Gregorc Learning Styles

Anthony Gregorc based his learning styles on brain hemisphere research. The learning styles
measured by the Gregorc Style Delineator fall on a continuum rather than being polar extremes.

The style represents two types of preferences:

• Perceptual preference
* abstract (reason and intuition)
* concrete (the senses)
• Ordering preference
* sequential (linear)
* random

Combining them leads to four types of learners:

Concrete Sequential Learner

These learners prefer direct, hands-on activities, haptic (tactile) methods, step-by-step
instructions, and real life examples.

Instructional methods: workbooks with detailed instructions, diagrams, flowcharts, computer-

assisted instruction, documentation, and hands-on activities.

Concrete Random Learner

These learners prefer a trial-and-error approach, with breakthroughs through intuitive insight.
They like a stimulus rich environment. They thrive on competition, especially if they can use
their wits. These learners rarely accept anything on outside authority. They are implementators
of change and tend to be impulsive. They don't like to read directions and dislike structure.

Instructional methods: independent study, computer games and simulations, multimedia, and
"playing" with software.

Abstract Sequential Learner

These learners prefer a highly verbal, logical and analytical approach based on intellect. Their
motto is "knowledge is power." They like solitude, prefer well-organized material, and are highly
skeptical. They have trouble picking up subtle nonverbal cues and dislike distractions. They will
accept change only after much deliberation. They like written, verbal, and visual instruction.

Instructional methods: lectures, reading, outlines, conducting Internet searches, email, listservs,
and audiotapes. Abstract sequential learners may enjoy searching the Internet for information as
well as asynchronous communication because they have time to think about their responses.
Abstract Random Learner

These learners like to focus on relationships and their emotions. They respond to visual methods
of instruction, group discussion, and time for reflection. They may be uncomfortable with
distance education because it does not include the emotional involvement of meeting face to
face, unless the instructor is careful to build rapport as part of the learning experience. They
enjoy evaluating personal experiences.

Instructional methods: video clips, group discussion, videoconferencing, television, case studies,
chatrooms, and guest speakers.

One study found that students with an abstract-random style did poorly on computer-assisted
instruction, which is characterized by self-paced learning. Students with a sequential style did
better. The researchers concluded that computer-mediated learning may be difficult for some
students. (See Ross, J. & Schulz, R. [1999]. Can computer-aided instruction accommodate all learners equally?
British Journal of Educational Technology, 30 [10], p. 5-24.)

Brain Dominance
Brain dominance refers to a preference for using one hemisphere of the brain over the other
hemisphere. The left hemisphere of the brain is rational, analytical, and verbal, while the right
hemisphere is holistic and intuitive, responsive to visual imagery. Brain dominance can be
assessed with the Hemispheric Mode Indicator or with the Hermann Brain Dominance
Instrument.

Once very popular, this view of the brain has fallen out of favor recently due to further research
showing it is not quite as clear-cut as all that. However, considering these two opposites as
preferred learning styles can be helpful.

Right-brained learners prefer:

• pictures, diagrams, charts, or graphs,

• video,
• talking about feelings,
• social activities,
• music,
• attention to the "big picture," and
• creative activities and projects.

Left-brained learners prefer:

• lots of reading,
• writing,
• assignments involving reasoning and analyzing,
• attention to detail
• quantitative methods,
 • linear, organized approach to lessons, and
• a syllabus showing what will happen when.

Our educational system seems to favor a left-brain style, with an exception being activities that
involve creativity.

Using both left-brain and right-brain activities is a way to reach both kinds of learners. For
example:

• Draw illustrations on the whiteboard, or ask students to draw them.

• Show video clips and discuss them afterwards.
• Use web-based learning since the web has lots of pictures and using it is not sequential.
• Use a chat room for brainstorming ideas for projects, then use asynchronous
communication to choose ideas and develop them further.
• Assign students a final product or project that has a creative element as well as an
analytical element.

Kolb Learning Styles

As conceptualized by David A. Kolb, these styles can be assessed through the Learning Style
Inventory.

Learners have two preferred ways for dealing with information:

• Abstractness or Concreteness
• Reflection or Activity

Combining them leads to four learning modes:

• Abstract Conceptualization (AC) - learning by thinking

• Active Experimentation (AE) - learning by doing
• Concrete Experience (CE) - learning by feeling
• Reflective Observation (RO) - learning by reflection, watching, and listening

The four learning modes can be combined to create four learning styles, each of which represents
a combination of two of the four learning modes.

Diverger - CE and RO

This learner likes imaginative, innovative activities, generating a wide range of ideas, discussion,
being sensitive to feelings, identifying problems and gathering information, being personally
involved in the learning experience, and group activities. The learner may enjoy independent
study, web searches, receiving many examples, and self-diagnostic activities.

Assimilator - AC and RO
This learner likes abstract ideas and concepts, creating conceptual models, designing
experiments, problem solving, considering alternative solutions, reading, reflection, theories,
analyzing quantitative information, and structured activities. The learner may enjoy a systematic
approach, detailed directions, and computer-assisted instruction.

