Hydraulic Fracturing:

Productivity index is the ratio of the product of output and quality to the input. Mathematically,
Productivity index, PI = (output quality)/input

Pressure difference in pipe is the summation of pressure difference due to friction, acceleration,
elevation.

Steps of hydraulic fracturing:

High pressure Injection of fracturing fluids

Formation breaks down and fracture starts
Fracture propagates (In carbonate reservoirs a path is etched with acid)
Sand or Proppant are used to keep fracture open to production

Total scenario of hydraulic fracturing with figure:

Fracture initiation as pumping of fluid is started

Fracture propagation with fluid
Proppant (usually sand) enters hydraulic fracture as it is suspended in the fracturing fluid
Proppant advances further into the fracture as pumping continues
Proppant advances further in the fracture and may reach the tip of the hydraulic fracture as fluid
continues to leak into the permeable formation
Pumping of the fluid/proppant mixture is stopped and fluid continues to leak away into the
permeable formation
Formation closes on proppant and a conductive path remains in the reservoir

Principle of Least Resistance is being applied when 2 situation occur:

Three unequal principal in-situ compressive stresses are mutually perpendicular,

Hydraulic fracture aligned perpendicular to the minimum in-situ stress direction

Steps of production fracturing with figure:

Long path of large permeability contrast is created.

Flow enters from the reservoir into the fracture and then along the fracture into the well.
Fracture conductivity and relative improvement is measured.

Flow regime with equivalent wellbore radius, rw:

Hydraulic fracturing consists of 4 different phases:

FESABILITY (do NPV analysis by using log, well, production and reservoir data)
DESIGN (do model and lab test)
EXECUTION (do comparison of field test with calibration and real time calculation and then
redesign)
EVALUATION (do post job analysis to match production)

Fracturing Design Process:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Gathering well data including stress distribution

Selection of suitable fluids
Estimation of production response and economical evaluation
Developing model to determine treatment size and type
Refining the design to minimize risk and expense

1. Gathering well data including stress distribution:

A. Well data:
i. Geometry

Gross Lithology

Mechanical Rock Properties
Elastic properties
Rock strengths

Rock Stress States
Magnitude
Direction
ii. Productivity

Reservoir Properties
Porosity
Permeability
Fluid Properties and Saturations
Temperature and Pressure
B. Stress data:
i. In-Situ Stresses

Overburden Stress
Weight of the reservoir rock overlaying above the formation with
gradient 1.0 - 1.1 psi/ft.

Horizontal Stresses
Primarily result of overburden stress, reservoir pressure and tectonic
forces with minimum and maximum horizontal stress gradient 0.3 0.9 and 1.0 - 1.5 psi/ft respectively.
ii. Minimum Stress (Smin):
Varies through the gross pay zone (Local stress)
Determined by the creation of a small fracture using low rate and low
volume of fluid.
iii. Closure stress (Pc):
Average formation characteristic (Global stress)

Determined by relatively large fracture and the net pressure at shut in is

high.

Field tests to measurement the stress:

Step-Rate / Flowback test
Fluid injection at progressively increasing constant rates
Flowback after last rate change
Preferred technique
The only currently available method to objectively determine formation closure pressure
Establish narrow bounds ( 100 psi) for formation closure pressure
Particularly suited to high permeability formations
2. Calibration test/Mini-fracture test (constant rate injection / shut-in)
Infer closure pressure from shut-in pressures following a constant injection with mini
fracturing
Extremely subjective analysis, unless validated with an independent closure test.
3. Micro-fracture test (injection at very low rates)
Create fractures of limited dimension (5-10 ft)
Infer stress from shut-in pressures
4. Wireline Stress logs test

1.

Gross Lithologic Description

Gamma Ray Logs
SP Logs

Porosity
Neutron Logs
Density Logs
Acoustic Logs

Saturation and Permeability
Resistivity Logs
SP Logs

Rock Properties
Derived from lithology and travel time
5.

Special Core analysis Tests

Static and dynamic elastic properties
Stress magnitudes and directions
Basic k and data
Fluid compatibility and damage testing
Proppant embedment testing
Fracturing fluid loss testing

Properties of fracturing fluid:

Compatibility with formation rock and fluids

Viscosity
Required for proppant transport (Convention - Settling)
Controls fracture net pressures (Facture Face Friction)
Determines fracture geometry (via fracture width)

Friction
Reduce surface treating pressures.(Friction Loss)

Fluid Loss
Proper fracture design ( Material Balance)
Determines fracture geometry (via efficiency)
Types of propping agents:

Sand (Closure stress < 6,000 psi)
White sand, Brown sand, Silica sand.

