtoorganizea
conferenceandthenservedaseditorforabookentitledNewKnowledgeinHumanValues
(Maslow,1959).Inthepreface,Maslowlamentsthattheultimatediseaseofourtimeis
valuelessnessthisstateismorecruciallydangerousthaneverbeforeinhistory(pg.vii
Maslow,1959).Maslowdoessuggest,however,thatsomethingcanbedoneaboutthislossof
values,ifonlypeoplewilltry.Inthebook,hebroughttogetheraninterestingvarietyofindividuals,
including:KurtGoldstein,awellknownneurophysiologistwhostudiedtheholisticfunctionof
healthyvs.braindamagedpatientsandwhocoinedthetermselfactualizationD.T.Suzuki,a
renownedZenBuddhistscholarandPaulTillich,ahighlyrespectedexistentialtheologian(who
hadadirectandsignificantinfluenceonthecareerofRolloMay).Therearealsochaptersby
GordonAllportandErichFromm.Inhisownchapter,Maslowconcludes:
Ifwewishtohelphumanstobecomemorefullyhuman,wemustrealizenotonlythattheytryto
realizethemselvesbutthattheyarealsoreluctantorafraidorunabletodoso.Onlybyfully
appreciatingthisdialecticbetweensicknessandhealthcanwehelptotipthebalanceinfavorof
health.(pg.135Maslow,1959)
DiscussionQuestion:Maslowbelievedthatvaluesareveryimportant,notonlyinthestudyof
psychology,butinsocietyaswell.Doyouagree?Whenpoliticiansorreligiousleaderstalkabout
values,doyouthinktheyrepresentmeaningful,truevalues,ordotheyjustsupportthevaluesthat
areanadvantagetotheirowngoalorthegoalsoftheirpoliticalpartyorchurch?
TheHierarchyofNeeds
Maslowsisundoubtedlybestknownforhishierarchyofneeds.Developedwithinthecontextofa
theoryofhumanmotivation,Maslowbelievedthathumanbehaviorisdrivenandguidedbyasetof
basicneeds:physiologicalneeds,safetyneeds,belongingnessandloveneeds,esteem
needs,andtheneedforselfactualization.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatindividualsmustmove
throughthehierarchyinorder,satisfyingtheneedsateachlevelbeforeonecanmoveontoa
higherlevel.Thereasonforthisisthatlowerneedstendtooccupythemindiftheyremain
unsatisfied.Howeasyisittoworkorstudywhenyouarereallyhungryorthirsty?ButMaslowdid
notconsiderthehierarchytoberigid.Forexample,heencounteredsomepeopleforwhomself
esteemwasmoreimportantthanlove,individualssufferingfromantisocialpersonalitydisorder
seemtohaveapermanentlossoftheneedforlove,orifaneedhasbeensatisfiedforalongtime
itmaybecomelessimportant.Aslowerneedsarebecomingsatisfied,thoughnotyetfullysatisfied,
higherneedsmaybegintopresentthemselves.Andofcoursetherearesometimesmultiple
determinantsofbehavior,makingtherelationshipbetweenagivenbehaviorandabasicneed
difficulttoidentify(Maslow,1943/1973Maslow,1970).
Thephysiologicalneedsarebased,inpart,ontheconceptofhomeostasis,thenaturaltendency
ofthebodytomaintaincriticalbiologicallevelsofessentialelementsorconditions,suchaswater,
salt,energy,andbodytemperature.Sexualactivity,thoughnotessentialfortheindividual,is
biologicallynecessaryforthehumanspeciestosurvive.Maslowdescribedthephysiologicalneeds
asthemostprepotent.Inotherwords,ifapersonislackingeverythinginlife,havingfailedto
satisfyphysiological,safety,belongingnessandlove,andesteemneeds,theirconsciousnesswill
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satisfyphysiological,safety,belongingnessandlove,andesteemneeds,theirconsciousnesswill
mostlikebeconsumedwiththeirdesireforfoodandwater.Asthelowestandmostclearly
biologicaloftheneeds,thesearealsothemostanimallikeofourbehavior.InWesternculture,
however,itisraretofindsomeonewhoisactuallystarving.Sowhenwetalkaboutbeinghungry,
wearereallytalkingaboutanappetite,ratherthanrealhunger(Maslow,1943/1973Maslow,
1970).ManyAmericansarefascinatedbystoriessuchasthoseoftheillfatedDonnerparty,
trappedintheSierraNevadamountainsduringthewinterof18461847,andtheUruguayan
soccerteamwhoseplanecrashedintheAndesmountainsin1972.Ineachcase,eithersomeor
allofthesurvivorswereforcedtocannibalizethosewhohaddied.Asshockingassuchstoriesare,
theydemonstratejusthowpowerfulourphysiologicalneedscanbe.
Thesafetyneedscaneasilybeseeninyoungchildren.Theyareeasilystartledorfrightenedby
loudnoises,flashinglights,androughhandling.Theycanbecomequiteupsetwhenotherfamily
membersarefighting,sinceitdisruptsthefeelingofsafetyusuallyassociatedwiththehome.
AccordingtoMaslow,manyadultneuroticsarelikechildrenwhodonotfeelsafe.Fromanother
perspective,thatofErikErikson,childrenandadultsraisedinsuchanenvironmentdonottrustthe
environmenttoprovidefortheirneeds.AlthoughitcanbearguedthatfewpeopleinAmerica
seriouslysufferfromalackofsatisfyingphysiologicalneeds,therearemanypeoplewholive
unsafelives.Forexample,innercitycrime,abusivespousesandparents,incurablediseaseslike
HIV/AIDS,allpresentlifethreateningdangerstomanypeopleonadailybasis.
Oneplacewhereweexpectourchildrentobesafeisinschool.However,aswesawinthelast
chapter(inthesectiononthemartialarts),160,000childreneachdayaretoofrightenedtoattend
school(Nathan,2005).Juvonenetal.(2006)lookedattheeffectsofethnicdiversityonchildrens
perceptionofsafetyinurbanmiddleschools(Grade6).Theysurveyedapproximately2,000
studentsin99classroomsinthegreaterLosAngelesarea.Theethnicityofthestudentsinthis
studywas46percentLatino(primarilyofMexicanorigin),29percentAfricanAmerican,9percent
Asian(primarilyEastAsian),9percentCaucasian,and7percentmultiracial.Whenagiven
classroom,oragivenschool,ismoreethnicallydiverse,bothAfricanAmericanandLatinostudents
feltsafer,wereharassedlessbypeers,feltlesslonely,andtheyhadhigherlevelsofselfworth
(evenwhentheauthorscontrolledfordifferencesinacademicengagement).Thus,itappearsthat
ethnicdiversityinschoolsleadstowardsatisfactionoftheneedforsafety,atleastinoneimportant
areaofachildslife.Unfortunately,mostminoritystudentscontinuetobeeducatedinschoolsthat
arelargelyethnicallysegregated(Juvonen,etal.,2006).
Throughouttheevolutionofthehumanspecieswefoundsafetyprimarilywithinourfamily,tribal
group,orourcommunity.Itwaswithinthosegroupsthatwesharedthehuntingandgatheringthat
providedfood.Oncethephysiologicalandsafetyneedshavebeenfairlywellsatisfied,accordingto
Maslow,thepersonwillfeelkeenly,asneverbefore,theabsenceoffriends,orasweetheart,ora
wife,orchildren(Maslow,1970).Althoughthereislittlescientificconfirmationofthe
belongingnessandloveneeds,manytherapistsattributemuchofhumansufferingtosocietys
thwartingoftheneedforloveandaffection.Mostnotableamongpersonalitytheoristswho
addressedthisissuewasWilhelmReich.Animportantaspectofloveandaffectionissex.Although
sexisoftenconsideredaphysiologicalneed,givenitsroleinprocreation,sexiswhatMaslow
referredtoasamultideterminedbehavior.Inotherwords,itservesbothaphysiologicalrole
(procreation)andabelongingness/loverole(thetendernessand/orpassionofthephysicalsideof
love).Maslowwasalsocarefultopointoutthatloveneedsinvolvebothgivingandreceivinglovein
orderforthemtobefullysatisfied(Maslow,1943/1973Maslow,1970).
Maslowbelievedthatallpeopledesireastableandfirmlybasedhighevaluationofthemselvesand
others(atleasttheotherswhocomprisetheircloserelationships).Thisneedforselfesteem,or
selfrespect,involvestwocomponents.Firstisthedesiretofeelcompetent,strong,andsuccessful
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selfrespect,involvestwocomponents.Firstisthedesiretofeelcompetent,strong,andsuccessful
(similartoBandurasselfefficacy).Secondistheneedforprestigeorstatus,whichcanrangefrom
simplerecognitiontofameandglory.MaslowcreditedAdlerforaddressingthishumanneed,but
feltthatFreudhadneglectedit.Maslowalsobelievedthattheneedforselfesteemwasbecoming
acentralissueintherapyformanypsychotherapists.However,aswesawinChapter12,Albert
Ellisconsidersselfesteemtobeasickness.Ellisconcernisthatselfesteem,includingeffortsto
boostselfesteemintherapy,requiresthatpeopleratethemselves,somethingthatEllisfeltwill
eventuallyleadtoanegativeevaluation(nooneisperfect!).Maslowdidacknowledgethatthe
healthiestselfesteemisbasedonwellearnedanddeservedrespectfromothers,ratherthan
fleetingfameorcelebritystatus(Maslow,1943/1973Maslow,1970).
Whenalloftheselowerneeds(physiological,safety,belongingnessandlove,andesteem)have
beenlargelysatisfied,wemaystillfeelrestlessanddiscontentedunlesswearedoingwhatisright
forourselves.Whatamancanbe,hemustbe(pg.46Maslow,1970).Thus,theneedforself
actualization,whichMaslowdescribedasthehighestofthebasicneeds,canalsobereferredtoas
aBeingneed,asopposedtothelowerdeficiencyneeds(Maslow,1968).Wewillexamineself
actualizationinmoredetailinthefollowingsection.
Figure2.
Maslowshierarchyofneedsisbasedonatheoryofmotivation.Individualsmustessentiallysatisfy
thelowerdeficiencyneedsbeforetheybecomefocusedonsatisfyingthehigherBeingneeds.
BeyondeventheBeingneedsthereissomethingmore,astateoftranscendencethattiesall
peopleandthewholeofcreationtogether.
AlthoughMaslowrecognizedthathumansnolongerhaveinstinctsinthetechnicalsense,we
nonethelesssharebasicdriveswithotheranimals.Wegethungry,eventhoughhowandwhatwe
eatisdeterminedculturally.Weneedtobesafe,likeanyotheranimal,butagainweseekand
maintainoursafetyindifferentways(suchashavingapoliceforcetoprovidesafetyforus).Given
ourfundamentalsimilaritytootheranimals,therefore,Maslowreferredtothebasicneedsas
instinctoid.Thelowertheneedthemoreanimallikeitis,thehighertheneed,themorehumanit
is,andselfactualizationwas,inMaslowsopinion,uniquelyhuman(Maslow,1970).
