Science World 8 For Year 8 Students and Teachers

Peter Stannard
BSc, DipEd
Ken Williamson
BSc (Hons), DipEd
Consultants
David Greig Brighton Secondary School
Margaret Shepherd Freeman Catholic College
Technical art
Brent Hagen Chris Dent
Cartoons
Chris Dent
ScienceWorld
for NSW
First published 2009
Visit our website at www.macmillan.com.au
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Chuck Forzatti of Siena College
for advice and suggestions, and those students from St. Johns
College who helped with photographs.
Associated companies and representatives

throughout the world.
The authors and publisher are grateful to the following for

permission to reproduce copyright material:
Copyright Anteater Publications and K. L. Books 2009
AAP Image, 17 (right), /AFP Photo/Leslie E. Kossoff, 101,

/Wildlight, 268 (left); Anglo-Australian Observatory, 168, 169
(all), 170, 172 (top); ANT Photo Library, 260, 263 (bottom),
266, /Silvestris Fotoservice, 141 (top right); Anteater
Publications, 2, 4, 10, 11 (bottom right), 11 (bottom left), 11
(top), 12, 17 left), 21, 22, 27, 30, 32 (all), 32, 36, 57, 60, 73
(bottom right), 73 (left), 73 (top right), 77, 82 (all), 83, 84, 92,
95, 96, 97, 98 (left), 107 (right), 108, 110 (all), 115, 117, 128,
139, 141 (bottom right), 141 (left), 153, 182, 185, 199, 200,
201, 207, 210, 211, 215 (left & right), 216 (all), 234, 235 (left
& top), 239 (top), 253 (left & top), 255 (top & bottom right),
258, 263 (top), 267; Auscape International Photo Library, 79
(top right), /Clive Bromhall, 94, /Lindsay Cupper, 93 (bottom
right), /Jean Paul Ferrero, 93 (top right), /Pavel German, 253
(bottom right), /Brett Gregory, 98 (right), /David Hancock, 26,
/Dennis Harding, 52 (right), /C. Andrew Henley, 93 (left), /Steven
David Miller, 268 (right), /Reg Morrison, 259, /Tom and Therisa
Stack, 157; Australian Scenics, 252; BHP Science Awards, 43;
Dr J. A. Campbell, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 143,
144; Coo-ee Historical Photo Library, 154; Corbis/Digital Art,
198, /Eye Ubiquitous/Paul Seheult, 189, /Eye Ubiquitous/Paul
Thompson, 179, /Lester Lefkowitz, 118; Rob Cruse, 8; CSIRO,
44; Digital Vision, 150; Fairfax photos/Jessica Hromas, 272
(top), /Dallas Kilponen, 271, /John Reid, 114, /Penny Stephens,
186; Getty Images, 52 (left), /David Robert Austen, 126,
/Gabriel M. Coven, 127, /Hulton Archive/Stringer, 76 (top),
/NASA JSC, 168 (top), /Oppurtunity-NASA, 158 (top left),
/Graeme Robertson, 225, /Paul Souders, 67, /Time Life
Pictures/Mansell 76 (bottom); Stockphoto/Bjrn Kindler, 125;
Marine Themes, 254; Josh Mylne, 28; NASA, 151; National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Department of
Commerce, 107 (left); Newsphotos, 232 (right); Photodisc, 89,
172 (bottom), 226; Photolibrary, 19, 29, 61, 79 (bottom right),
91 (right), 142, 219, 255 (left), 272 (bottom), /J Hester and
P Scowem, 171, /Phototake Science/Roland Birke, 78, /Science
Photo Library, 69, 85, 90 (left), 102, 109, 212, 256, 261,
/Science Photo Library/Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope/
J-C Cuillandre, 172 (middle right), /Science Photo Library/Kim
Gordon, 172 (left), /Science Photo Library/Eric Grave, 79 (left),
/Science Photo Library/David A Hardy, 159 (top right),
/Science Photo Library/Peter Menzel, 228, /Science Photo
Library/MSSSO/ANU, 165 (right), /Science Photo Library/Nasa,
158 (bottom left), 158 (bottom right), 158 (top right), 159
(bottom right), 159 (left), 161, 164, 165 (left), 167,
/Science Photo Library/New York Public Library/Humanities &
Social Sciences Library, 184, /Science Photo Library/Novosti,
168 (bottom), /Science Photo Library/Philippe Plailly, 180,
/Science Photo Library/Chris Priest, 11 (middle), /Science
Photo Library/Detlev Van Ravenswaay, 166 (all), 177, /Science
Photo Library/Rosenfeld Images, 233, Science Photo Library/
Sheila Terry, 149, /Science Photo Library/Univ. of Birmingham
High TC Consortium/IMI/David Parker, 239 (bottom), /Science
Source/D. Phillips, 90 (right), /Richard Woldendorp, 14; Photos.
com, 91 (left), 176, 255 (middle), 269; Plastic Logic, 251;
Rubberball, 232 (left); Peter Stannard, 51; Professor Mike Tyler,
45; XTAL Enterprises /Duncan Waddell, 215 (left inset).
MACMILLAN EDUCATION AUSTRALIA PTY LTD
1519 Claremont Street, South Yarra 3141
All rights reserved.