Resin Coated Sand (Closure stress < 8,000 psi)

Stronger and higher conductivity than conventional sand
Spread the stress and reduce point loading
Encapsulate crushed grains and prevent plugging

Intermediate strength proppant. (5000 psi< Pc<10,000 psi)

Fused ceramic proppant (low density) and Sintered bauxite (medium density)

High strength proppant (Closure Stress > 10,000 psi)
Sintered bauxite containing corundum (high density)
Factors affecting fracture conductivity:

Physical properties
Strength
Grain size and size distribution
Roundness and sphericity
Density

Concentration

Proppant pack permeability

Effects of postclosure polymer concentration

Movement of formation in the fracture

Long-term degradation of the proppant, i.e. corrosion

Fracture geometry

Fracture Width [ 0.1 - 0.25 in (TSO: 1.0 - 2.0 in)]
Proppant Concentration
Tip screen out, TSO treatments

Fracture (Proppant) Permeability [0 - 300,000 mD]
Closure Pressure
Proppant Size
Proppant Type
Fluid Damage

Fracture Length [25 - 1500 ft ]
Treatment Volume
Treatment Clean up
Optimization of fracturing jobs:
i.

Process:

Auto Pressure Match
Semi-automated procedure to predict unknown parameters by matching
simulated and measured fracturing pressures.

Log Import and Processing
Directly select zones from imported logs.
Elementary data processing for log analysis.

Post-Closure Analysis
Enhanced prediction of fracture closure pressure.
Reservoir permeability and pore pressure estimation.

ii.

Fuction:

iii.

Permeability
Oil & Gas in Place
Drainage Area
Fracture Conductivity and Ability to Place proppant
Economic Criteria (Maximum fracture job at minimal cost)

Steps:

Step: 1. Predict Well Performance
Unfractured (Base case)
Different fracture Half-Lengths
Different fracture conductivities
Different drainage areas

 Worst case Proppant placement scenarios

Step: 2.Log Estimate Treatment Costs R
Required to Create Half-Lengths
Lengths assumed in
Step 1.

Step: 3. Calculate NPV, RO
ROR or other Economic Indicator using incremental
production.
iv.

Figure:

Hydraulic Fracturing Activities:

Gathering Data (Well, Reservo

Reservoir,Petrophysical, Geomechanical)
Software Model construction
Preliminary Design
frac injection tests
On site pre-frac
Model Calibration and design Optimization
Frac Treatment Execution
Fracture Clean-Up
Post Frac Evaluation

Microseismic mapping of hydraulic fracture stimulation:

Determine Fracture Length
Determine fracture length
length, optimal well spacing, pattern, and density.

Determine Fracture Height
Determine pay coverage
Locate barriers to fracture propagation

Stay out of Undesirable Fluid/Gas Contacts

Determine Fracture Orientation

Identify drainage patterns and infill well locations
Optimize well pattern, secondary/tertiary recovery and fluid disposal operations

Determine Fracture Complexity
Diagnose of fracturing problems
Identify production mechanism
Option for fracturing in shall gas:

Option: 1. Pumping down technique.

Option: 2. Multi stage fracturing.

Important notes:

In case of unconsolidated reservoirs sand free recovery must be ensured.

Wellbore connectivity must be ensured with all producing intervals.
Production can be increased by post fracturing.
Fracturing length and width are interdependent. Low-permeability reservoirs require long
fractures, width is secondary. High-permeability require wide fracture, length is secondary (Tip
screen out, TSO).
Extension pressure is related to system friction pressure and Closure pressure is related to fluid
efficiency or fluid loss coefficient.
Fluid creates the fracture sometimes leaks off into the formation matrix. This leaking off fluid is
polymer free because polymer remains in the fracture and increases in concentration. This process
is known as Leak off process.
Visco-elastic surfactant, VES base (micelles and brine) consists of surfactant concentration of 1
4 vol%.
Chemical proppant control is the most popular Proppant flowback control technology
When the pressure difference and flow-rate difference curve changes from concave shape to
convex shape due to perforation orientation effect then the phenomenon is known as tortuosity.
A vertical plane strain applies for fractures with length higher than height and a horizontal plane
strain applies for fractures with length lower than height.
Height growth phenomenon occurs when net pressure reaches about 1/2 of the stress difference
between layers.
Conventional resources are easy to develop because of small volume but Unconventional
resources are difficult to develop as these are large in volume.
Reservoir contact can be maximized by increasing recoverable reserves and by increasing
production.
Pad Approach means doing activities in sequence to minimize activities footprint and
interference.
Overlapping SRV aids to get higher recovery factor by overlapping wells with each others.