Inadditiontothebasicneeds,Maslowreferredtocognitiveneedsandaestheticneeds.Littleis
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Inadditiontothebasicneeds,Maslowreferredtocognitiveneedsandaestheticneeds.Littleis
knownaboutcognitiveneeds,sincetheyareseldomanimportantfocusinclinicsettings.However,
hefelttherewereamplegroundsforproposingthattherearepositiveimpulsestoknow,tosatisfy
curiosity,tounderstand,andtoexplain.TheeightfoldpathdescribedbytheBuddha,some2,600
yearsago,beginswithrightknowledge.Theimportanceofmentalstimulationforsomepeopleis
describedquitevividlybyMaslow:
Ihaveseenafewcasesinwhichitseemedcleartomethatthepathology(boredom,lossofzest
inlife,selfdislike,generaldepressionofthebodilyfunctions,steadydeteriorationoftheintellectual
life,oftastes,etc.)wereproducedinintelligentpeopleleadingstupidlivesinstupidjobs.Ihaveat
leastonecaseinwhichtheappropriatecognitivetherapy(resumingparttimestudies,gettinga
positionthatwasmoreintellectuallydemanding,insight)removedthesymptoms.
Ihaveseenmanywomen,intelligent,prosperous,andunoccupied,slowlydevelopthesesame
symptomsofintellectualinanition.Thosewhofollowedmyrecommendationtoimmerse
themselvesinsomethingworthyofthemshowedimprovementorcureoftenenoughtoimpressme
withtherealityofthecognitiveneeds.(pg.49Maslow,1970)
Therearealsoclassicstudiesontheimportanceofenvironmentalenrichmentonthestructural
developmentofthebrainitself(Diamondetal.,1975Globus,etal.,1973Greenough&Volkmar,
1973Rosenzweig,1984Spinelli&Jensen,1979Spinelli,Jensen,&DiPrisco,1980).Evenlessis
knownabouttheaestheticneeds,butMaslowwasconvincedthatsomepeopleneedto
experience,indeedtheycrave,beautyintheirworld.Ancientcavedrawingshavebeenfoundthat
seemtoservenootherpurposethanbeingart.Thecognitiveandaestheticneedsmayverywell
havebeenfundamentaltoourevolutionasmodernhumans.
SelfActualization
Maslowbeganhisstudiesonselfactualizationinordertosatisfyhisowncuriosityaboutpeople
whoseemedtobefulfillingtheiruniquepotentialasindividuals.Hedidnotintendtoundertakea
formalresearchproject,buthewassoimpressedbyhisresultsthathefeltcompelledtoreporthis
findings.Amongstpeopleheknewpersonallyandpublicandhistoricalfigures,helookedfor
individualswhoappearedtohavemadefulluseoftheirtalents,capacities,andpotentialities.In
otherwords,peoplewhohavedevelopedoraredevelopingtothefullstatureofwhichtheyare
capable(Maslow,1970).HislistofthosewhoclearlyseemedselfactualizedincludedAbraham
Lincoln,ThomasJefferson,AlbertEinstein,EleanorRoosevelt,JaneAddams,WilliamJames,
AlbertSchweitzer,AldousHuxley,andBaruchSpinoza.Hislistofindividualswhoweremostlikely
selfactualizedincludedGoethe(possiblythegreatgrandfatherofCarlJung),GeorgeWashington,
BenjaminFranklin,HarrietTubman(bornintoslavery,shebecameaconductoronthe
UndergroundRailroadpriortotheCivilWar),andGeorgeWashingtonCarver(bornintoslaveryat
theendoftheCivilWar,hebecameanagriculturalchemistandprolificinventor).Inadditiontothe
positiveattributeslistedabove,Maslowalsoconsidereditveryimportantthattherebenoevidence
ofpsychopathologyinthosehechosetostudy.Aftercomparingtheseeminglyselfactualized
individualstopeoplewhodidnotseemtohavefulfilledtheirlives,Maslowidentifiedfourteen
characteristicsofselfactualizingpeople(Maslow,1950/1973,1970),asfollows:
MoreEfficientPerceptionofRealityandMoreComfortableRelationswithIt:Selfactualizing
peoplehaveanabilitytorecognizefakers,thosewhopresentafalsepersona.Morethanthat,
however,Maslowbelievedtheycouldrecognizehiddenorconfusedrealitiesinallaspectsoflife:
science,politics,valuesandethics,etc.Theyarenotafraidoftheunknownorpeoplewhoare
different,theyfindsuchdifferencestobeapleasantchallenge.AlthoughahighIQmaybe
associatedwiththischaracteristic,itisnotuncommontofindthosewhoareseeminglyintelligent
yetunabletobecreativeintheireffortstodiscovernewphenomena.Thus,theperceptionof
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yetunabletobecreativeintheireffortstodiscovernewphenomena.Thus,theperceptionof
realityisnotsimplythesameasbeingsmart.
Acceptance(Self,Others,Nature):SimilartotheapproachAlbertEllistookwithREBT(andhis
hypothesizeddangersinherentinselfesteem),Maslowbelievedthatselfactualizingpeopleaccept
themselvesastheyare,includingtheirfaultsandthedifferencesbetweentheirpersonalrealityand
theiridealimageofthemselves.Thisisnottosaythattheyarewithoutguilt.Theyareconcerned
aboutpersonalfaultsthatcanbeimproved,anyremaininghabitsorpsychologicalissuesthatare
unhealthy(e.g.,prejudice,jealousy,etc.),andtheshortcomingsoftheircommunityand/orculture.
Spontaneity:Thelivesofselfactualizingpeoplearemarkedbysimplicityandanaturaleaseas
theypursuetheirgoals.Theiroutwardbehaviorisrelativelyspontaneous,andtheirinnerlife
(thoughts,drives,etc.)isparticularlyso.Inspiteofthisspontaneity,theyarenotalways
unconventional,becausetheycaneasilyaccepttheconstraintsofsocietyandfindtheirownwayto
fitinwithoutbeinguntruetotheirownsenseofself.
ProblemCentering:Selfactualizingindividualsarehighlyproblemcentered,notegocentered.
Theproblemstheyfocusonaretypicallynottheirown,however.Theyfocusonproblemsoutside
themselves,onimportantcausestheywoulddescribeasnecessary.Solvingsuchproblemsis
takenastheirdutyorresponsibility,ratherthanassomethingtheywanttodoforthemselves.
TheQualityofDetachmenttheNeedforPrivacy:Whereassocialwithdrawalisoftenseenas
psychologicallyunhealthy,selfactualizingpeopleenjoytheirprivacy.Theycanremaincalmasthey
separatethemselvesfromproblematicsituations,remainingabovethefray.Inaccordancewiththis
healthyformofdetachment,theyareactive,responsible,selfdisciplinedindividualsinchargeof
theirownlives.Maslowbelievedthattheyhavemorefreewillthantheaverageperson.
Figure3.
Selfactualizedindividualsneedtheirprivacy.Thismayhelpthemputlifeinperspectiveand
prepareforeachday.
Autonomy,IndependenceofCultureandEnvironment:Asanextensionofthepreceding
characteristics,selfactualizingindividualsaregrowthmotivatedasopposedtobeingdeficiency
motivated.Theydonotneedthepresence,companionship,orapprovalofothers.Indeed,they
maybehamperedbyothers.Thelove,honor,esteem,etc.,thatcanbebestowedbyothershas
becomelessimportanttosomeonewhoisselfactualizingthanselfdevelopmentandinnergrowth.
ContinuedFreshnessofAppreciation:Selfactualizingpeopleareabletoappreciatethe
PersonalityTheoryinaCulturalContext
wonders,aswellasthecommonaspects,oflifeagainandagain.Suchfeelingsmaynotoccurall
Bookby:MarkKelland
thetime,buttheycanoccurinthemostunexpectedwaysandatunexpectedtimes.Maslow
Contents Searchthisbook
offeredasurprisingevaluationoftheimportanceofthischaracteristicofselfactualization:
Ihavealsobecomeconvincedthatgettingusedtoourblessingsisoneofthemostimportant
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Ihavealsobecomeconvincedthatgettingusedtoourblessingsisoneofthemostimportant
Back
Next
nonevilgeneratorsofhumanevil,tragedy,andsuffering.Whatwetakeforgrantedweundervalue,
andwearethereforetooapttosellavaluablebirthrightforamessofpottage,leavingbehind
regret,remorse,andaloweringofselfesteem.Wives,husbands,children,friendsare
(/contents/lISyy6OT@1.1:MOuy90ma/Psychology
unfortunatelymoreapttobelovedandappreciatedaftertheyhavediedthanwhiletheyarestill
available.Somethingsimilaristrueforphysicalhealth,forpoliticalfreedoms,foreconomicwell
ofWomen)
beingwelearntheirtruevalueafterwehavelostthem.(pp.163164Maslow,1970)
TheMysticExperienceorOceanicFeelingPeakExperiences:Thedifferencebetweena
mysticexperience(alsoknownasanoceanicfeeling)andapeakexperienceisamatterof
definition.MysticexperiencesareviewedasgiftsfromGod,somethingreservedforspecialor
deserving(i.e.,faithful)servants.Maslow,however,believedthatthiswasanaturaloccurrence
thatcouldhappenforanyone,andtosomeextentprobablydid.Heassignedthepsychological
termofpeakexperiences.Suchexperiencestendtobesuddenfeelingsoflimitlesshorizons
openinguptoonesvision,simultaneousfeelingsofgreatpowerandgreatvulnerability,feelingsof
ecstasy,wonderandawe,alossofthesenseoftimeandplace,andthefeelingthatsomething
extraordinaryandtransformativehashappened.Selfactualizerswhodonottypicallyexperience
thesepeaks,thesocallednonpeakers,aremorelikelytobecomedirectagentsofsocial
change,thereformers,politicians,crusaders,andsoon.Themoretranscendentpeakers,in
contrast,becomethepoets,musicians,philosophers,andtheologians.
Maslowdevotedagreatdealofattentiontopeakexperiences,includingtheirrelationshipto
religion.Atthecoreofreligion,accordingtoMaslow,istheprivateilluminationorrevelationof
spiritualleaders.Suchexperiencesseemtobeverysimilartopeakexperiences,andMaslow
suggeststhatthroughouthistorythesepeakexperiencesmayhavebeenmistakenforrevelations
fromGod.Inhisownstudies,Maslowfoundthatpeoplewhowerespiritual,butnotreligious(i.e.,
nothinderedbythedoctrineofaspecificfaithorchurch),actuallyhadmorepeakexperiencesthan
otherpeople.Partoftheexplanationforthis,accordingtoMaslow,isthatsuchpeopleneedtobe
moreseriousabouttheirethics,values,andphilosophyoflife,sincetheirguidanceandmotivation
mustcomefromwithin.Individualswhoseeksuchanappreciationoflifemayhelpthemselvesto
experienceanextendedformofpeakexperiencethatMaslowcalledtheplateauexperience.
Plateauexperiencesalwayshavebothnoeticandcognitiveelements,whereaspeakexperiences
canbeentirelyemotional(Maslow,1964).Putanotherway,plateauexperiencesinvolveserene
andcontemplativeBeingcognition,asopposedtothemoreclimacticpeakexperiences(Maslow,
1971).
Gemeinschaftsgefuhl:AwordinventedbyAlfredAdler,gemeinschatfsgefuhlreferstothe
profoundfeelingsofidentification,sympathy,andaffectionforotherpeoplethatarecommonin
selfactualizationindividuals.Althoughselfactualizersmayoftenfeelapartfromothers,likea
strangerinastrangeland,becomingupsetbytheshortcomingsoftheaverageperson,they
nonethelessfeelasenseofkinshipwithothers.Thesefeelingsleadtoasinceredesiretohelpthe
humanrace.
InterpersonalRelations:Maslowbelievedthatselfactualizershavedeeperandmoreprofound
personalrelationshipsthanotherpeople.Theytendtobekindtoeveryone,andareespecially
fondofchildren.Maslowdescribedthischaracteristicascompassionforallmankind,a
perspectivethatwouldfitwellwithBuddhistandChristianphilosophies.