Except under the conditions described in the
Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) and subsequent amendments,
no part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
Educational institutions copying any part of this book
for educational purposes under the Act must be covered by a
Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) licence for educational institutions
and must have given a remuneration notice to CAL.
Licence restrictions must be adhered to. Any copies must be photocopies only,
and they must not be hired out or sold. For details of the CAL licence contact:
Copyright Agency Limited, Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney, NSW 2000.
Telephone: (02) 9394 7600. Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601. Email: info@copyright.com.au
National Library of Australia
cataloguing in publication data
Author:
Title:
ISBN:
Series:
Notes:
Target Audience:
Subject:
Williamson, Ken
ScienceWorld 8 for NSW / Ken Williamson, Peter Stannard.
9781420229127 (pbk.)
Williamson, Ken ScienceWorld.
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
ScienceTextbooks.
ScienceStudy and teaching (Secondary)
Other Authors/
Contributors:
Stannard, Peter.
Dewey Number: 500
Publisher: Peter Saffin
Project editor: Hannah Koelmeyer
Technical illustrators: Guy Holt, Brent Hagen and Chris Dent
Cartoonist: Chris Dent
Cover and text designer: Dimitrios Frangoulis
Photo research: Lesya Bryndzia
Typeset in Sabon, Univers and Helvetica Condensed by Dimitrios Frangoulis
Cover image: Getty Images/Don Farrall
Title page image: Photodisc
Printed in Malaysia
While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge

copyright, the publishers tender their apologies for any
accidental infringement where copyright has proved untraceable.
They would be pleased to come to a suitable arrangement with
the rightful owner in each case
Contents
Planning and safety check
Mixingandseparating
1.1 Whats a mixture?

1.2 Solutions
1.3 Separating mixtures
Review
PFA: Forensic science
4
5
11
23
25
2 Scienceatwork
26
2.1 What is science?

2.2 Experimenting
2.3 Solving problems
Review
PFA: Experimenting
3 Whatarethingsmadeof?
3.1 Properties of matter
3.2 Solidliquidgas
3.3 Using the particle theory
Review
PFA: From idea to theory
28
32
40
48
50
51
53
61
70
74
76
4 Buildingblocksoflife
77
4.1 Cells
4.2 Growth and reproduction
4.3 Reproduction and survival
Review
PFA: Stem cell research
79
89
93
99
101
5 Energyinourlives
5.1 What is energy?
5.2 Forms of energy
5.3 Energy comesenergy goes
Review
PFA: Nuclear power station inquiry
6 Investigatingheat
6.1
6.2
Heat and temperature

Heat transfer
102
104
107
116
123
125
126
128
134
6.3 Heat in everyday life

Review
PFA: How a theory was rejected
7 Exploringspace
7.1 Observing the night sky
7.2 Exploring the solar system
7.3 Stars and galaxies
Review
PFA: Colonising Mars
143
147
149
150
152
157
169
175
177
8 Buildingblocksofmatter 178
8.1 Atoms and molecules
8.2 Elements and compounds
8.3 Chemical reactions
Review
PFA: Inside the atom
9 Foodforlife
9.1 The need for food
9.2 Digesting food
9.3 Using food
Review
PFA: GM foods podcast
10 Electricity
180
182
191
196
198
199
201
209
215
223
225
226
10.1 Electric charges

10.2 Electric currents
10.3 Electric circuits
Review
PFA: Conducting plastics
228
235
242
249
251
11 Livingsystems
252
11.1 Survival
11.2 Physical factors
Review
PFA: Murray River crisis
254
262
273
275
Answers to Reviews
276
Glossary
285
Index
289
iv
ScienceWorld8
Planning and Safety Check

The best part of science is doing investigations
and experiments.
Flick through the book and find:
in Chapter 1 where you separate
mixtures by filtering and distillation
in Chapter 2 where you learn how to

design experiments
in Chapter 4 where you learn how to

use a microscope
on which pages you do investigations

with electric circuits.
p 140 Which type of material keeps you

warmest in winter?
6 You will of course need to discuss your
design with your teacher before you start.
There are risks involved in doing investigations
and experiments, but you can reduce the risks
to yourself and others if you follow simple safety
procedures.
Make sure you can answer these questions:
What are the safety rules for the
laboratory?
What safety procedures are necessary

when you see these symbols?
To get the most out of the investigations, you

must be well prepared, and you must consider
safety issues. This is why most investigations in
this book have a Planning and Safety Check
at the beginning. The first one is on page 6.
Before you start an investigation you should
follow these steps.
1 Read the investigation carefully and study the

diagrams. Make sure you know the aim of the
investigation, that is why you are doing it.
When should you use

safety glasses?
What should you do if you get a

chemical in your eyes or on your skin?
2 Make sure you know exactly what you will be

doing. You will be working in a group most of
the time so you will need to sort out who will
be doing what.
3 You need to know which materials you will be
using. You will also need to know how to use
the equipment.
4 You usually need to prepare a data table
in which to record your results. Sometimes
the textbook shows you how to do this and
sometimes you have to design it yourselves.
5 Experiments are open-ended investigations
where you have to design your own tests to
answer a question or solve a problem. Have a
quick look at these:
p 18
How can you make creek water pure

enough to drink?
p 30
How much weight will a paper bridge

support?
a
b
c
What special precautions are necessary
when you use a Bunsen burner?
Heres all the

equipment we
need.
Why dont you do

the experiment?
Ill time it.
new cartoon
front iv
Yeah, and I
can record
the data.
ScienceWorld 7 and 8 for NSW, Stage 4 Syllabus Checklist

