()

o_-

i_i o

1\,)
Lr

Exbo

it't A

+)

l\J

!-r

Fl.r
-

F :s

a tr 1J
o
E<

ru

v=

F gE g#
b flE.gE
x.

*!

tJi

EF\,'/

ZZ

tr t9
o
eE

Ftl
*,r
d

ti

tr

r-d:
(.)
CC6

.\..,

6tA
tJ6
()F
6J

ll,

d)
&t)

x(x

-:l -

tsE
o

E
Lc)
OE

>E
l<

o
E o;t

o\'o.O

- c).

a
6z
E

=()

lq

z
F
U

zl.r

ii
iil igiiii il l liiEi iEE iiE ii i

illli

iiBii aBiiBi EIiEIgiEiEBE,iiiEii:

gEaiEfl;Ees:r;iEEi

agaI

ch

zt-(
l{
zt{
U
rq
Fl

tr

t,;
l'_

.c%+
.Ei

",.

Si
i

\'F

sX?u$
.SStsE=
:
S

ii
=E i
r Ei
:'F

F E:
t";t

FF-

a\
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V-)
\o

rrl
o\
:N
V)

..l

;!i

i=
qiSS i*

N"
.S

tro

X
S

:!
s ,F EI is
Et
S : =e
S!

s
sS i$ E
:; 'is

ar 9 !r

ii

EBSEiEHEsg

-=

",9P
tsHEirHbitsS
.E?Elee-g,'i;

1{H

-ii

scS ii
=s
*IEr Es
E EE
$E"E
E* s
s rEs
ii
.F-:Es
i!ES
su5=$
SE*.;:i
a; a$;;
Es*
E Eii *S _$F ES r$* :E
q E :si H; EsE ?s F$ xS: 5E :S ts qsi
?
E
?
EE
s
:
+

E
5
i
E
E
S
&2
T
E
E B
E
5

iggei*;:Egie

+E

",

frtEEEEE;Eg
i:q eE H
=fr4;

ri:eE IEicE
E;9;

IEt.FE

:=Ee.-?EE

ieEer ;$Ei;
E; E +EE *i.3 *'s

:E
E

o3E!Hi

-==-

FKPsffEEE5XE

:E5FIEEx-u*E

Po-9- Y:>so;
.=OEri9='Eec

=
*E?r=Eff*EE
leEI;;!alrg
tri*EEBEH;;lZ

q.'=:-

35E:e=EEI
EE;iisHEFsf

UE.-EuFBr^EtsE
*
e.O
6 k;
tr 4 -!E<:i
".;
= o s E -:6.

EE5:rpg:_ililE
Y - !9 ; r .- b - q/ ?
EisH:EEEeEi

EEEE5"

EE5f .gE fi E:g;E

ri*e.eEEH
e.!E<E
g-!SEEEB iEEE:

" Z1;EEE: 5EE;;

E $:EEEiI* Ee E: i:
E;EEtag:EIcE;EE

^\o
F
z.

lll

E ts

cndrr
6t
\o

rtr
\o
F

\o

*ssr*

rar
v
t.r
r
\o
m
F
an
s-

to
<
*
+

$s
aF

iib

U
+

o.
**!n

o\
t,-

:-

o\
\t+|

s+

F.
r.r

vl

E
E

ESi

EE

s$ Esc E$ s$sS

r ES i

tE s !.
$$s$
:
f*Ef I
ss
r
S
St
i
sE

E
i
ES
\,
x $B B E S
$ E{ E t*
E S$ E S gS s
Es=sE s$=S

.a
o.\
cr

'$ .\
x
!'i +
j
r.

E; sE S;eE SEEg
vl
I
.r

'.8
Is ,
s
E

eS

{ EEEi *

sui
ss;Ex
-t.-iss
E+isEs
.
E
t
"$
I
i
s !$
5+a$
,E
E
xiSf;E
i=SEE S

r I Ei
E ;$
EE
IE?ES
iE

as :$ si fE E$ cB sF rE s$ us s$ ss
3
E
i.
E *s E E:; g ji.? g
o e iq E e'E g
5
S
= =

o\
@

E
g

q.)

q)

E\h
c{5

dZ
q.,
:

EEgEiEiEiE

IIiEEIiiEEgEiiil

i:ntiE eiii t i E iE E i i i E zi''zt;

E:Ei;;;Es

o.

cg

;I
"a

q
*?E
E
I,E
Ei EE.