TheDemocraticCharacterStructure:Selfactualizingpeoplearetypicallyfriendlywithanyone,
regardlessofclass,race,politicalbeliefs,oreducation.Theycanlearnfromanyonewhohas
somethingtoteachthem.Theyrespectallpeople,simplybecausetheyarepeople.Theyarenot,
however,undiscriminating:
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Thecarefuldistinctionmustbemadebetweenthisdemocraticfeelingandalackofdiscrimination
intaste,ofanundiscriminatingequalizingofanyonehumanbeingwithanyother.These
individuals,themselveselite,selectfortheirfriendselite,butthisisaneliteofcharacter,capacity,
andtalent,ratherthanofbirth,race,blood,name,family,age,youth,fame,orpower.(pg.168
Maslow,1970)
DiscriminationBetweenMeansandEnds,BetweenGoodandEvil:Selfactualizersknowthe
differencebetweenrightandwrong.Theyareethical,havehighmoralstandards,andtheydo
goodthingswhileavoidingdoingbadthings.Theydonotexperiencetheaveragepersons
confusionorinconsistencyinmakingethicalchoices.Theytendtofocusonends,ratherthan
means,althoughtheysometimesbecomeabsorbedinthemeansthemselves,viewingtheprocess
itselfasaseriesofends.
Philosophical,UnhostileSenseofHumor:Thesenseofhumorsharedbyselfactualizersisnot
typical.Theydonotlaughathostile,superior,orrebellioushumor.Theydonottelljokesthatmake
funofotherpeople.Instead,theypokefunatpeopleingeneralforbeingfoolish,ortryingtoclaim
aplaceintheuniversethatisbeyondus.Suchhumoroftentakestheformofpokingfunat
oneself,butnotinaclownlikeway.Althoughsuchhumorcanbefoundinnearlyeveryaspectof
life,tononselfactualizingpeopletheselfactualizersseemtobesomewhatsoberandserious.
Creativeness:AccordingtoMaslow,selfactualizingpeopleareuniversallycreative.Thisisnotthe
creativityassociatedwithgenius,suchasthatofMozartorThomasEdison,butratherthefresh
andnaivecreativityofanunspoiledchild.Maslowbelievedthatthiscreativitywasanatural
potentialgiventoallhumansattheirbirth,butthattheconstraintsonbehaviorinherentinmost
culturesleadtoitssuppression.
Asdesirableasselfactualizationmayseem,selfactualizingindividualsstillfaceproblemsintheir
lives.AccordingtoMaslow,theyaretypicallynotwelladjusted.Thisisbecausetheyresistbeing
enculturated.Theydonotstandoutingrosslyabnormalways,butthereisacertaininner
detachmentfromthecultureinwhichtheylive.Theyarenotviewedasrebelsintheadolescent
sense,thoughtheymayberebelswhilegrowingup,butrathertheyworksteadilytowardsocial
changeand/ortheaccomplishmentoftheirgoals.Asaresultoftheirimmersioninsomepersonal
goal,theymayloseinterestinorpatiencewithcommonpeopleandcommonsocialpractices.
Thus,theymayseemdetached,insulting,absentminded,orhumorless.Theycanseemboring,
stubborn,orirritating,particularlybecausetheyareoftensuperficiallyvainandproudonlyoftheir
ownaccomplishmentsandtheirownfamily,friends,andwork.AccordingtoMaslow,outburstsof
temperarenotrare.Maslowarguedthatthereare,infact,peoplewhobecomesaints,moversand
shakers,creators,andsages.However,thesesamepeoplecanbeirritating,selfish,angry,or
depressed.Nooneisperfect,noteventhosewhoareselfactualizing(Maslow,1950/1973,1970).
DiscussionQuestion:ConsiderMaslowscharacteristicsofselfactualizingpeople.Whichof
thosecharacteristicsdoyouthinkarepartofyourpersonality?Arethereanycharacteristicsthat
youthinkmaybeparticularlydifficultforyoutoachieve?
ObstaclestoSelfActualization
InTheFartherReachesofHumanNature(Maslow,1971),whichwascompletedbyMaslowswife
andoneofhiscolleaguesshortlyafterMaslowsdeath,Maslowdescribedselfactualizationas
somethingthatonedoesnotobtainorfulfillataspecificpointintime.Rather,itisanongoing
processofselfactualizing,characterizedforsomebybriefperiodsofselfactualization(thepeak
experiences,forexample).Maslowalsodescribedtwomajorobstaclestoachievingself
actualization:desacralizingandtheJonahcomplex.TheJonahcomplex,anamesuggestedby
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MaslowsfriendProfessorFrankManuel,referstobeingafraidofonesowngreatness,orevading
onesdestinyorcallinginlife.MaslowspecificallydescribedthisasanonFreudiandefense
mechanisminwhichapersonisasafraidofthebestaspectsoftheirpsycheastheyareafraidof
theworstaspectsoftheirpsyche(i.e.,thesociallyunacceptableidimpulses).Hedescribedthe
processofthisfearasarecognition,despitehowmuchweenjoythegodlikepossibilitiesrevealed
byourfinestaccomplishments,oftheweakness,awe,andfearweexperiencewhenweachieve
thoseaccomplishments.AccordingtoMaslow,greatemotionsafterallcaninfactoverwhelmus
(Maslow,1971).Nonetheless,heencouragedpeopletostriveforgreatness,withinareasonable
senseoftheirownlimitations.
Averyimportantdefensemechanism,whichaffectsyoungpeopleinparticular,iswhatMaslow
calleddesacralizing.Thesourceofthisproblemisusuallyfoundwithinthefamily:
Theseyoungstersmistrustthepossibilityofvaluesandvirtues.Theyfeelthemselvesswindledor
thwartedintheirlives.Mostofthemhave,infact,dopeyparentswhomtheydontrespectvery
much,parentswhoarequiteconfusedthemselvesaboutvaluesandwho,frequently,aresimply
terrifiedoftheirchildrenandneverpunishthemorstopthemfromdoingthingsthatarewrong.So
youhaveasituationwheretheyoungsterssimplydespisetheireldersoftenforgoodand
sufficientreason.(pg.49Maslow,1971)
Asaresult,childrengrowupwithoutrespectfortheirelders,orforanythingtheireldersconsider
important.Thevaluesofthecultureitselfcanbecalledintoquestion.Whilesuchasituationmay
sometimesbeimportantforchangingsocialconventionsthatunfairlydiscriminateagainstsome
people,canwereallyaffordtoliveinasocietyinwhichnothingissacred?Indeed,cansucha
societyorculturecontinuetoexist?Thus,Maslowemphasizedaneedforresacralizing.Maslow
notedthathehadtomakeupthewordsdesacralizingandresacralizingbecausetheEnglish
languageisrottenforgoodpeople.Ithasnodecentvocabularyforthevirtues(Maslow,1971).
Resacralizingmeansbeingwillingtoseethesacred,theeternal,thesymbolic.Asanexample,
Maslowsuggestedconsideringamedicalstudentdissectingahumanbrain.Wouldsuchastudent
seethebrainsimplyasabiologicalorgan,orwouldtheybeawedbyit,alsoseeingthebrainasa
sacredobject,includingevenitspoeticaspects?Thisconceptisparticularlyimportantfor
counselorsworkingwiththeaged,peopleapproachingtheendoftheirlives,andmaybecriticalfor
helpingthemmovetowardselfactualization.AccordingtoMaslow,whensomeoneasksa
counselorforhelpwiththeselfactualizingprocess,thecounselorhadbetterhaveananswerfor
them,orwerenotdoingwhatitisourjobtodo(Maslow,1971).
DiscussionQuestion:Maslowbelievedthatdesacralizingwasparticularlychallengingforyoung
people.Doyouthinkoursocietyhaslostitsway,havewelostsightofmeaningfulvalues?Is
nothingsacredanymore?Isthereanythingthatyoudoinyourlifetorecognizesomethingas
sacredinawaythathasrealmeaningforyourcommunity?
MaslowhadsomethingelseinterestingtosayaboutselfactualizationinTheFartherReachesof
HumanNature:"Whatdoesselfactualizationmeaninmomenttomomentterms?Whatdoesit
meanonTuesdayatfouro'clock?"(pg.41).Consequently,heofferedapreliminarysuggestionfor
anoperationaldefinitionoftheprocessbywhichselfactualizationoccurs.Inotherwords,whatare
thebehaviorsexhibitedbypeopleonthepathtowardfulfillingorachievingthefourteen
characteristicsofselfactualizedpeopledescribedabove?Sadly,thiscouldonlyremaina
preliminarydescription,i.e.,theyare"ideasthatareinmidstreamratherthanreadyforformulation
intoafinalversion,"becausethisbookwaspublishedafterMaslow'sdeath(havingbeenput
togetherbeforehissuddenandunexpectedheartattack).
Whatdoesonedowhenheselfactualizes?Doeshegrithisteethandsqueeze?Whatdoesself
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actualizationmeanintermsofactualbehavior,actualprocedure?Ishalldescribeeightwaysin
whichoneselfactualizes.(pg.45Maslow,1971)
Theyexperiencefull,vivid,andselflessconcentrationandtotalabsorption.
Withintheongoingprocessofselfactualization,theymakegrowthchoices(ratherthanfear
choicesprogressivechoicesratherthanregressivechoices).
Theyareawarethatthereisaselftobeactualized.
Whenindoubt,theychoosetobehonestratherthandishonest.
Theytrusttheirownjudgment,evenifitmeansbeingdifferentorunpopular(being
courageousisanotherversionofthisbehavior).
Theyputintheeffortnecessarytoimprovethemselves,workingregularlytowardself
developmentnomatterhowarduousordemanding.
Theyembracetheoccurrenceofpeakexperiences,doingwhattheycantofacilitateand
enjoymoreofthem(asopposedtodenyingtheseexperiencesasmanypeopledo).
Theyidentifyandsetasidetheiregodefenses(theyhave"thecouragetogivethemup").
Althoughthisrequiresthattheyfaceuptopainfulexperiences,itismorebeneficialthanthe
consequencesofdefensessuchasrepression.