Prescribed focus areas
Students learn about:
4.1
the history of science
4.2
the nature and practice of science
4.3
the applications and uses of science
4.4
the implications of science for society and the environment
4.5
current issues, research and developments in science
ScienceWorld 7 for NSW

Chapter number
ScienceWorld 8 for NSW

Chapter number
6, 11
6, 10
2, 5, 7, 8, 10
2, 3, 7, 8
4
4, 5, 9, 11
1, 3, 4
Domains
4.6.1
the law of conservation of energy
4.6.2
forces
5
5, 9
4.6.3
electrical energy
4.6.4
sound energy
4.6.5
light energy
4.6.6
heat energy
4.6.7
frictional force
4.6.8
electrostatic force
4.6.9
magnetic force
4.6.10 gravitational force
10
6
5
5
10
5, 6
5, 9
4.7.1
the particle theory of matter
4.7.2
properties of solids, liquids and gases
3, 6
3
4.7.3
change of state
4.7.4
elements
4.7.5
mixtures
4.7.6
compounds and reactions
4.8.1
cell theory
4.8.2
classification
4.8.3
unicellular organisms
4.8.4
multicellular organisms
4.8.5
humans
4.9.1
Newtonian model of the solar system
4.9.2
components of the universe
4.9.3
the structure of Earth
11
4.9.4
the atmosphere
4.9.5
the hydrosphere
4.9.6
the lithosphere
11
4.10
ecosystems
10
11
4.11
natural resources
4.12
technology
4, 6, 9
4
7
7, 10
4, 7, 10
4, 9
9
7
7
Skills
4.13.1 identifying data sources
4.13.2 planning first-hand experiences
4.13.3 choosing equipment or resources
1, 2, 7
2, 6, 10, 11
2, 3, 6, 9
1, 6
1, 6, 8, 9, 10
4.14
performing first-hand investigations
1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10
1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9
4.15
gathering first-hand information
2, 7, 11
5, 8, 9, 11
4.16
gathering information from secondary sources
8, 9, 10
6, 7, 11
4.17
processing information
2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11
4.18
presenting information
2, 5, 7, 10
2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11
4.19
thinking critically
3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11
1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 11
4.20
problem-solving
2, 5, 9
1, 6, 10
4.21
the use of creativity and imagination
4.22
working individually or in teams
6, 10
6, 9
1, 2, 9, 10, 11
For more details see the Course Construction Guide in the ScienceWorld 8 for NSW Teacher Resource Book.
2
1
Mixingand
Chapter
separating
Title
Planning page
Getting started
1.1 Whats a mixture?
page 4
Investigate 1
Soluble or insoluble?
Activity page 8
1.2 Solutions
page 5
Skillbuilder page 9
Concentrations
Investigate 2
Filtering and decanting
Investigate 3
Evaporating and distilling
Experiment
Water purification

page 11
Investigate 4
Paper chromatography
Animation
Froth flotation
Assessment task 1
Separating a mixture
TRB
Main ideas
Chapter 1 crossword
Review and Lab review

Chapter 1 test
Learning focus: Possible
career paths in science
Prescribed focus area

Forensic Science
TRB
Chapter1 Mixingandseparating
r you wil
In this chapte
l learn abou
LearningFocus
possible career paths in science (pages 19 and 25)
KnowledgeandUnderstanding
mixtures
Skills
choosing equipment or resources (Investigate 2 and 3)

performing first-hand investigations (Investigate 13)
thinking criticallyinferring and predicting (Activity page 8 and Investigate 23)
problem-solving using creativity and imagination (Getting Started page 3 and Experiment
page 18)
working in teams (Experiment page 18)
Work in a small group to solve one or more of

these problems.
Your four-wheel drive has broken down in the
middle of the Simpson Desert and you have
no water to drink. You find a damp patch of
sand near the base of a cliff. How can you get
drinkable water from this damp sand?
Your uncle has given you a large bottle of
5c, 10c, 20c and 50c coins. Can you design a
device to separate the coins?
Your science teacher is very angry with the
class. Someone has poured sand, salt and
iron filings into one jar! Until they are all back
in separate containers, no one can go to
lunch. How can you separate this mixture?
ScienceWorld8forNSW
1.1 What's a mixture?