I ; E fiE
tq
$aE
";.=

?,

g:ESEE
EiEEEe

EIE
E:
E{a"ei
t:At:E

;o
;H 'IE

s;:is

EIEIS

-.-E

dependentmarked =
possessor is
marked

.E

EF

"E[=E;

r r g ,e.rf
;i{;iif

r:.
.!
::
:JZ

HUg:
!
=4t
>ai
U)rl

ri

s
4.a
!lc
-E
\=
x
Q

9a

,-.,ro".==t-.J-

i i =

. eUaE
6r:

.,)4
l(i='!'-

double-marking

!t
a.t

-* .z=
,:: .-

5i

-!

e" 'r

.i ,=

-=

.9
,.
(.) .=

split systems
!'-

- a='
c='z
7t',?;
:t 'r a=-

<9=-=

no marking

;i

gigig;iii
;g;gggaEg

a'-a;EEEiEiEg-EiBEE$iEI,gEEEiEEiii

E;BEEggEaE

EiigIgigigiIgEg

IEta;Eiitt;iltl eii;iiggi gigE'iiiii

EE

;;
Eg
s;

!EEIeEFJ,
$A= E;!E;E
E:
E'aE
i.E
*J",
H
"a ?IEqt
q E:s"5 gt
E5,E'?Ei*
i
r=
be:
_QE s eEEIEA$

I E"^ E,?8E
'Ei
r;EE,

head-marked
= possessee
is marked

iErHi!

gzriztz

igiilE'Ii;iEEiEEE;gj;;

: Eg:*EE: ;3EIi; ::rEg};EEE":;EZ,i

fliiEEBiEEiii:i3.8;E';;ii;iFif,iEi
; E;:;E;;s;

's B;;gEEBEE
Ei;g=a'ig IE;iiitIig:iiEEi

E;E;Ets;E B s:EEEiE;fEiE:iifE;=E;i:
iiE giEEi;c EEEi=iil;,izi=,
iE raEe; Ig
Ele?EgigE
a
Ei+zEia"- EE-Ez;z=.i;+ii=

iEA;g EfE:EE.iE$ i;EEEEEE ZIZZ;Z

i Ei3EEEigEHEIE;EiEBE iaEEEEiA3:E

;ge3i:EEEigEEiEiEEiE;EIAEiEE?I!

leEilEiiaiEitii!1l?1EiEI!igEg;ii
E
i;E;iiE?qilise
E

EE

53 families

level chosen: families equivalent to

IE "stocks" (branches)

.E

oaE
eq
9
a

9.;
Er

E"o

q -. E
-:!?Hod9ll
d 6 E.!;
S

i.i!

8e E HtE

5
xc ! -H-E
E >l

E?Ef T;
6 d E,3r(a
<ra

a EsEEE

AC;iri*

fEEJ5 E EElE t"E3;

t [s+tr E *i*B;*

gi

<ca

:EAEEE;FE ;fi;BHfiE

FCr

E;EEt

;q::E[a:E HE;E:iE

;ii;EiEeiiiilgEasii;g
E;g::

;eiigEE;:ie:gfia;iEaiE
iisgEE
EiEigi$$;a;;::i:i
, ;E9giE i;;Efi:EEEu,,:]:gi#

i ;EaBBE E iEIiEgiEEE;A:EaEg;
inalienable
is marked

Eq

[E

E5:
;E

''-

Table 1
Attested possibilities (not a comprehensive list of
logical possibilities)

bound nouns

Er

o o

r9g.b,i*9P
'o 11 ed,c

EfiH;;E;E

EgP bi

A--

p
t

E=se;a EiEEq;Et

; it:
;
;E5iEaiiIE!EEE:E
E E E'; E: i E H! H 19 iE E
EBgBeEIET g IEi;*

g?i;I;EBEE;Eg::E=

igi!Eq5E$EIEie:Eg
ig ei.e,s:al

rE:i!
;!!ii

oaor.!{ar-

.E-

*
'=
tr

reo::
=

!tr0) .c
g
.ii _E
.- o (E

-+

b'

g
E5:
.9
'.
'iloo-t:
.E
Jr!o9? ,FS:;
o:tii;
,o
.-d3
:-

r>-.\v
Er
3
R

9
-7i

.s.E =
guEa
"i9

a >,r o
* ?
=e
ZnEa

11 ,a=-

!E:e

;o _Q

,a - a'=
=t

),i

a
"I -E o
0)EULL
-

<

=
*.e
,Z*

n E -.- .o f, ".1
=E
=E

.:tsE
;Ao!
f 5;5a
=ar=
,rI9.I
=u.) t=
=c'r'?

=-.
,a't

iz':

.t

=^-

=iE
aL-

a::EtE:si;;;;ci:rE;s;!