BeingandTranscendence
Maslowhadgreathopeandoptimismforthehumanrace.Althoughselfactualizationmightseem
tobethepinnacleofpersonalhumanachievement,heviewedHumanisticPsychology,orThird
ForcePsychology,asjustanotherstepinourprogression:
IshouldsayalsothatIconsiderHumanistic,ThirdForcePsychologytobetransitional,a
preparationforastillhigherFourthPsychology,transpersonal,transhuman,centeredinthe
cosmosratherthaninhumanneedsandinterest,goingbeyondhumanness,identity,self
actualization,andthelikeThesenewdevelopmentsmayverywellofferatangible,usable,
effectivesatisfactionofthefrustratedidealismofmanyquietlydesperatepeople,especially
youngpeople.Thesepsychologiesgivepromiseofdevelopingintothelifephilosophy,thereligion
surrogate,thevaluesystem,thelifeprogramthatthesepeoplehavebeenmissing.Withoutthe
transcendentandthetranspersonal,wegetsick,violent,andnihilistic,orelsehopelessand
apathetic.Weneedsomethingbiggerthanwearetobeawedbyandtocommitourselvestoina
new,naturalistic,empirical,nonchurchlysense,perhapsasThoreauandWhitman,WilliamJames
andJohnDeweydid.(pp.iiiivMaslow,1968)
AlthoughMaslowwroteaboutthisneedforaFourthForcePsychologyin1968,itwasnotuntil
theyear1998thatAPAPresidentMartinSeligmanissuedhiscallforthepursuitofpositive
psychologyasanactiveforceinthefieldofpsychology.Maslowbelievedthatallselfactualizing
peoplewereinvolvedinsomecallingorvocation,acauseoutsideofthemselves,somethingthat
fatehascalledthemtoandthattheylovedoing.Insodoing,theydevotethemselvestothesearch
forBeingvalues(orBvaluesMaslow,1964,1967/2008,1968).Thedesiretoattainself
actualizationresultsintheBvaluesactinglikeneeds.Sincetheyarehigherthanthebasicneeds,
Maslowcalledthemmetaneeds.Whenindividualsareunabletoattainthesegoals,theresultcan
bemetapathology,asicknessofthesoul.Whereascounselorsmaybeabletohelptheaverage
personwiththeiraverageproblems,metapathologiesmayrequirethehelpofametacounselor,a
counselortrainedinphilosophicalandspiritualmattersthatgofarbeyondthemoreinstinctoid
trainingofthetraditionalpsychoanalyst(Maslow,1967/2008).TheBvaluesidentifiedbyMaslow
(1964)areaninterestingblendofthecharacteristicsofselfactualizingindividualsandthehuman
needsdescribedbyHenryMurray:truth,goodness,beauty,wholeness,dichotomytranscendence,
aliveness,uniqueness,perfection,necessity,completion,justice,order,simplicity,richness,
effortlessness,playfulness,selfsufficiency.
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Transcendenceistypicallyassociatedwithpeoplewhoarereligious,spiritual,orartistic,but
Maslowsaidthathefoundtranscendentindividualsamongstcreativepeopleinawidevarietyof
vocations(includingbusiness,managers,educators,andpoliticians),thoughtherearenotmanyof
theminanyfield.Transcendence,accordingtoMaslow,istheveryhighestandmostholisticlevel
ofhumanconsciousness,whichinvolvesrelatingtooneself,toallothers,toallspecies,tonature,
andtothecosmosasanendratherthanasameans(Maslow,1971).Itisessentialthatindividuals
notbereducedtotheroletheyplayinrelationtoothers,transcendencecanonlybefoundwithin
oneself(Maslow,1964,1968).Maslowsideaiscertainlynotnew.AncientteachingsinYogatellus
thatthereisasingleuniversalspiritthatconnectsusall,andBuddhistsdescribethisconnectionas
interbeing.TheAbrahamicreligionsteachusthattheentireuniversewascreatedby,and
thereforeisconnectedthrough,onegod.ItwasMaslowshopethatatranscendentFourthForce
inpsychologywouldhelpallpeopletobecomeselfactualizing.InBuddhistterms,Maslowwas
advocatingtheintentionalcreationofpsychologicalBodhisattvas.PerhapsthisiswhatMaslow
meantbythetermmetacounselor.
ConnectionsAcrossCultures:IsNothingSacred?
MaslowdescribedsomeloftyambitionsforhumanityinTowardaPsychologyofBeing(1968)and
TheFartherReachesofHumanNature(1971),aswellassomechallengeswefacealongtheway.
Transcendence,accordingtoMaslow,isalossofoursenseofSelf,aswebegintofeelanintimate
connectionwiththeworldaroundusandallotherpeople.Buttranscendenceisexceedinglydifficult
whenwearehinderedbythedefensemechanismofdesacralization.Whatexactlydoestheword
sacredmean?Itisnoteasilyfoundinpsychologicalworks.WilliamJamesoftenwroteabout
spiritualmatters,butnotaboutwhatisorisnotsacred.SigmundFreudmentionedsacred
prohibitionsinhisfinalbook,MosesandMonotheism(Freud,1939/1967),buthefeltthatanything
sacredwassimplyaculturaladaptationofallchildrensfearofchallengingtheirfatherswill(and
Godwascreatedasasymbolofthemythologicalfather).Adictionarydefinitionofsacredsaysthat
itisconnectedwithGod(orthegods)ordedicatedtoareligiouspurposeandsodeserving
veneration.However,thereisanotherdefinitionthatdoesnotrequireareligiouscontext:
regardedwithgreatrespectandreverencebyaparticularreligion,group,orindividual(The
OxfordAmericanCollegeDictionary,2002).Maslowdescribeddesacralizationasarejectionofthe
valuesandvirtuesofonesparents.Asaresult,peoplegrowupwithouttheabilitytoseeanything
assacred,eternal,orsymbolic.Inotherwords,theygrowupwithoutmeaningintheirlives.
Theprocessofresacralization,whichMaslowconsideredanessentialtaskoftherapistsworking
withclientswhoseekhelpinthiscriticalareaoftheirlife,requiresthatwehavesomeconceptof
whatissacred.So,whatissacred?Manyanswerscanbefound,buttheredoesseemtobeat
leastonecommonthread.
Christianshavelongbelievedthatforgivenessliesattheheartoffaith.Psychologistshaverecently
foundthatforgivenessmayalsolieattheheartofemotionalandphysicalwellbeing.
DavidMyers&MalcolmJeeves(2003)
Compassionisthewishthatothersbefreeofsuffering.Itisbymeansofcompassionthatwe
aspiretoattainenlightenment.Itiscompassionthatinspiresustoengageinthevirtuouspractices
thatleadtoBuddhahood.Wemustthereforedevoteourselvestodevelopingcompassion.
TheDalaiLama(2001)
Ihavebeenengagedinpeaceworkformorethanthirtyyears:combatingpoverty,ignorance,and
diseasegoingtoseatohelprescueboatpeopleevacuatingthewoundedfromcombatzones
resettlingrefugeeshelpinghungrychildrenandorphansopposingwarsproducingand
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resettlingrefugeeshelpinghungrychildrenandorphansopposingwarsproducingand
disseminatingpeaceliteraturetrainingpeaceandsocialworkersandrebuildingvillagesdestroyed
bybombs.Itisbecauseofthepracticeofmeditationstopping,calming,andlookingdeeplythatI
havebeenabletonourishandprotectthesourcesofmyspiritualenergyandcontinuethiswork.
ThichNhatHanh(1995)
Ourprogressisthepenetratingofthepresentmoment,livinglifewithourfeetontheground,
livingincompassionate,activerelationshipwithothers,andyetlivingintheawarenessthatlifehas
beenpenetratedbytheeternalmomentofGodandunfoldsinthepowerofthatmoment.
Fr.LaurenceFreeman(1986)
Keepyourhandsbusywithyourdutiesinthisworld,andyourheartbusywithGod.
SheikhMuzaffer(citedinEssentialSufismbyFadiman&Frager,1997)
Forgivenessisalettinggoofpastsufferingandbetrayal,areleaseoftheburdenofpainandhate
thatwecarry.
Forgivenesshonorstheheartsgreatestdignity.Wheneverwearelost,itbringsusbacktothe
groundoflove.
JackKornfield(2002)
Andhesaidtohim,YoushalllovetheLordyourGodwithallyourheart,andwithallyoursoul,
andwithallyourmind.Thisisthegreatandfirstcommandment.Andasecondislikeit,Youshall
loveyourneighborasyourself
JesusChrist(TheHolyBible,1962)
Inexaminingselfactualizingpeopledirectly,Ifindthatinallcases,atleastinourculture,theyare
dedicatedpeople,devotedtosometaskoutsidethemselves,somevocation,orduty,orbeloved
job.Generallythedevotionanddedicationissomarkedthatonecanfairlyusetheoldwords
vocation,calling,ormissiontodescribetheirpassionate,selfless,andprofoundfeelingfortheir
work.
Thespirituallifeisthenpartofthehumanessence.Itisadefiningcharacteristicofhumannature,
withoutwhichhumannatureisnotfullhumannature.ItispartoftheRealSelf,ofonesidentity,of
onesinnercore,ofonesspecieshood,offullhumanness.
AbrahamMaslow(1971)
Christians,Buddhists,Muslims,aswellasmembersofotherreligionsandhumanists,allhave
somevariationofwhathasbeencalledTheGoldenRule:treatingothersasyouwouldliketobe
treated.Ifthatissacred,thenevenamongstatheists,youngpeoplecanevaluatethevaluesand
virtuesoftheirparents,community,andculture,andthendecidewhetherthosevaluesarerightor
wrong,whethertheywanttoperpetuateanaspectofthatsocietybasedontheirownthoughtsand
feelingsabouthowthey,themselves,maybetreatedsomedaybyothers.Thisresacralizationneed
notbereligiousorspiritual,butitcommonlyis,andsomepsychologistsarecomfortableembracing
spiritualityassuch.
KennethPargamentandAnnetteMahoney(2005)wroteachapterentitledSpirituality:Discovering
andConservingtheSacred,whichwasincludedintheHandbookofPositivePsychology(Snyder&
Lopez,2005).First,theypointoutthatreligionisanundeniablefactinAmericansociety.Some95
percentofAmericansbelieveinGod,and86percentbelievethatHecanbereachedthrough
prayerandthatHeisimportantorveryimportanttothem.Spirituality,accordingtoPargamentand
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Mahoney,istheprocessinwhichindividualsseekbothtodiscoverandtoconservethatwhichis
sacred.ItisinterestingtonotethatMaslowandRogersconsiderselfactualizationand
transcendencetobeaprocessaswell,notsomethingthatonecangetandkeeppermanently.An
importantaspectofdefiningwhatissacredisthatitisimbuedwithdivinity.Godmaybeseenas
manifestinmarriage,workcanbeseenasavocationtowhichthepersoniscalled,the
environmentcanbeenseenasGodscreation.Ineachofthesesituations,andinothers,whatis
viewedassacredhasbeensanctifiedbythosewhoconsideritsacred.Unfortunately,thiscanhave
negativeresultsaswell,suchaswhentheHeavensGatecultfollowedtheirsanctifiedleaderto
theirdeaths.Thus,spiritualityisnotnecessarilysynonymouswithagoodandhealthylifestyle.
Still,thereisresearchthathasshownthatcoupleswhosanctifytheirmarriageexperiencegreater
maritalsatisfaction,lessmaritalconflict,andmoreeffectivemaritalproblemsolvingstrategies.
Likewise,mothersandfatherswhosanctifytheroleofparentingreportlessaggressionandmore
consistentdisciplineinraisingtheirchildren.Forcollegestudents,spiritualstrivingwasmorehighly
correlatedwithwellbeingthananyotherformofgoalsetting(seePargament&Mahoney,2005).
Sothereappeartoberealpsychologicaladvantagestospiritualpursuits.Thismaybeparticularly
trueduringchallengingtimesinourlives:
thereareaspectsofourlivesthatarebeyondourcontrol.Birth,developmentaltransitions,
accidents,illnesses,anddeathareimmutableelementsofexistence.Tryaswemighttoaffect
theseelements,asignificantportionofourlivesremainsbeyondourimmediatecontrol.In
spirituality,however,wecanfindwaystounderstandanddealwithourfundamentalhuman
insufficiency,thefactthattherearelimitstoourcontrol(pg.655Pargament&Mahoney,2005)
EupsychianManagementandTheoryZ
ItisnotmerelyacoincidencethatMaslowiswellknowninthefieldofbusiness.Hespent3years
astheplantmanagerfortheMaslowCooperageCorporation,andlaterhespentasummer
studyingatanelectronicsfirminCalifornia(NonLinearSystems,Inc.)attheinvitationofthe
companyspresident.Hebecameveryinterestedinindustrialandmanagerialpsychology,andthe
journalhekeptinCaliforniawaspublishedasEupsychianManagement(Maslow,1965).