Different substances have different properties. For
a start, they can be solids, liquids or gases. But
there are many other properties which allow you
to tell one substance from another. For example,
you can detect sugar by its sweet taste. You can
detect kerosene by its smell. Glass is transparent
(you can see through it). Diamond is extremely
hard. Beetroot is a purple-red colour. A piece of
lead is very heavy. And so on.
The materials around you can be grouped into
pure substances and mixtures. Pure substances
contain only one substance. They always have
the same properties, no matter where they come
from. Examples are sugar, gold, pure water and
helium gas. However, most materials around you
are mixturesseveral different substances mixed
together. Examples are air, soft drink, concrete
and lipstick.
The amounts of each part of the mixture
(called their proportions) can vary widely. This
changes the properties of the mixture. For
example, concrete is a mixture of cement, sand,
gravel and water. Mixing these four substances in
different proportions will change the properties of
the concrete.
Fig 3
The parts of mixtures can be solids, liquids

or gases. For example, soft drink is a mixture of
water and carbon dioxide gas, plus sweetener,
flavouring and colouring.
Examples
black
coffee
air
soft drink
smoke
wine
brass
liquid in
liquid
solid with
solid
Main parts of
mixture
coffee powder in water
nitrogen and oxygen
carbon dioxide in water
tiny bits of soot, dust,
etc in air
alcohol in water
copper and zinc
Check!
1
Which of the following are mixtures, and

which are pure substances?
a air
e orange juice
b petrol
f sugar
c polluted water
g helium gas
d gold
h concrete
Copy and complete these sentences.
Lipstick is a complex mixture.
Lipstick normally contains:

castor oil
beeswax
carnauba (to stop
it melting)
esters (to make it
slippery)
anti-oxidant
(to stop it going off)
aloe (to stop lips
becoming dry)
mineral oil
(to make lips glossy)
red dye No. 21
perfume
Type of
mixture
solid in
liquid
gas with gas
gas in liquid
solid in gas
The features by which a material can be

identified are called ______. Materials that
always have the same properties are
called ______ substances. Materials that
are made up of different substances
are called ______. The properties of a
mixture can ______.
3
Explain why concrete is a mixture and not a

pure substance.
In your notebook, match up the following

types of mixtures with the examples.
smoke
a mixture of gases
b mixture of solids
air
c mixture of gas in liquid
soil
d mixture of solids in liquid muddy water
e mixture of solids and gases lemonade
1.2 Solutions
When you stir sugar in a glass of water, it
disappears into the water. We say it dissolves in
the water. The sugar and water have mixed to
form a solution. Solutions are very important to
you. The food you eat is digested and dissolved in
water. It is then carried around your body in the
blood plasma, which is a solution consisting of
about 90% water. The wastes produced by your
body are also carried away in this solution.
A solution is a special mixture that looks and
behaves like a single substance. It consists of a
liquid and the dissolved substance which is spread
evenly throughout it. Consider what happens
when instant coffee dissolves in hot water. The
substance that dissolves (the coffee) is called the
solute. The substance that does the dissolving (the
water) is called the solvent. So the solute dissolves
in the solvent, forming a solution.
solute (coffee)
Two liquids can also form a solution. For

example, wine is a solution of alcohol (solute)
in water (solvent). Fuel for two-stroke motor
mowers and outboard engines is a solution of oil
in petrol.
A particular substance may not dissolve in
every solvent. For example, salt is soluble in water,
but insoluble in alcohol. Water is an excellent
solvent, but to dissolve some things you have to
use other solvents. Some commonly used solvents
are shown in the table below.
Solute
nail polish
biro stains
grease marks on clothes
oil-based paint
tar on car paintwork
solvent (water)
Solvent (dissolves
the solute)
nail polish remover
methylated spirits
eucalyptus oil
turpentine
kerosene
solution
When substances dont dissolve

A substance that dissolves is said to be soluble.
A substance that will not dissolve is insoluble.
Some insoluble substances sink in water (settle
out), and others float on top. If you shake up an
insoluble solid (such as chalk dust) with water
it may seem to dissolve at first. However, if you
look closely you will see that the liquid is cloudy
and the chalk settles when you let it stand for
a while. Such a mixture is not a solution, but a
suspension. Muddy water is another example
of a suspension, because the mud settles to the
bottom when you let it stand.
solution
In a solution, the solid does not settle on standing.
suspension
In a suspension, the solid settles on standing.
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
1 SOLUBLE OR INSOLUBLE?
Aim
To test whether various substances are soluble in
water and in alcohol.
PART A
I s i t s oluble i n wate r?
Method
Materials
1 Usethespatulatopickupasmallamountof
saltaboutthesizeofagrainofrice.Placethis
saltinatesttube.Usethemarkingpentolabel
the tube salt.
spatula
Wear safety
glasses.
SALT
testtubes(atleast6)
rubberstopperstoittesttubes
testtuberack
spatula
markingpen
alcohol or methylated spirits Flammable
(inadroppingbottle)
samplesof:
salt
sugar
coffee
flour
Toxic
iodine (solid)
jelly crystals
grass(groundup)
test tube rack