E Eti5:ii*;Ea*;lE!;EEE=:

s pr3;i;;E;i:a:iit:Ezili

tE?;:EE isgEsEiili1-ltri:,

aiEEES: EtEi;AEr,ili=?=

eEIsi eEEgc[; ii;E:iiEE:iczi:Z

E: E sE; igE

Pattern 2B: some nouns (usually

bound ones) distinguish
"inherent" and "ownership"
possession (i.e.
"secondary possession")
"unspecified possession" (cf.
unpossessive suffixes in Mayan)

'[|Iilgiagl*i'gg'*'il:

EEEE;A *rga[
;E :Eiii,
=e,=r

iE=;+

?E;iE
$=:Es

Pattern 1
Small set of bound nouns

Pattern 2A: inalienable and alienable marked with different morphology;

alienable morphology typically "longer" or more morphologically complex; inalienable
nouns tend to be bound (Pattern 1 and 2A)

!!

=d99

s,

E
:i
E
F

.>
50

i.

)J)\

9E=-.)
E
X i 4
A -.2'=
x.ea_=^=

clo
-!
a4
,OL
UE

^o
>'l.
.EE
t) '!/
Eooa)

=_?
C,J
.=1 (J
4-C

o.E

>,i
=E

=!
E=5
a=
:= E
>t=
3

;t* Bt
E$E
'5 -8{i
5:

B"-

5a I
.g
E ^:B ez

E
-E

T
E
i
>

EA
a B:

:=
E

tr
E

!;

iiiiEii,,

iiigigii:giiiigig iiigigg

tro<'

B<.,!
.-5=

gg-pE
F;
lra BeE:
E=6
czs

-'-

Pattern 7A: two markers, lexically

determined, both are open; ME:
seems to be a kind of possessive
"gender"; one of the two sets
includes mostly kin and body terms

Pattern 5B: referential

possessor
marked for 'genitive'
case; non-referential
possessor unmarked
(in example both
instances show
marking on
possessee)

EgEEiEFiiEiiEBEE

<,

s2

.E ElE ;E-E
E:*
;t b EiHu
--1E
+ ji
-E ?; .Ti

B.
d
>.

Pattern 4A: head-marking with kin terms;

dependent-marking (with genitive case) otherwise

EggE
; ;tE !86'E
E
;;:
o
b'oEo *EiE
E i:EE Ei:g
F;i
e=E:
.rEe s.ia
IeEt
""';
Sal BEgF
. * ;Eg
:E?=

c.a

Patterns 3-6: "formal splits in structural

marking types"

:'i

;E EE rF"
$t!, E?g,i;;si n E -,*
EcBIiiiig UEE E,
c "=a
:-E
ifi
E
eE resSH
$i5gE?:tEE *eF EU s"iF ?i EaE Ea,a
;; *[9 sEeEEEi.E;
dl
#E
g
E
,EEEH-EE?* EE

Opposite of Mayan case; -el (P5) is

omitted in situations like these

,E

H
OH
H
H
H csB

qz

PHSI
H

HSI
H
H
H
H
H

HSI
H

(x
ed,(t
ou

x
x

*
xI
x

tlt
rx

reuanx

IorB)l

uEseiax

uaouBl'aAlo

ue,(ndeluy

*Zll
zlt
:lt

Bqf,sUnlIqJ

usqseurnl{J

sooJ

tnelv-otuqsa

epleH

wronbo4

tlt

tlr

7,lt

zll
zlt

I/I

asn(e3

uenTeu4t{J

o{JsuI!qJ

ulloouqJ

7'll

tll

zlr

x
*
)ln$@A

uEoPPeJ

tll
uelsede4y-ryi(3
ederylV

Z a'r{rl

r^reBn$V-r^rsruoqrV

Bislv

I
wrnbuoSly

aEE

Eeli\i

E;EAA:SiEiE;E:A?EiEE

;tse;e!g;

E;E

AEE?E'i-ItgEgBEEiE
:E: A:}

si;iEE::lEii:EEiEE,

;?eeEiilE

IEEsE;a=EsrIEEE:5?
gEeEEIA:eEeEF_izlEZ-"

uorss?ssod ?lqeu.l:euJ

scqcuB4

pa,{a^rns

tlt

+zll

,t

xxzll
x x
I

tr

slueurv quoN Jo s.rlrureJ e8enBuel eqt u

sL El. B9 v9 S9 V9 St Vt e az vt

.itsf;si^B
;.+E"bSE
=;5
- f
5f, 6 A3o =E6
3

EEuEae sr.e
4.rE
TE:E}* .EE3

I F >, js
'h9=Hn;
=d(,re=.!-!