Eupsychiareferstorealpossibilityandimprovability,andamovementtowardpsychological
health,asopposedtothevaguefantasiesofproposedUtopiansocieties.Moreprecisely,though
thisissomethingofafantasyitself,MaslowdescribedEupsychiaastheculturethatwouldariseif
1,000selfactualizingpeoplewereallowedtolivetheirownlivesonashelteredislandsomewhere.
Maslowappliedhispsychologicaltheories,includingboththehierarchyofneedsandself
actualization,toamanagementstylethattakesadvantageofthisknowledgetomaximizethe
potentialoftheemployeesinacompany(alsoseethecollectionofMaslowsunpublishedpapers
byHoffman,1996).
Maslowintroducedavarietyoftermsrelatedtohistheoriesonmanagement,oneofthemost
interestingbeingsynergy.HavingborrowedthetermfromRuthBenedict,synergyreferstoa
situationinwhichapersonpursuingtheirown,selfishgoalsisautomaticallyhelpingothers,anda
personunselfishlyhelpingothersis,atthesametime,helpingthemselves.AccordingtoMaslow,
whenselfishnessandunselfishnessaremutuallyexclusive,itisasignofmildpsychopathology.
Selfactualizingindividualsareabovethedistinctionbetweenselfishnessandunselfishnessthey
enjoyseeingothersexperiencepleasure.Maslowofferedthepersonalexampleoffeeding
strawberriestohislittledaughter.Asthechildsmackedherlipsandthoroughlylovedthe
strawberries,anexperiencethatthrilledMaslow,whatwasheactuallygivingupbylettinghereat
thestrawberriesinsteadofeatingthemhimself?InhisexperiencewiththeBlackfoottribe,a
membernamedTeddywasabletobuyacar.Hewastheonlyonewhohadone,buttradition
allowedanyoneinthetribetoborrowit.Teddyusedhiscarnomoreoftenthananyoneelse,but
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allowedanyoneinthetribetoborrowit.Teddyusedhiscarnomoreoftenthananyoneelse,but
hehadtopaythebills,includingthegasbill.Andyet,everyoneinthetribewassoproudofhim
thathewasgreatlyadmiredandtheyelectedhimchief.So,hebenefitedinotherwaysbyfollowing
traditionandlettingeveryoneusehiscar(Maslow,1965).Inthebusinessfield,whenmanagers
encouragecooperationandcommunication,everyonebenefitsfromthehealthygrowthand
continuousimprovementofthecompany.AndthisleadsustoTheoryZ(whichisEupsychian
management).
DouglasMcGregor,aprofessorofindustrialrelationsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,
wasgreatlyimpressedwithMaslowswork,andMcGregorhadusedMotivationandPersonalityas
atextbookinhisbusinessclasses.BasedonMaslowstheories,McGregorpublishedabookin
1960inwhichheoutlinedtwomanagerialmodels,TheoryXandTheoryY(Gabor,2000
Hoffman,1996).Maslowdescribedthetwotheoriesasfollows:
Toputitsuccinctly,TheoryYassumesthatifyougivepeopleresponsibilitiesandfreedom,then
theywillliketoworkandwilldoabetterjob.TheoryYalsoassumesthatworkersbasicallylike
excellence,efficiency,perfection,andthelike.
TheoryX,whichstilldominatesmostoftheworldsworkplace,hasacontrastingview.Itassumes
thatpeoplearebasicallystupid,lazy,hurtful,anduntrustworthyand,therefore,thatyouhavegotto
checkeverythingconstantlybecauseworkerswillstealyoublindifyoudont.(pg.187Maslow,
1996a)
TheTheoryX/TheoryYstrategywasintentionallyputintopracticeatNonLinearSystems,hence
Maslowsinvitationtostudythere.Maslowconcluded,however,thatevenTheoryYdidnotgofar
enoughinmaximizingpeoplespotential.Peoplehavemetaneeds(theneedforBvalues),needs
thatgobeyondsimplyofferinghighersalaries.Whenemployeeshavetheirbasicneedsmet,but
recognizeinefficiencyandmismanagementinthecompany,theywillstillcomplain,butthese
higherlevelcomplaintscannowbedescribedasmetagrumbles(asopposedtothelowerlevel
grumblesaboutlowerlevelneeds).TheoryZattemptstotranscendTheoryYandactivelyfacilitate
thegrowthofacompanysemployeestowardselfactualization(Hoffman,1996Maslow,1971
Maslow1996b).
DiscussionQuestion:Howsyourjob(oranyjobyouhavehad)?Wouldyoudescribeyour
supervisororbossassomeonewhousesEupsychianorTheoryZmanagement?Doesthe
workplacefostersynergyamongsttheemployees?Ifnot,canyouimaginehowthejobwouldbe
differentiftheydid?
HenryMurrayandPersonology
HenryMurraywasprimarilypsychodynamicinhisorientation.However,thefundamentalaspectof
histheoryisthepresenceofneedsinourlives,andtherewasadistinctlyhumanisticaspecttohis
theoriesaswell(Maddi&Costa,1972).Thus,itseemsappropriatetoincludeMurrayalongside
Maslowsdiscussionofhumanneeds.Inaddition,Murraydevelopedapracticalapplicationofhis
famoustest,theThematicApperceptionTest(orTAT),forscreeningcandidatesforspecialwork
assignments.Onceagain,thisissimilartoMaslowsforaysintothefieldofindustrial/organizational
psychology.Althoughitiscommontopresentdifferentfieldsasfundamentallyopposed,suchas
humanisticpsychologyvs.psychodynamicpsychology,MurrayandMaslowprovideanideal
opportunitytoseethecommonalitiesthatoftenexistbetweendifferentareasinpsychology.Itmust
alsoberememberedthatMurraywasnostrictadherenttothedogmaticviewofpsychoanalysis
presentedbyFreud:
psychoanalysisstandsforaconceptualsystemwhichexplains,itseemstome,asmuchasany
other.Butthisisnoreasonforgoinginblindandswallowingthewholeindigestiblebolus,
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other.Butthisisnoreasonforgoinginblindandswallowingthewholeindigestiblebolus,
cannibalisticallydevouringthetotemfatherinthehopeofacquiringhisgenius,hisauthoritative
dominance,andthusrisingtopowerinthepsychoanalyticsociety,thatbattlegroundofLittle
Corporals.NoI,forone,prefertotakewhatIplease,suspendjudgment,rejectwhatIplease,
speakfreely.(pg.31Murray,1940/2008).
BriefBiographyofHenryMurray
HenryAlexanderMurray,Jr.wasbornin1893inNewYorkCity.Hehadmanynicknames,and
typicallyaskedhisfriendstocallhimHarry.Hisfamilywasquitewealthy,andhadanoblehistory.
HewasadescendantofJohnMurray,thefourthEarlofDunmore,thelastRoyalGovernorof
Virginia,andhismothersgreatgrandfather,ColonelHarryBabcock,hadservedonGeneral
GeorgeWashingtonsstaffduringtheRevolutionaryWar.Murraylivedalifeofluxury,spendingthe
summersonLongIslandandoftentravelingthroughoutEurope.Hewaseducatedatexclusive
privateschools.However,hischildhoodwasnotwithoutchallenges.Hefeltabandonedbyhis
mother,whosufferedfromdepressionmuchofherlife,whenMurraywasquiteyoung.He
stuttered,andwascrosseyed.Theoperationtohelpcurehisinternalstrabismusaccidentallyleft
himwithanexternalstrabismus.ThiscreatedproblemsforMurraywhenitcametocompetingin
athletics,butMurrayworkedhardtoovercomehisdifficultiesandheexcelledatsports.He
becamethequarterbackofhisfootballteamandwonafeatherweightboxingchampionshipat
school.Incollege,hemadetherowingteamatHarvardUniversity(Maddi&Costa,1972
Robinson,1992).
InspiteofhisathleticsuccessatHarvard,orperhapsbecauseofit,hedidnotdowell
academically,receivingbelowaveragegrades.Nonetheless,heearnedadegreeinhistoryin
1915.WhileatHarvardhealsomarriedJosephineRantoul,afteralengthycourtship.Despitehis
mediocregradesatHarvard,MurraywasacceptedintotheColumbiaCollegeofPhysiciansand
Surgeons,andgraduatedfirstinhisclassin1919.Hethencompletedasurgicalinternshipat
PresbyterianHospitalinNewYork,whereheoncetreatedthefuturepresidentFranklinD.
Roosevelt,followedbyaperiodofresearchattheRockefellerInstituteforMedicalResearchand
CambridgeUniversity,whichculminatedinaPh.D.inbiochemistryin1927.Hethenaccepteda
positionasassistanttoMortonPrince,andbecamethedirectorofHarvardUniversityspsychology
clinic.Murrayhadnevertakenapsychologycourse,buthehadsomeinterestingexperience
(Maddi&Costa,1972Robinson,1992).
Murrayhadapsychiatrycourseinmedicalschool,andhadreadFreudsInterpretationofDreams.
HealsohadaresearchassistantfromVienna,AlmaRosenthal,whohadbeenalongtimefriendof
AnnaFreud.Whilebothworkingtogetherandhavinganintimateloveaffair,Rosenthalintroduced
Murraytothedeeperdimensionsoftheunconsciousmind.However,itwasMurrayslifelong
mistress,ChristianaMorgan,whointroducedhimtoJungsbookPsychologyTypes.Murraywas
deeplyimpressedbyJungsbook,butevenmorebyJunghimself.Murraywastroubledbythe
intenseloveaffairhehaddevelopedwithMorgan,sohewenttoZurichinordertobe
psychoanalyzedbyJung.JungmanagedtohelpMurrayunderstandhisstutteringandaccept
havinghisaffairwithMorgan.Afterall,Junghadmaintainedamistressofhisownformanyyears.
JungalsomanagedtoconvinceMurrayswifeandMorganshusbandtoaccepttheaffairaswell,
andChristianaMorganremainedaveryimportantcolleaguethroughoutMurrayslife.Ithasbeen
suggestedthatsheplayedafarmoreimportantroleinhistheories,andinthedevelopmentofthe
TAT,thanshehasbeengivencreditfor(Maddi&Costa,1972Robinson,1992).Partlybecause
Junghaddirectlyhelpedhimwithapsychologicalproblem,andpartlybecauseoftheextraordinary
rangeofideasthatJungwasopento,MurrayalwaysspokehighlyofJung(thoughhebelieved
thatJungtendedtowardbeingpsychotic,justasFreudtendedtowardbeingneuroticseeBrian,
1995).
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1995).
Initially,Murraysreappointmentasclinicdirectorwaschallengedbytheexperimental
psychologistsEdwinBoringandKarlLashley,buthewassupportedbytheclinicalpsychologists,
whowereledbyGordonAllport(Stagner,1988).Ashisworkcontinuedhewasquiteproductive(it
wasduringthistimethathedevelopedtheTAT),andmanyimportantclinicianspassedthroughthe
clinic.IncludedamongthemwasErikErikson,whocametotheclinicafterhavingbeen
psychoanalyzedbyAnnaFreudinVienna.Murrayalsospentagreatdealoftimetravelingand
studyinginEurope,andenjoyedamemorableeveningwithSigmundandAnnaFreud.Ashewas
preparingtoreturntotheclinic,WorldWarIIbegan.MurrayjoinedtheArmyMedicalCorps,and
eventuallyworkedfortheOfficeofStrategicServices(OSS).Ofparticularinterestwashisuseof
theTATtoscreenOSSagentsforsensitivemissions(theOSSwastheprecursortotheCIA,soin
peacetimetheseagentswouldbecalledspies).HewasinChinastudyingerrorstheyhadmadein
theirassessmentswhentheatomicbombwasdroppedonHiroshima.Murraywasshocked,and
devotedtherestofhislifetoseekingalternativestowar(Maddi&Costa,1972Robinson,1992).