Beforeyoustart,checkthatyouknowthe
safetyrulesforyourlaboratory.
Readthroughbothpartsoftheinvestigation,
thenprepareadatatableliketheonebelow.
Substance
Soluble
Soluble Observations
in water? in alcohol?
salt
sugar
coffee
flour
Whydoyouhavetobecarefulwhenusing
iodine?Howdoyoudisposeofleftover
iodine?
Warning: Do not touch iodine with your

fingers. It is poisonous. Your teacher will tell
you how to dispose of any leftover iodine. Do
not wash it down the sink.
2 One-thirdillthetesttube
withwater.Shakethe
tubeusingthefollowing
method.Holdthe
tubeirmlybetween
yourthumband
indexinger.Then
tapthebottomofthe
tubesharplywiththe
indexingerofyourotherhand.
(Youmayneedtopractisethis.)
Record whether the
substanceissoluble,slightly
soluble(abitdissolves)orinsoluble.
Record any other observations as well. For
example,ifasolutionwasformed,whatcolour
wasit?Wasasuspensionformed?
3 RepeatSteps1and2foreachoftheother
samples.
Discussion
PART B
I s i t so lub le i n alco hol?
1 Howcanyoutellwhetherasubstancehas
dissolved or not?
RepeatPartA,usingalcoholormethylatedspirits
insteadofwater.
2 Whichsubstancedissolvedmosteasilyin
water?
3 Comparethesolubilitiesofthesubstancesin
water and in alcohol.
a Which substances were soluble in water
but not in alcohol?
b Which substances were soluble in alcohol
but not in water?
c Which substances did not dissolve in
either water or alcohol?
4 Supposeyouhaveabirostainonyourschool
uniform.Howcouldyouremoveit?
dropping bottle
Solubility
A cup of coffee is like any liquid solution. It
comes in many different strengths. If you like
your coffee stronger, add more coffee powder. If
you like it weaker, add less coffee.
We use the terms dilute (dye-LOOT) and
concentrated (CON-cen-TRAY-ted) to help us
compare solutions. A dilute solution contains
only a small amount of solute in a given volume
of solvent. A concentrated solution contains
a large amount of solute in the same amount
of solvent. You may have used the terms weak
cordial or strong coffeebut the correct scientific
terms are dilute cordial and concentrated coffee.
The colour of a solution gives you some idea
of its concentration. The darker the colour,
dilute
concentrated
the higher the concentration. Or, a more dilute

solution will be lighter in colour. These
statements are generalisations.
There is a limit
to the amount of
solute that will
dissolve in a
solution. When
a solution will
dissolve no more
solute, it is said
to be saturated.
Until it reaches
this point, it is
unsaturated. If
you add more
solute to an unsaturated solution, it will dissolve.
The amount of solute needed to saturate
a solution depends on the temperature. For
example, at room temperature (around 20C) you
can dissolve about 2 kilograms of sugar in a litre
of water, but when the water is boiling (100C)
you can dissolve almost 5 kilograms. Most solids
are more soluble in warm water than in cold
water. We say that their solubility increases
as the temperature increases. This is another
generalisation.
ScienceWorld8
Colloids
The Yarra River in Melbourne is well known
for its brown colour. This is because the clay in
the water is so fine that it will not settle to the
bottom, as it would normally do in a suspension.
Instead the clay particles are spread evenly
throughout the water, forming what is called a
colloid (COL-OID). A colloid has properties that
are in between a solution and a suspension.
The particles in a colloid may be tiny bits
of solid, liquid droplets or gas bubbles. The
colloid may also be a solid, a liquid or a gas. The
following table lists the common types of colloids.
A liquid-in-liquid colloid is called an
emulsion (ee-MULL-shun). A common example
is ordinary homogenised milk, where tiny
globules of milk fat are spread throughout water.
It is processed by forcing the milk through small
holes to break up the larger fat globules in the
cows milk. This is why the cream (the fat) doesnt
come to the top on standing.
Although it is easy to see fogs, foams and
emulsions, it is often hard to tell the difference
between solutions and some types of colloids. One

way to do this is to shine a beam of light through
them. The beam can be seen in the colloid because
it bounces off the tiny particles. This is why you
can see the headlights of a car in fog. However,
the beam cannot be seen in a solution.
Colloid
Type
sol or gel
solid in
liquid
liquid in
gas
liquid in
liquid
liquid in
solid
gas in
liquid
gas in
solid
liquid
aerosol
liquid
emulsion
solid
emulsion
foam
solid foam
Examples
most paints, starch in
water, clay in water, jelly
fog, clouds, sprays from
spray cans
mayonnaise, milk
cheese, butter, face cream
whipped cream,
beer froth, soap suds
pumice, marshmallows,
meringues
Activity
A Forming an emulsion
Shake up some olive oil with vinegar in a
stoppered test tube, and let it stand for a
while. Do the olive oil and vinegar mix?
Now add a pinch of mustard powder and
shake. Allow the mixture to stand again. What
do you observe now? (Salad dressing is
made this way.)
Write an inference to explain your
observations.
B Solution or colloid?
Dissolve a few crystals of hypo (sodium
thiosulfate) in a beaker of water and shine a
strong beam of light through it. Can you see
the beam in the solution when looking from
the side?
Now add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric
acid and observe what happens to the beam.
Try to explain what has happened.
Check!
Skillbuilder
The concentration of a solution is often
given as a percentage. For example, a 5%
hydrochloric acid solution is dilute. A 30%
solution is concentrated.
If you have a dog at home, you may
sometimes wash it in a dog shampoo or
flea-killing liquid. These chemicals can be
dangerous, and have to be mixed with water in
the correct proportions. Suppose you have to
make up a 5% dogwash solution. This means
you need 5 parts of dogwash dissolved in
enough water to make up a total of 100 parts.
That is, you mix 5 parts of dogwash with 95
parts of water. This is a 5% solution.
Copy and complete these sentences.