=E>,
EE;
.EiE:U;
1, E q il'? t i AE
seg
eg;;EE .-!,

'EI35c

llliHxE
EEEs
s=E*;bHE9-s
JaiiE!H;E$B

g E F E - e E g d"i
'=UE
E:l'c-v,Cila*
"
(!FE.E==5_!cEJc

i Bi,

EH;;Ez;lI*E

- Ei 5 . I E ?
-?o3i:oi:=oo_.-

o
? 6Z 9l -o. ;+=
" .3EEEE=r:8.=E

E EAEEEPEFFa
z
2; * g g '^" E-: - -

E a;ETE:TTbEE
E E:HgI;cErE
-- ?!?EE,=Etr-Eie
E
EEgEE F "?SE

"No account of the semantics of possession types will accurately predict the
membership of the 'inalienable' set of nouns, either within one language or
cross-linguistically."

8w{Isru
(IBXUJB-uou) Slrlrelos!

seqauerq-qns .Be[, ou :5ru.n-qs FIueJ Ierper

FfuJeJ ur saqcuBrq / pele^ms saqcuBrq Jo loqumu ('ae)
qrell. ol spueasB .rossessod
uorssassod Jo

(unou pBeq otur rossassodJo) uolerodtocq

ou

ou

l1

zlt
JSB

sI

IH
p

q
Z

El. {9 v9 BS V9 At vt

-st8IB9V9S9Y9SrVt

-gL

ix

? 0r I 0 0 0 0 z 0 t
orl - a,L yL s9 v9 &9 Y9 S' Yt

[Irr{dxe

uorssessod

eABnSuE[

srossrssod rmouord qlrA H 'srossessod unou qlr^r c

Ho
uralBd FIuo Jo rofeu s! uolssessod pe{Ieur-luapudac O
uralpd f[uo.ro rofaru s.r uolssessod pelEur-psaH H
slr! q
elqeuelpuJ ou

lsrxa ol lou plas

r
+

:pua3a.1

a8Bn8uel sFIr ul Sulsslu ,(lq?urnserd 'pauoDueur loN

flrursJ srw q pels.DB rrJetEd sfll
i(l-ruJsJ Jo le.ld,tt aq ol pelels uraltpd
feajns ro; pelueruncop i(ltuolcgJnsl.I

rl$IsJ uo eloN

STVJOI

uaseqs

ueeuoqsoqs

u!rAelsnIs
uenols

stuleryI

.ptrr

lncotull

l13utg

Br$s{uol

ue$su{sI

ICluflJ

uetlsE:lsA\

oqssAl

tmlulr'6.

stnIotr.
ustrBx

oddz6-r1na
uErqrnl

UPLUn/L

IJIZ

OZ

t/r

pareader'sad.i1

vl
I/l
1lt

ll

I/I
lr
9lt
r/r

flt

uP!ltl Bs

u?qslles
uulldsqes

llr

vll

tlc

u9oluod
aIulrd
2Cll.l9N

uel,l1ltu

It

lt

uecSolsnN
EIuloN

r/r

(lt

np!cl,{

ueouBlsoc'Io/rlIW

tlt

zll

srtlsrrDlq

pcXaa.rns

z!t

I/l

LIZ

saqcuerq

P.Xe^rns

ZII

= useuor{soqs :seru8u

9LI

(r)

e8{vz

x
x
x
x

eazvz

x
x
x

ETZVL

pgelnrqn;'1dog 'cgunN

ruelBd roulu $ uorssessod pe{Eru-luepuedac

luelled roErlrr sr uorssessd polIeru-peeH
uolssassd pa{.rBur elqnoc (Eunloc edrt ul)

PHSI

q(I

qo
ed,tl

H
H cs3

H
H

qC
H

qH
H
H

csBqc
H

ZH

o
H
H

H
H

r{o

'{

ric

(0o

(,i,)

ed,(r

situations
when kin
terms are not
inalienable:
vocative functions, etc.

tE i

i iE i

l
g
E

;E
a

rne:; I

ei

;Ei

i f ; Ii

t;;

Elztzt:
z

Z{7tE;1;EEli+;;z

Ilai u;attl;Ziii;

tri* i iiil iiE ii Ei;E ! i

s

EEEE
gE g

Why would
this be
weird?
There *are*
more body
parts than
kin
relations,
generally

i 9i i
This
hierarchy
may not
apply
to Mayan
languages
the same
way

i,*iitiEE;;E

EE1E;

Ei;iEgi

Etl

EEgEs

;gi BEEEiE:EiEiig*E;i

;iE aE ;ies:eE;,zEi=;E Ez=

gEqsi E ixi;iB;,i;EEi tlx

=ezli;Zsii;lca
z?.