Converger - AC and AE

This learner likes finding practical uses for ideas and theories, evaluating consequences and
selecting solutions, following detailed sequential steps, hands-on activities, trial and error, and
being given clear objectives with a logical sequence to activities. This learner does not do as well
in interpersonal situations. He or she may enjoy simulations, selecting information sources, guest
speakers, and application to the "real world."

Accomodator - CE and AE

This learner likes hands-on experience, active learning, carrying out solutions, risk taking, trial
and error, flexibility, sharing information with others, class discussion, debates, presentations,
group activities. The learner dislikes structure and authority figures. He or she works well with
others and or serving as a leader. This learner may enjoy role play, narration, and online peer
interaction.

In a study conducted at Southwestern Texas State University, students with the Reflective
Observation and Active Experimentation learning modes found that computer-mediated
communication assisted them in learning. These students liked learning situations that
emphasized new approaches, observation, and the ability to control their own learning to some
extent. (See Ellsworth, J. [1995]. Using computer-mediated communication in teaching university courses. In Z.L.
Berge & M.P. Collins [Eds.], Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom, Vol. 1. Cresskill, NJ:
Hampton Press, Inc.)

Another study found that distance education students at high risk for dropping out had a higher
than average Concrete Experience score, and a lower than average Abstract Conceptualization
score. (See Dille, B., & Mezack, M. [1991]. Identifying predictors of high risk among community college
telecourse students. American Journal of Distance Education 5 [1], 24-35.)

Multiple Intelligences
Popularized by Howard Gardner, this approach sees intelligence not as a single factor, but
rather as a set of different potentials or abilities. There is currently no standard accepted
instrument to measure multiple intelligences.

Both heredity and environment can play a factor. Because multiple intelligences can be learned
and developed through experience, some have disputed using the term "intelligence" at all.
Perhaps "talents" would be a better word.

There is also the issue of whether one should focus on developing each individual intelligence at
a time, or on integrating the different intelligences during instruction. Perhaps the best choice is
to use as many different learning activities as possible, thus increasing students' range of
abilities.

Here is a list of the multiple intelligences, with possible instructional activities.

Verbal/Linguistic

This intelligence plays a major role in academic performance.

Instructional activity: reading, writing, computer-mediated communication.

Logical-Mathematical

Another intelligence stressed by our schools.

Instructional activity: problem solving, programming, using spreadsheets.

Visual-Spatial

This intelligence seems related to field independence.

Instructional activity: Drawings, photos, slides, animation, using mental imagery, developing
web pages, showing videos.

Bodily Kinesthetic

Instructional activity: role playing, writing on the whiteboard, being able to manipulate a web
page with the mouse, visiting an avatar virtual world that allows some control of the avatar's
movements. (An avatar is a visual representation of the self. Virtual worlds such as
ActiveWorlds have a list of avatars from which visitors can choose.)

Musical/Rhythmic

Musical proficiency has been found to be slightly related to the preference for using
asynchronous computer-mediated communication.

Instructional activity: students may enjoy exploring an avatar virtual world that includes
background music as part of the experience. Students could also compose a song that
summarizes the course content.

Intrapersonal

This intelligence refers to how well we are aware of our own thought processes and emotions.

Instructional activity: journal keeping, writing.

Interpersonal

This is how well we get along with others.

Instructional activity: small group discussion and projects, instructional games.

Spiritual

This intelligence was recently added by Gardner.

Instructional activity: Journal writing, discussion.

Field Independence

Field independence and field dependence are sometimes referred to as "cognitive controls" in
that they control the ways that individuals process information. Assessed by Group Embedded
Figures Test, the idea behind field independence is that performance on perceptual/spatial tasks
can diagnose an individual's ability to learn and perform on non-perceptual tasks.

Field independent learners:

• Are able to break up an organized visual field and keep part of it separate.
• Excel at remembering names.
• Understand visual cues and are better at math.
• Prefer learning environments that require minimal interaction.
• Enjoy discovery learning and individualized self-paced learning.
• Are more likely to be males.

Field dependent learners:

• Are unable to separate figures from background.

• Excel at remembering faces.
• Have trouble understanding visual cues, for example, recognizing icons on a computer
screen.
• Prefer well-structured learning environment with much positive feedback.
• Enjoy the social aspects of learning.
• Are more likely to be females.

Field independent students will prefer situations that allow them freedom in working toward
their goals and solving problems. These learners like to work individually.

Students who are field dependent may prefer group projects and need more assistance from the
instructor. One way to help these students is to make sure that any diagrams and illustrations
used as visual aids contain verbal information explaining them. In computer-based learning,
software that enables the learner to flip and rotate the image, or slides showing different views of
the same image, can be helpful.

Consider combining both types of learners in virtual teams so that they can compensate for each
other's strengths and weaknesses.