a When sugar is mixed with water, it
______. This shows that sugar is ______
in water.
b Sand is ______ in water.
c In salt water, the salt is the ______, and
the water is the ______.
d The solute in a solution does not settle
out, but the solid in a ______ does.
e A mixture with properties in between a
solution and a suspension is a ______.
f A solution that can dissolve no more
solute is ______.
g Most solids are more ______ in hot
water than in ______.
h A ______ solution is one which contains
a small amount of solute. When more
solute is added, the solution becomes
more ______.
Which of the following statements are

true, and which are false?
a Water dissolves everything.
b Solutions are always coloured.
c Some gases dissolve in water.
d Emulsions settle out on standing.
e A solute can be a solid, a liquid or a
gas.
f More solute can be dissolved in an
unsaturated solution.
g Adding more water to a dilute solution
will make it more concentrated.
Explain in your own words the difference

between a solute and a solution.
How can you tell the difference between a

solution and a suspension?
Imagine that while doing Investigate 1

(page 6) you noticed the following:
a Nathan put his thumb over the mouth
of a test tube to shake it.
b Donna used her fingers to put a pinch
of salt into a test tube.
Questions
1 How could you tell the difference between
a 1% red food colouring solution and a 5%
solution?
2 The label on a bottle of cleaner says it
contains 15% ammonia. If the bottle
contains 200 mL of cleaner, how much
ammonia is in the bottle?
3 You want to fill a 50 litre bath with dogwash
solution. The instructions say to make up a
0.5% solution. How much dogwash should
you use?
Explain to Nathan and Donna why their

methods were unsafe.
10
ScienceWorld8forNSW
In your notebook, complete the table below

by putting in the names of the solute and
solvent for each solution.
Solution
Solute
Solvent
a sea water
b hot chocolate
c turpentine in which
you have just cleaned a
paint brush
d bath water
e soft drink
7
The photo below shows three different

solutions of Condys crystals in water.
a What clue in the photo suggests that the
solutions contain Condys crystals?
b How do the three solutions differ?
c How can you explain this difference?
The instructions on jelly crystals say to

dissolve them in boiling water. Suggest a
reason for this.
challenge
1 Youhavepaintedsomethingwithanoil-based
paint.Whycantyoucleanthebrusheswith
water?
2 Isfogasolution,asuspensionoracolloid?
Explainyouranswer.
3 Katyshoneabeamoflightthroughsome
muddywater.Shecouldseethebeam.When
shetriedthisagainthenextdayshecouldnot
seethebeam.Explainherobservations.
4 Thefollowingsolutionsvaryinconcentration.
Arrangethemfromthemostconcentratedtothe
least concentrated.
a aglassofmilkwithoneteaspoonof
lavouring
b aglassofmilkwithhalfateaspoonof
lavouring
c aglassofmilkwithtwoteaspoonsof
lavouring
d halfaglassofmilkwithtwoteaspoonsof
lavouring
5 Ajugcontainsfourglassesofmilk.Youwantto
makelavouredmilkwiththesame
concentration as cabove.Howmuch
lavouringwouldyouneedtoadd?
6 Whichoneofthefollowinggeneralisationsisthe
mostgeneral?
a Thehotterthesolventthemoresoluteit
dissolves.
b Thehotterthewaterthemoresugar
dissolves.
c Sugardissolvesbetterinhotwaterthanin
cold.
d Thehotterthewaterthemoreasubstance
dissolves.
Explainyourchoice.
7 Describehowyouwouldmakeasaturated
solutionofsugarsolution.Ifsomeoneaskedyou
tochecktheirsolutiontoseeifitwassaturated,
how would you do it?
8 Designyourownexperimenttoinvestigate
thefactorsthataffecthowquicklysugarwill
dissolve in water.
9 Theoceansatthepolescontain2.9%salt,but
theoceansattheequatorcontainabout3.5%.
Suggestareasonforthis.