EiiEii:g;

I : i;iflisgiE : EEE

rEgiIEiE:E;IEI

!iiiieE e*ic'

E:;xE s

: i;:ge

Pattern (2)B:
inalienable or
alienable
depending
on meaning
(separation)

I;uE;

Implicational
hierarchy of inalienability

i iiiEgiiEEii iaEEiiiIE;E iii; e'izizl

e g;;ii;:ggffi iEEiiIEiEE 3E;;EiE ;Ei

Relational
Nouns

iiI

ae

* Eizi

Eiii

1,1'1

EE

il

Eii EE{iEiE E iia i E

g
E

s ii i i

iississsgiiFisiissEEiEiisiiiIEEiig::

gE

eEiE t ;

gg g
EE

$i Ei igFi iiEE

li i

'alienability' is not
an inflectional category
but more consistent
with derivational

g$iElEE

gg

aa

Dayley
1985:146ff

iE E, :

ggg

*Ei I i

iig: iE

'inalienability' as
lexical rather than
semantic category, cf.
unpredictability of
material culture items
that fit into category
(cf. Mayan, where this
category often exhibits
*V > VV process)

Patterns (2)B:
'alienability' is
mostly inflectional
Other cases:
Whorfian (covert) categories
with implicational
hierarchy

as I anticipated
(gender)
_91

i e"; c ag E

Es: iEEEe:i:

E E E; EEA: ; ;i i

E.=tvP.i.iE;

$=2!-lzizt

aEEEi E i; Ai

: E*$!tEI::t: E;:C$iE:;

g
EeigEI;:i;E
'Ef,!E::!i:
a Iai=;E ;EE:3; glA;*;rEi

g3-53s8-Hre;
*e=i riliiEe:;

:5 ;i:5SicEiiE
uEEs;;a;i:i t::E;E;cz

E 5:EEEEE:E iiEE:=E=iZ
ceEE'.222^i

2) opposition
"almost never signaled by
dependent-marked
morphology"

E Er'riE?ea5e;ai;giAaiB3E

Er

1) alienability
opposition "almost
inevitable where
possession is
head-marked"

EgEgiglEiEEggigigig'EE

.i?!9<^?li

$EEE;EsE

:giEcctg
10

b
g
*e
EBE
c!
= E'"
!
at)a^X?c.=
3b=9"-EB

EE:il;,E!S
E
- c ab 69.E
.J va
11
bn

-,
o =. F
o E
gEEEFEe?

E?;EI;Ei
I q E3! E I

D..qa1-8 "

a;EcE.BeE
-E>!F,:::"i
EEgETEET,

&! 9:i;if
E e E EE ;c
-i
EE'oi>H,Q

X";= FE is:.H
tE"r3;g;:;f
E
E
o

'alienability' not "a semantic matter"

comparable to 'valence': "it lends itself to semantic
generalizations over the lexical membership of form classes,
but is not a piece of meaning that the speaker chooses to
communicate"

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;i;:

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clausal possessive
patterns: verb marks
predicative possession; pronoun marks
ethical dative possession

g; gagarigEi:gEgg*

E'E

g
4) bound nouns only
correlates with
head-marking

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s EE:r rr; F*EEs,Et*ffgli,EiiffEiEg=

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3) "the 'inalienable' member of a possession opposition

is associated with more nearly head-marking, or less
dependent-marking, tendencies in the encoding of
possessive relations"

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I will side with Nichols here, and argue that Mayan *-VVl was (and is) derivational in origin, and
also synchronically primarily a derivational morpheme.

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f
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s
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E

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q
*
i
5

=.E

here Nichols
fails to remark
on the fact
that these
"absolutive"
suffixes (in
Mayan) have
the same
"unspecified
possessor"
function as in
Navajo

E :E'

"

I;

:
E
i HEHg

Need to cite most

of this discussion
directly

"absolutive"
as
derivational
process
"that forms
free nouns
from bound
ones"

': eE *Cis

: t.gSIEE$aiI I aa:ii;*

E :

"A true
counterexample":
not sure Nichols is
correct here in
saying "or a
language with a
special
possessive
marker only used
for a closed set of
alienably
possessed nouns"
since these
nouns, once
derived with -VVl,
are inalienable

equation between 'unspecified possessor' marker and 'third person possessive marker' is
reminiscent of Sokean -7is 'ergative/genitive' and Mayan -its/-ats (if they were cognate)

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