Ashiscareerandlifeapproachedtheirends,MurrayreceivedtheDistinguishedScientific
ContributionAwardfromtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,andtheGoldMedalAwardfrom
theAmericanPsychologicalFoundation.Hereceivednumeroushonorarydegrees,andcollections
ofpapershavebeenpublishedinhishonor(e.g.,White,1963Zucker,Rabin,Aronoff,&Frank,
1992).InJune,1988,Murraytoldhisnursethathewasdead.Shedisagreedwithhim,and
pinchedhimgentlyonthecheektoproveherpoint.Hecurtlydisagreedwithher,declaringthathe
wasthedoctor,shewasthenurse,andhewasdead.Afewdayslaterhewasright(Robinson,
1992).
PlacingMurrayinContext:AChallengingTask
TheredoesnotseemtobeaconsensusonwhereMurrayfitswithinthefieldofpersonalitytheory.
TrainedasaFreudianpsychoanalyst,heisoftengroupedwiththeneoFreudians.However,he
hasalsobeenplacedwiththetraittheorists,andhewasacolleagueofGordonAllport.However,
manypersonalitytheorytextbooksdontconsiderMurrayworthyofsignificantattention.Heis
includedalongsideMaslowinthistextbookbecausehisworkfocusedprimarilyonneeds.In
addition,thepracticalapplicationofhisThematicApperceptionTestinscreeningcandidatesfor
OSSassignmentswassimilartoMaslowsapplicationofpsychologicalprinciplesinthebusiness
field.
TheThematicApperceptionTestiscertainlyMurraysclaimtofame.Itremainsoneofthebest
knowntestsinpsychology,havingbeenappliedinresearch,business,andtherapeuticsettings.
SinceMurrayusedtheTATincombinationwiththeRorschachInkblotTest,hemaintainedhisties
totraditionalpsychoanalysisandhelpedtoadvancethefameoftheotherrenownedprojective
test.Assuch,hispracticalcontributionstopsychologyseemtooutweighhistheoretical
contributions.
Ithasbeensaidthatthevalueofatheorycanbemeasuredbytheresearchthatfollows.David
McClellandsuseoftheTATtostudytheneedforachievementisacommontopicinintroductory
psychologytextbooks.Thus,Murrayscontributionshaveinspiredclassicresearchinpsychology.
ThataloneshouldensureaplaceofsignificanceforMurrayinthehistoryofpersonalitytheory.
HumanNeeds
InExplorationsinPersonality(Murray,1938),Murraydescribespeopleastodaysgreatproblem.
Whatcanweknowaboutsomeone,andhowcanwedescribeitinawaythathasclearmeaning?
Nothingismoreimportantinthefieldofpsychology:
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Thepointofviewadoptedinthisbookisthatpersonalitiesconstitutethesubjectmatterof
psychology,thelifehistoryofasinglemanbeingaunitwithwhichthisdisciplinehastodealOur
guidingthoughtwasthatpersonalityisatemporalwholeandtounderstandapartofitonemust
havesense,thoughvague,ofthetotality.(pgs.34Murray,1938)
Thus,Murrayandhiscolleaguessoughttounderstandthenatureofpersonality,inordertohelp
themunderstandindividuals.Hereferredtothisdirectstudyofpersonalityaspersonology,simply
becauseheconsidereditclumsytorefertothepsychologyofpersonalityinstead.
MurraydescribedtheveryelegantprocessbywhichtheHarvardClinicgroupsystematically
approachedtheirstudies,andthenpresentedalengthyseriesofpropositionsregardingatheory
ofpersonality.TheprimaryfocusofthesepropositionscamedowntowhatMurraycalledapress
needcombination.Aneed,accordingtoMurray,isahypotheticalprocessthatisimaginedtooccur
inordertoaccountforcertainobjectiveandsubjectivefacts.Inotherwords,whenanorganism
reliablyactsinacertainwaytoobtainsomegoal,wecandeterminethattheorganismhadaneed
toachievethatgoal.Needsareoftenrecognizedonlyafterthefact,thebehaviorthatsatisfiesthe
needmaybeablindimpulse,butitstillleadstowardsatisfyingtheneededgoal.Pressistheterm
Murrayappliedtoenvironmentalobjectsorsituationsthatdesignatedirectionaltendencies,orthat
guideourneeds.Anythingintheenvironment,eitherharmfulorbeneficialtotheorganism,exerts
press.Thus,ourcurrentneeds,inthecontextofcurrentenvironmentalpress,determineour
ongoingbehavior(Murray,1938).
LikeMaslow,Murrayseparatedneedsintobiologicalandpsychologyfactorsbasedonhow
essentialtheyweretoonessurvival.Theprimary,orviscerogenicneeds,includeair,water,food,
sex,harmavoidance,etc.Thesecondaryorpsychogenicneeds,whicharepresumedtoderive
fromtheprimaryneeds,arecommonreactionsystemsandwishes.AlthoughMurrayorganizesthe
psychogenicneedsintogroups,theyarenotrankorderedaswasMaslowshierarchy,sowewill
notconsiderthegroupsanyfurther.Individually,thereareatotaloftwentyeighthumanneeds
(Murray,1938).Apartiallist,withdefinitions,includesthefollowing:
Acquisition:theneedtogainpossessionsandproperty
Retention:theneedtoretainpossessionofthings,torefusetogiveorlend
Order:theneedtoarrange,organize,putawayobjects,tobetidyandclean
Construction:theneedtobuildthings
Achievement:theneedtoovercomeobstacles,toexercisepower,tostrivetodosomething
difficultaswellandasquicklyaspossible
Recognition:theneedtoexcitepraiseandcommendation,todemandrespect
Exhibition:theneedtoattractattentiontooneself
Defendance:theneedtodefendoneselfagainstblameorbelittlement
Counteraction:theneedtoproudlyovercomedefeatbyrestrivingandretaliating,todefend
oneshonor
Dominance:theneedtoinfluenceorcontrolothers
Deference:theneedtoadmireandwillinglyfollowasuperior
Aggression:theneedtoassaultorinjureanother,toharm,blame,accuse,orridiculea
person
Abasement:theneedtosurrender,tocomplyandacceptpunishment
Affiliation:theneedtoformfriendshipsandassociations,togreet,join,andlivewithothers,
tolove
Rejection:theneedtosnub,ignore,orexcludeothers
Play:theneedtorelax,amuseoneself,seekdiversionandentertainment
Cognizance:theneedtoexplore,toaskquestions,tosatisfycuriosity
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AccordingtheMurray,inthecourseofdailylifetheseneedsareofteninterrelated.Whenasingle
actioncansatisfymorethanoneneed,wecansaythattheneedsarefused.However,needscan
alsocomeintoconflict.Forexample,anindividualsneedfordominancemaymakeitdifficultto
satisfytheirneedforaffiliation,unlesstheycanfindsomeonewithapowerfulneedforabasement.
Suchasituationisoneofthewaysinwhichpsychologistshavetriedtounderstandabusive
relationships.Inotherwords,whensomeonewithastrongneedforaffiliationanddebasement
becomesinvolvedwithsomeonewithastrongneedforaffiliationanddominance(particularlyina
pathologicalsense),theresultscanbeveryunfortunate.
Figure4.
Anyonewhohaschildrenisoftenremindedoftheirneedforplaying,andmostanysettingcan
provideanopportunityforplay.Here,theauthorschildrenareplayingcards.
Anyobject,orperson,thatevokesaneedissaidtobecathectedbythepersonbeingstudied.In
otherwords,theyhaveinvestedsomeoftheirlimitedpsychicenergy(libido)intothatobject.
Murraybelievedthatanindividualspersonalityisrevealedbytheobjectstowhichthatpersonis
attachedbythecathexisoflibido,especiallyifyoucanrecognizetheintensity,endurance,and
rigidityofthecathexis.Thisprocessnotonlyappliestoindividuals,butinstitutionsandculturesalso
havepredictablepatternsintermsoftheircathectedobjects.Putmoresimply,wecanstriveto
understandindividuals,includingdoingsofromacrossculturalperspective,byexaminingthe
natureandpatternofneedstheyseektosatisfyintheirdailylives(Murray,1938).
MorrisStein,whoworkedwithMurrayintheOSSandthenearnedaPh.D.attheHarvardClinic,
combinedMurraysworkonidentifyinghumanneedsandJungsconceptofpsychologicaltypes.
BylookingatpatternsintherankorderofneedsamongindustrialchemistsandPeaceCorps
volunteers,Steinwasabletodivideeachgroupintoseparatepsychologicaltypes(Stein,1963).
Forexample,therewerefivebasictypesofindustrialchemists:TypeAwasachievementoriented
butstillworkedwellwithothersTypeBfocusedonpleasingothers,oftenattheexpenseoftheir
ownideasTypeCwasachievementoriented,butmoredrivenandhostilethanTypeATypeD
wasmotivatedbyachievementandaffiliation,butwithanemphasisonorderthatprotectedthem
fromcriticismorblameandTypeEwasparticularlyfocusedonrelationshipsmarkedby
cooperationandtrust.Asinterestingasthesetypesmaybe,theyarequitedifferentthanthe
personalitytypesidentifiedamongstthePeaceCorpsvolunteers(Stein,1963).Thus,although
Steinsinvestigationsuggeststhatpersonalitytypescanbeidentifiedbasedonpatternsofneed,
thisapproachprobablywouldnotprovideageneraltheoryofpersonologythatcouldbeappliedto
anyone.
DiscussionQuestion:ConsiderMurrayslistofpsychogenicneeds.Whichneedsaretheones
thataffectyouthemost?Areyouabletofulfillthoseneeds?
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thataffectyouthemost?Areyouabletofulfillthoseneeds?
TheTATandtheOSS
MurrayistypicallycreditedwiththedevelopmenttheTAT.However,theoriginalarticlehas
ChristianaMorganasthefirstauthor(Morgan&Murray,1935),andinExplorationsinPersonality
mostoftheTATworkisdescribedbyMorgan(Murray,1938).Apparently,whenthetestwas
revisedandrepublishedin1943,Murraydidmostoftherevision,partlybecauseMorganwasquite
illatthetime.TheTATconsistsofaseriesofpicturesdepictingpotentiallydramaticevents
(althoughthepicturesareactuallyrathervague).Thepersontakingthetestisaskedtoprovidea
storythatrelateseventsprecedingthepicturetosomefinaloutcomeofthesituation.Itisexpected
thatthesubjectwillprojecttheirownthoughtsandfeelingsintothepictureastheycreatetheir
story.Inorderforthistobepossible,MorganandMurraymadesurethatinmostpicturesthere
wasatleastonepersonwithwhomthesubjectcouldeasilyempathizeandidentifythemselves.
TheTATbecameoneofthemostpopularprojectivetestseverdeveloped,andcontinuestobe
widelyusedtoday.