Separating suspensions
Suppose you are in the kitchen and have boiled
some peas in water, but you dont want the water.
You gently tip the saucepan so that the water runs
out, leaving the peas in the saucepan. Pouring
off the liquid like this, while keeping the solid in
the container, is called decanting. It is a way of
separating the liquid part of a suspension from
the solid part.
If a suspended solid settles very slowly you
can speed up the separation by using a centrifuge.
This is a machine designed to separate mixtures
by a spinning motion. A spin-drier is one type of
centrifuge.
Fig 16
A high-speed centrifuge is used at the blood

bank to separate the components of blood.
Centrifuges are also used to separate cream

from milk, and red blood cells from plasma at the
blood bank. When test tubes of blood are spun
in a centrifuge (Fig 16) the heavier red blood cells
settle to the bottom, leaving the pale yellow liquid
plasma on top. The plasma and red blood cells
can then be separated by decanting.
Decanting is not a very good method for
complete separation. Some liquid is usually left
behind. Also, unless you are very careful, you
are likely to pour off some solid with the liquid.
A better way of separating suspensions is by
filtering.
Suppose you have a suspension of chalk in
water. The chalk can be separated from the
suspension using filter paper. The filter paper has
microscopic holes in it. The water passes through
these holes, but the suspended chalk cannot. This
is similar to separating sand and gravel using a
sieve. The small sand particles pass through, but
the larger gravel particles do not.
The solution that passes through the filter
paper and collects in the beaker is called the
filtrate. The solid material
that remains in the
filter paper is called the
residue.
suspension of
chalk in water
Normal blood
Centrifuged bloodthe
heavy blood cells have
settled to the bottom
residue (chalk)
filtrate
(clear
water)
11
12
ScienceWorld8forNSW
In our day-to-day life we use filters to separate
solids from liquids and gases. For example, vacuum
cleaners have a special bag that filters dust and dirt
from the air that is drawn in. The hairs in your nose
filter the dust from the air you breathe. There are
filters in a car to clean the petrol, air and oil. Filters
are used to purify the water we drink, and to clean
the water in swimming pools.
Investigate
2 FILTERING AND DECANTING

Aim
Toseparateasoilwatermixturebyilteringand
bydecanting.
Materials
soil
three250mLbeakers
2or3piecesofilterpaper
ilterfunnel
retortstandandringclamp
glassstirringrod
teaspoon
washbottle

ReadthroughPartAanddescribe to
yourpartnerwhatyouhavetodo.Your
partnerwillthendescribePartBtoyou.
2 Setuptheiltrationapparatusasshownbelow.
Adjusttheheightofthestandsothatthespout
ofthefunneltouchestheinsidewallofthe
beaker.Thisallowsthewatertolowoutevenly,
withoutsplashing.
stirring
rod
ring
clamp
beaker
filter
paper
soilwater
mixture
filter funnel
PART A
Fi l te r i ng
Method
1 Makeasuspensionbystirring
about4teaspoonsofsoilina
beakerofwater.Pourhalfofthis
suspensionintoasecondbeaker
andletitstandforaboutaday.
wash
bottle
retort
stand
filtrate
Fig 19
Filtration apparatus
3 Foldtheilterpaperandopenitoutintoacone
as shown.
1
Neatlyaddthefollowinglabels:
ilterfunnel
residue
ilterpaper
stirringrod
PART B
Pull this
single flap
away from
the other
three.
Dec a nt in g
Then fold
again.
1 Lookatthebeakercontainingthesoilwater
mixturethathasbeenstandingforaday.
4
This forms
a cone.
4 Placetheconeintothefunnel.Usethewash
bottletowetthepapersothatitstickstothe
sidesofthefunnel.
What do you notice?

2 Carefullydecantthewaterintoasecond
beaker.Todothis,holdastirringrodoverthe
mouthofthebeakerasshownbelow.Thisway
theliquidrunsdowntherodwithoutsplashing.
5 HoldthestirringrodasshowninFig19,withits
lowerendalmosttouchingtheilterpaper.This
willallowthewatertolowgentlyintotheilter
paper.
iltrate
2
Fold
in half.
Carefullypoursomeofthesoilwatermixture
downtherodintothefunnel.Dontletthewater
levelreachthetopoftheilterpaper.
6 Usethewashbottletorinsetheremainingsoil
fromthebeakerintotheilterfunnel.Keepthe
iltrateforPartB.
7 Drawadiagramoftheiltrationapparatus.Draw
asimpletwo-dimensionalviewasshownonthe
right.Noticehow
muchsimpleritis
than the threedimensionalview
inFig19.For
example,there
is no line across
thetopofthe
beakers,andthe
ringclamphas
beensimpliied.
Decanting
soil
water
Comparethedecantedwaterwiththe
iltratefromPartA.Isitasclear?
3 Filter the decanted water.
Discussion
1 Howeasywasittoilterthedecantedwater,
comparedwiththeoriginalsoilwatermixture?
Suggestareasonforthis.
2 Explainwhyyou:
a wettheilterpaperinPartAStep4
b usedthewashbottleinStep6
c pouredthesuspensiondownastirringrod
whenilteringanddecanting.
13
14
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Fig 23
At this salt plant, sea water is run into large