TheTAThasbeenusedintwoparticularlyinterestingsettingsoutsideofclinicalpsychology:to
studytheneedforachievement(seethenextsection),andtoscreenagentsfortheOfficeof
StrategicServicesduringWorldWarII.MurrayusedtheTATaspartofaprogramtohelpselect
membersoftheOSSforcritical,dangerousmissions.EvenbeforejoiningtheOSS,Murrayworked
forthegovernmentinsupportofthewareffort.InconjunctionwithGordonAllport,heprovidedan
analysisofthepersonalityofAdolfHitler,alongwithpredictionsastohowHitlermightreactafter
Germanywasdefeated.Healsohelpedtodevelopaseriesofquestionsforthecrewofacaptured
GermanUboat.TheOSSprograminvolvedassessingcandidatesresponsestohighlystressful
situations.Inadditiontopsychologicaltesting,usinginstrumentssuchastheTAT,thecandidates
wereputintohighlystressfulsituations.Forexample,theyweretoldtopicktwomentohelpthem
puttogetherafivefootcubewithwoodenpoles,blocks,andpegs.However,theavailablemen
wereallsecretlyonMurraysstaff.Oneofthemwouldacthelplessandpassive,whereastheother
madestupidsuggestionsandconstantlycriticizedtherecruit.Thetaskwas,ofcourse,never
completed,butitprovidedMurraywiththeinformationheneededonhowthecandidateperformed
understress(Brian,1995Robinson,1992).
InthenextchapterwewillseethattheexistentialpsychologistRolloMaytalkedaboutourneedfor
myths,inordertomakesenseoutofouroftensenselessworld.Althoughthiswasnotaneed
includedbyMurray,hedidhaveaninterestinmythology.Theimaginationthatisnecessaryto
createastoryaroundapictureintheTATofteninvolvessymbolismthatarisesfromthedepthsof
thewholeself(Murray,1960).Inthisregard,MurraysoundsquitesimilartoJungandhistheoryof
archetypes,andMurraydiscussedsomeclassicimagesfromourhistoricalmythology.Ofparticular
interesttoMurray,however,iswhetherornotwewillestablishnewmythsinthefuture.Thereare
oldermythsthatremainorientedtoourfuture,suchastheapocalypticmythsorthemythofthe
PromisedLand(Murray,1960).TheexistentialphilosopherJeanPaulSartrelamentedthe
demythologizingoftheuniversebyscience,andheadvocatedaremythologizingoftheself(see
McAdams,1992).GiventhatMurraydidincludeaneedforcognizance,theneedtoexplore,toask
questions,andtosatisfycuriosity,perhapstherewillbenewmythscreatedinourfuture.Ifso,
psychologistswillneedtokeepcurrentwiththeculturalphenomenathatinfluencepeoples
unconsciousprojectionsontotheTATandotherprojectivetests.
DavidMcClellandandtheNeedforAchievement
DavidMcClelland,whojoinedthefacultyofHarvardUniversityafewyearsbeforeMurrayretired,
conductedsomewellknownresearchutilizingtheTATtoexaminetheneedforachievement.The
researchbeganshortlyafterWorldWarII,andwassupportedbytheOfficeofNavalResearch.
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researchbeganshortlyafterWorldWarII,andwassupportedbytheOfficeofNavalResearch.
McClellandandhiscolleaguesmadeaninterestingpoint,intheprefacetotheirbookThe
AchievementMotive(McClelland,Atkinson,Clark,&Lowell,1953),aboutstudyingjustoneof
Murraysneeds:concentrationonalimitedresearchproblemisnotnecessarilynarrowingitmay
leadultimatelyintothewholeofpsychology.Indeed,theyfeltthattheylearnedagreatdealabout
personalitybystudyingoneofthemostimportantofhumanneeds.
McClellandandhiscolleaguesusedtheTATandborrowedheavilyfromMurraysproceduresand
scoringsystem.However,theymadeanumberofmodifications.Theyusedadditionalpicturesof
theirown,theyoftenpresentedthepicturesonascreentoagroupofsubjects,thosesubjects
wereallmalecollegestudents,andsomeoftheirexperimentalconditionsweredesignedtoevoke
achievementorientedresponses,orresponsesbasedonsuccessorfailure.Animportantaspect
ofthisstudywasthattheTAT(andsimilarpicturesdevelopedbyMcClelland)requireswriting
imaginativestoriesofwhatthesubjectprojectsontothepicture.Therefore,situationsthatstimulate
achievementorientedimaginationcanresultinhigherscoresontheneedforachievement,
somethingthatMcClellandandhiscolleaguesconfirmedinNavahochildrenduringthecourseof
theirresearch(suggestingitisauniversalphenomenon).Overall,theyfoundthatindividualswho
arehighintheirneedforachievementperformmoretasksduringtimedtests,improvemore
quicklyintheirabilitytoperformthosetasks,sethigherlevelsofaspirations,remembermoreof
thetaskstheyfailedtoperform,andtheyaremorefutureorientedandrecognizeachievement
orientedsituations(McClellandetal.,1953).Inaddition,theyfoundapositivecorrelationbetween
theneedforachievementandculturesandfamiliesinwhichthereisanemphasisontheindividual
developmentofchildren,withearlychildhoodbeingofparticularimportance.Afterexaminingeight
NativeAmericancultures(Navaho,CiricahuaApache,WesternApache,Hopi,Comanche,Sanpoil,
Paiute,andFlatheads),McClellandandhiscolleaguesdeterminedthattheneedforachievement
ineachculture(measuredfromclassiclegendsinvolvingthearchetypaltrickstercoyote)
correlateshighlywithbothanearlyageonsetandtheseverityofindependencetraining
(McClellandetal.,1953).Insummary,theneedforachievementisamotivationalforcethat
developsinearlychildhood,andwhichpushesindividualstowardaccomplishinglifestasks.
Anexcellentessayontheneedforachievement,whichaddressessomeofthecriticismthis
concepthasendured,waswrittenbyMcClellandinanewintroductionforthesecondprintingofhis
bookTheAchievingSociety(McClelland,1976).Thisbookalsoaddstothecrossculturalreachof
McClellandswork,sinceasheextendshistheoryontheneedforachievementtothesocietiesin
whichindividualslivehealsoextendshistheorytoothersocietiesaroundtheworld.First,the
conceptitselfhastypicallybeenmisunderstood:
thewordachievementcuesallsortsofsurplusmeaningsthatthetechnicallydefinedn
Achievementvariabledoesnothave.Itrefersspecificallytothedesiretodosomethingbetter,
faster,moreefficiently,withlesseffort.Itisnotageneralizeddesiretosucceed(pg.A
McClelland,1976)
Instudyingtheroleofneedforachievementwithinsocieties,McClellandfocusedonbusinessand
economicdevelopmentasoneofthemosteasilycomparedaspectsofdifferentcultures.He
believedthatnationspossesssomethinglikeagroupmind,whichcanleadthenationincertain
directions.Againusingliterarysourcesasexamplesofculturalperspectivesontheneedfor
achievement,McClellandfoundsupportforhistheorythathighneedforachievementpreceded
dramaticsocietaldevelopmentinancientGreece,preIncanPeru,Spaininthelatemiddleages,
Englandleadinguptotheindustrialrevolution,andduringthedevelopmentoftheUnitedStates
(particularlyinthe1800s).Onceagain,McClellandcautionsagainstovergeneralizingthemeaning
ofneedforachievement:
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Itisaveryspecific,ratherrare,drivewhichfocusesonthegoalofefficiencyandwhichexpresses
itselfinactivitiesavailableintheculturewhichpermitorencourageonetobemoreefficientand
acrossculturesthemostcommonformsuchactivitytakesisbusiness.(pg.BMcClelland,1976)
ThequestionofwheretheneedforachievementcomesfromcontinuedtoperplexMcClelland.
Althoughearlychildhoodappearstobewhenalastingneedforachievementdevelops,theneed
forachievementcanbeenhancedinadultsthroughtrainingseminars.Moreimportantly,however,
isthequestionofwhereneedforachievementcomesfrominthefirstplace,howdoesitdevelop
withinasociety?WhenMcClellandwasworkinginEthiopiawiththePeaceCorps,hestudiedthe
Gurage.ThissmalltribalgroupwastreatedwithdisdainbyboththedominantChristianAmhara
andtheMuslimGallatribes.AndyettheGuragewererecognizedfortheircleverbusiness
strategies,andtheirchildrenwrotestoriesfilledwithimageryindicativeofahighneedfor
achievement.SincetheGuragehaddevelopedwithoutcontactwithWesternChristian,Muslim,or
GrecoRomancultures,theyseemedtohavedevelopedtheirownneedforachievement.
Unfortunately,solittleisknownabouttheirhistory,thatMcClellandwasunabletoidentifythe
sourceoftheirmotivation(McClelland,1976).
Insupportofthecontentionthatstudyingtheneedforachievementcouldprovideinsightsinto
manyaspectsofpersonality,McClellandpursuedanumberofinterestingtopicsthroughouthis
career,includinghowsocietiescanmotivateeconomicgrowthandidentifytalent(McClelland,
Baldwin,Bronfenbrenner,&Strodtbeck,1958McClelland&Winter,1969),thepowermotive
(McClelland,1975),thedevelopmentofsocialmaturityandvalues(McClelland,1982a
McClelland,1982b),andacrossculturalstudyontheroleofalcoholinsociety(McClelland,Davis,
Kalin,&Wanner,1972).Movinginaquitedifferentdirection,McClellandalsowroteabookentitled
TheRootsofConsciousness(McClelland,1964),inwhichhearguesthatSigmundFreuds
psychoanalysisisreallyanexpressionofJewishspiritualmysticismknownasKabbalah.Wewill
examineKabbalah,aswellasChristianandIslamicmysticism,asapositiveapproachtoones
lifestyleinChapter18.
DiscussionQuestion:McClellandfoundsupportforhisideasonthedevelopmentoftheneedfor
achievementamongstNativeAmericans,buthedidnotfindthatsamesupportamongtheGurage
tribeinEthiopia(theyhadastrongneedforachievement,butthesourcewasunclear).How
importantdoyouthinkitisforustoreexaminepsychologicaltheoriesinmultiplecultures,and
whatwoulditmeanforpsychologyifweoftenfindcontradictions?
AFinalNote:HumanisticorExistential?
InthischapterwehaveexaminedthehumanistictheoriesofCarlRogersandAbrahamMaslow.In
thenextchapterwewillexaminetheexistentialtheoriesofViktorFranklandRolloMay.Whatreally
isthedifference?Thedistinctionissubtle,basedondefinition,andmayseemnonexistentatfirst
glance.Indeed,boththehumanisticandexistentialtheoristshavebeeninfluencedbythelikesof
Adler,Horney,Fromm,andOttoRank,andRogersinparticularoftenwritesaboutexistential
choicesinhisbooks.EventhecognitivetherapistAlbertEllis,himselfprofoundlyinfluencedby
Adler,consideredRationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapytobedistinctlyhumanistic(seeHumanistic
PsychotherapyEllis,1973).In1986,theSaybrookInstituterepublishedaseriesofessays,which
hadappearedintheJournalofHumanisticPsychology,underthetitlePoliticsandInnocence:A
HumanisticDebate(May,Rogers,Maslow,etal.,1986).Inthisvolume,RogersreferstoMayas
theleadingscholarofhumanisticpsychology.May,forhispart,concludedanopenletterto
Rogersinwhichheexpressedprofoundrespectforyouandyourcontributioninthepasttoallof
us.MayalsomaintainedafriendshipandcorrespondencewithMaslow(May,1991).Clearly,the
humanisticandexistentialpsychologistshavemuchincommon,andtheimportantfiguresherein
Americacommunicatedactivelyandwithrespectforthecontributionsofeachother.
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Americacommunicatedactivelyandwithrespectforthecontributionsofeachother.
PersonalityTheoryinRealLife:SeekingSelfActualization
CarlRogersdescribedtheactualizingtendencyassomethingthatexistswithineveryliving
organism.Itisatendencytogrow,develop,andrealizeonesfullpotential.Itcanbethwarted,but
itcannotbedestroyedwithoutdestroyingtheorganismitself.Hispersoncenteredapproachwas
basedonthisbelief,andtheresultingtrustthatonecanplaceineachperson.Inotherwords,we
cantrustthateachpersonisdrivenforwardbythisactualizingtendency,andthatundertheright
conditionsitwillflourish(Rogers,1977,1986/1989).
AccordingtoAbrahamMaslow,lifeisaprocessofchoices.Ateachpoint,wemustchoose
betweenaprogressionchoiceandaregressionchoice.Althoughmanypeoplemakesafe,
defensivechoices,selfactualizingpeopleregularlymakegrowthchoices(Maslow,1971).Each
growthchoicemovesthepersonclosertoselfactualization,andtheprocesscontinuesthroughout
life.
So,consideryourownlife.Doyoufeeltheactualizingtendencywithinyou?Doyouaspireto
accomplishsomethinggreat,orsimplytobeagoodpersoninwhateverpathyouchoose?Think
aboutyoureducationaland/orcareerplans.Thinkaboutyourlifeplans,andwhethertheyinclude
afamilyorspecialfriends.Doyoufeelacallingthatispullinginonedirectionoranother?The
drivetoaccomplish,tomakeacontributiontoyourcommunityorsociety,thebeliefthatyouare
meantforgreatthings,orsimplythatyouaremeanttobeasourceofsupportforothers,allof
thesemightbeaspectsofyouractualizingtendency.Orareyoumovingthroughlifewithoutaplan,
withoutgoals?Doyouskatealongfromdaytoday,withnodestinationinmind?
Ifyoudofeelyouractualizingtendency,considerhowyouarelivingyourlife.Areyoupursuingthe
stepsnecessarytoaccomplishyourgoals?Haveyoumadechoices,perhapsdifficultchoices,
whichhavemovedyouforwardtowardthosegoals?
Basically,doyoufeelthatyouareonapathtowardselfactualization,anddoyouthinkyoushould
be?Isitreasonabletoexpect,orhope,thateveryonemightbecomeselfactualized?
Whatmightitbeliketoliveafullytranscendent,selfactualizedlife?Althoughtherearemany
different,andindividual,answerstothatquestion,wecanfindoneexampleintheremarkablelife
ofPeacePilgrim(FriendsofPeacePilgrim,1982).Nooneknowsheroriginalname,orexactly
whereorwhenshewasborn(otherthanitwasonasmallfarmintheEasternUnitedStatesinthe
early1900s).Herfamilywaspoor,buthappy,andsheenjoyedherchildhood.Herlifewasfruitful,
buteventuallyshefoundtheworldsfocusonselfcenterednessandmaterialgoodstobe
unfulfilling.In1953,shechosetoleaveherlifebehind.SheadoptedthenamePeacePilgrim,and
beganwalkingacrossAmericaasaprayerforpeace.
ApilgrimisawandererwithapurposeMineisforpeace,andthatiswhyIamaPeacePilgrim
Mypilgrimagecoverstheentirepeacepicture:peaceamongnations,peaceamonggroups,peace
withinourenvironment,peaceamongindividuals,andthevery,veryimportantinnerpeacewhich
ItalkaboutmostoftenbecausethatiswherepeacebeginsIhavenomoney.Idonotacceptany
moneyonmypilgrimage.IbelongtonoorganizationIownonlywhatIwearandcarry.Thereis
nothingtotiemedown.Iamasfreeasabirdsoaringinthesky.
Iwalkuntilgivenshelter,fastuntilgivenfood.Idontaskitsgivenwithoutasking.Arentpeople
good!Thereisasparkofgoodineverybody,nomatterhowdeeplyitmaybeburied,itisthere.Its
waitingtogovernyourlifegloriously.(pg.25PeacePilgrimcitedinFriendsofPeacePilgrim,1982)
Between1953andherdeathin1981,shewalked,andwalked,andwalked.By1964,shehad
walked25,000miles,includingwalkingacrosstheUnitedStatestwiceandthrougheveryCanadian
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walked25,000miles,includingwalkingacrosstheUnitedStatestwiceandthrougheveryCanadian
province.Afterthat,shenolongerkepttrackofhermileage,butshecompletedatleastfourmore
pilgrimages,includingAlaska,Hawaii,andapilgrimageinMexico.Amongthemanyfriendsand
admirersshemetalongtheway,therearetwonotablepeople(whompsychologystudentsshould
befamiliarwith)whoprovidedcommentsforthecoverofherbook:ElisabethKublerRosscalled
herawonderfullady,andthepopularauthor/counselorWayneDyersaidsheismyhero.Asfor
yourownlife,PeacePilgrimhassomesimpleadvice:
Thereisnoglimpseofthelightwithoutwalkingthepath.Youcantgetitfromanyoneelse,norcan
yougiveittoanyone.Justtakewhateverstepsseemeasiestforyou,andasyoutakeafewsteps
itwillbeeasierforyoutotakeafewmore.(pg.91PeacePilgrimcitedinFriendsofPeacePilgrim,
1982).
ReviewofKeyPoints
Rogersbeganhisclinicalcareersearchingforeffectivewaysofconductingpsychotherapy,
sincethetechniqueshehadbeentaughtwerenotprovidingadequateresults.
Rogersbelievedthateachpersonexistsintheirown,uniqueexperientialfield.Onlytheycan
seethatfieldclearly,althougheventheymaynotperceiveitaccurately(incongruence).
Everyonehasanactualizingtendency,accordingtoRogers.Thetermcommonlyappliedto
thistendencyisselfactualization.
TheselfisthatportionoftheexperientialfieldthatisrecognizedasIorme.Itis
organizedintoaselfstructure.
Rogersusedthetermpersonalpowertodescribeeachpersonsabilitytomakechoices
necessaryfortheactualizationoftheirselfstructureandtothenfulfillthosechoicesorgoals.
Inorderforapersontogrow,theymustfulfillaneedforpositiveregard.Thiscanonlycome
fromreceivingunconditionalpositiveregardfromimportantfamilymembersandfriends
(typicallybeginningwiththeparents).
Whenpeoplereceiveonlyconditionalpositiveregard,theydevelopconditionsofworth.
Theirselfregardthenbecomestiedtothoseconditionsofworth.
Whenanindividualsselfregardandpositiveregardarecloselyrelated,thepersonissaidto
becongruent.Ifnot,theyaresaidtobeincongruent.
Congruenceandincongruencecanbemeasuredbyunderstandingthegapbetweena
personsrealselfandtheiridealself.
Rogersdescribedindividualswhoarecongruentandcontinuingtogrowasfullyfunctioning
persons.
Relationshipscanservetomirrorourtruepersonality,andtorevealincongruenceweare
unawareofourselves.
Successfulmarriages,accordingtoRogers,seemtobebasedondedication/commitment,
communication,dissolutionofroles,andmaintainingeachpersonsseparateself.
Rogersidentifiedsixnecessaryandsufficientconditionsforpositivetherapeuticchange,
conditionsthatcanexistinanyinterpersonalrelationships(notjustintherapy).Thekey
factorintheserelationshipsmaybeempathicunderstanding.
Rogersextendedhisstudyofclinicalpsychologyintoothergroupsdesignedtohelpall
peoplegrowandselfactualize,suchasTgroupsandencountergroups.Hedescribedhis
shiftfrompurelyclinicalworktofosteringgrowthinallpeopleasapersoncentered
approach.
Maslowworkedwithanamazingrangeofpeople,fromtherenownedexperimental
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Maslowworkedwithanamazingrangeofpeople,fromtherenownedexperimental
psychologistsHarryHarlowandEdwardThorndike,totheGestaltpsychologistMax
Wertheimerandthepersonalitytheorists/cliniciansAlfredAdler,KarenHorney,andErich
Fromm.
ValueswereveryimportanttoMaslowinhisapproachtopsychology.Hedidnot,however,
advocatehisownvalues.Hereachedbeyondhumanisticpsychologytoincludeareasof
studysuchasexistentialpsychology,existentialtheology,andZenBuddhism.
Maslowdescribedahierarchyofneeds,asfollows:physiologicalneeds,safetyneeds,
belongingnessandloveneeds,esteemneeds,andtheneedforselfactualization.Lower
needsmustbelargelysatisfiedbeforetheindividualbeginstofocusonhigherneeds.
Thelowerneedscanbedescribedasdeficiencyneeds,whereasselfactualizationisa
Beingneed.
Inadditiontothebasicneeds,therearealsocognitiveneedsandaestheticneeds.
Maslowdescribedfourteencharacteristicsofselfactualizingpeople.Hedevelopedhislistby
studyingbothcontemporaryandhistoricalpeoplewhoseemedtohimtobeselfactualizing.
Perhapsthebestknowcharacteristicofselfactualizingisthepeakexperience.This
experienceisoftendescribedinmysticalterms,andMaslowbelieveditmayhaveprovideda
basisforthecreationofreligionintheearlyhistoryofthehumanspecies.
Maslowdescribedtwodefensemechanismsthatinterferewiththeprocessofself
actualizing:desacralizingandtheJonahcomplex.
MaslowproposedaFourthForcePsychologybasedonBeingvaluesandmetaneeds.He
feltthatsomepeoplecouldsufferfromasicknessofthesoul,asocalledmetapathology,
andMaslowsuggestedaneedformetacounselors.
Someindividualsexperienceprofoundpeakexperiences,whichMaslowdescribedas
transcendent.HisconceptoftranscendenceseemsveryclosetotheBuddhistperspectiveof
interbeing.
MaslowproposedthatorganizationsshouldseekEupsychia,arealisticallyattainable
environmentinwhichtheactualizingtendencyofalltheorganizationsmembersare
supported.
WhenEupsychianmanagementdoessupportselfactualization,theactualizationofeach
personbenefitstheothersaroundthem.Theprocessisknownassynergy.
BasedonamanagementmodelthatdescribedTheoryXandtheoryYmanagementstyles,
MaslowproposedTheoryZ.TheoryZmanagementseeksatranscendentmanagement
stylethatencouragesandmaximizesselfactualizationandsynergyintheworkplace.
Murraybasedpersonologyonthestudyofneeds.Hedistinguishedbetweenviscerogenic
needsandpsychogenicneeds.
ChristianaMorganandMurraydevelopedtheThematicApperceptionTest,afamous
projectivepsychologicaltest.MurrayusedthetestduringWorldWarIItoselectspecial
agentsforhighlysensitive,dangerousmissions.
MurraybelievedthatapersonsabilitytocreateastoryaroundapictureintheTATwas
basedinlargepartontheirpersonalmythology.Hesharedthisinterestinmyth,anditsrole
inpsychology,withCarlJungandRolloMay.
McClellandusedtheTATtostudytheneedforachievement.Initially,McClellandconsidered
parentalinfluenceveryimportantforthedevelopmentoftheachievementneed,afindinghe
confirmedinNativeAmericans.However,hefoundcontradictoryevidencewhenhestudied
theGuragetribeinEthiopia.Thus,heconsideredthetruesourceoftheachievementneed
assomethingneedingfurtherresearch.
Thedistinctionbetweenhumanisticpsychologyandexistentialpsychologyisnotclear,and
thereissignificantoverlapinthethinkingofrepresentativesfrombothfields.Inaddition,
thereisadistincthumanisticelementinthepsychodynamictheoriesofAdler,Horney,
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thereisadistincthumanisticelementinthepsychodynamictheoriesofAdler,Horney,
Fromm,Murray,andothers.
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