ponds. Heat from the sun causes the water to
evaporate, leaving the salt behind.
Separating solutions
Once a solute has dissolved in a solvent to form a
solution, you cannot separate it by filtration. The
solution simply passes through the filter paper in
the same way that water does.
If a solution consists of a solid dissolved in
water, you can separate them by heating. The
water evaporatesturns into a vapour and
seems to disappear into the airleaving the solid
behind. Salt can be obtained from sea water by
this method.
If you want the liquid you must somehow
trap it as it evaporates and condense it back
to a liquid. This process is called distillation.
In a solar distillation plant, the sunlight passes
through glass plates and the heat causes salty

bore water (from underground) to evaporate. The
water vapour condenses on the glass roof, and the
water droplets run down the inside of the glass
plates into the collection gutter. The water is pure,
because the salty solutes have been left behind.
Distillation can also be used to separate two
or more liquids with different boiling points,
eg water and alcohol. This process is used in
the making of whisky and brandy, and in the
separation of crude oil into petrol, kerosene,
diesel fuel and lubricating oil.
heat from the sun

glass plates
< WEB watch >

To find out how to make a simple solar
still, go to www.scienceworld.net.au
and follow the links to Solar still.
water
condenses
water evaporates
salty water
Fig 24
How a solar distillation plant works
collection gutter
(pure water)
Investigate
3 EVAPORATING AND DISTILLING

Aim
Method
Toseparatethesoluteandthesolventina
solutionbyevaporationandbydistillation.
1 Putthetripodandgauzematonaheatproof
matasshownbelow.
2 Halfillthebeakerwithwater.Addsomeboiling
chipstopreventbumping(violenteruptionof
bubblesfromthebottomofthebeaker).
PART A
Evap or at i o n
Materials
Toxic
copper sulfate solution(0.5M)

boilingchips(brokenporcelain)
250mLbeaker
Bunsenburner
heatproofmat
watchglass
gauzemat
Wear safety
glasses.
tripod

ReadtheMethodforPartA.
Suggestwhyyouputthewatchglasson
topofthebeakerofboilingwater,instead
ofdirectlyonthegauzematoverthe
burner.
Suggestwhyyoudontevaporatethe
coppersulfatesolutioncompletelyover
the burner.
3 One-thirdillthewatchglasswithcopper
sulfatesolution.Placethewatchglassontopof
thebeakerasshown.
4 Lighttheburnerandadjusttothebluelame.
Thenputitunderthetripodandboilthewater
inthebeaker.Thecoppersulfatesolutionwill
evaporateslowly.
5 Whenalmostallthecoppersulfatesolutionhas
evaporated,turnofftheburnerandletthe
apparatuscool.(Ifyouheatthesolutionany
longeritwillstarttosplutter.)
6 Leavetheremainingsolutioninthewatch
glassinawarm,protectedplaceto
inishevaporating.Thisprocessiscalled
crystallisationandmaytakeadayortwo.
watch
glass
copper sulfate
solution
water
E OF A BURNER
RULES FOR SAFE US
from books, and away
1 Keep the burner away
ch.
from the edge of the ben
the burner.
der
un
2 Use a heatproof mat
.
h
r wit the air hole closed
3 Always light the burne
ety flame when not
4 Switch to a yellow saf
heating.
r gets very hot. If you
5 The barrel of the burne
turn it off first. Move
have to move the burner,
the gas hosenot the
it by holding the base or
barrel.
off properly when you
6 Check that the gas is
have finished.
boiling
chips
gauze mat
tripod
Bunsen
burner
heatproof mat
15
16
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Discussion
1 Whatwasleftinthewatchglassafteradayor
two?
3 Whatwasthepurposeofthegauzematwhen
heating?
2 Inyourownwords,explainhowevaporation
causedthesolutetobeseparatedfromthe
solvent.
4 Whyisitessentialtowearsafetyglassesfor
thisinvestigation?
PART B
Dis t illa t ion

Materials
SameasforPartA,plus:
conicallask
one-holedstoppertoitlask
lengthofglasstubing(atleast40cm
longandbentasshownatright)
2retortstandsandclamps
testtube
retort stand
one-holed
stopper
glass tubing
clamp
conical flask
copper sulfate
solution
Read the instructions and study the

diagram.
Whatdoyouthinkisthepurposeofthe
glasstubing?
Whatsafetyprecautionswill
youneedtotake?
distilled
water
Fig 26
Method
1 Setupthedistillationapparatusasshown.
2 One-quarterillthelaskwithcoppersulfate
solution.Addsomeboilingchips.
3 Putonyoursafetyglasses.LighttheBunsen
burner,adjustittothebluelame,andheatthe
solutioninthelask.
4 Asthewaterboils,observe:
a thewatervapourrisinginthelaskand
movingthroughtheglasstubing
b thewatervapourcondensingbackto
liquidanddrippingfromtheglasstubing
into the test tube.
Distillation apparatus
5 Collectasampleofdistilledwaterinthetest
tube,thenturnofftheburner.
Discussion
1 Explainwhathappenedin:
a theconicallask
b the test tube.
2 Theliquidyoucollectedinthetesttubeis
called the distillate. Why is it clear, not blue?
3 Theglasstubingiscalledanair-cooled
condenser.Suggestareasonforthisname.
4 Designawater-cooledcondenser.
3
Separating solids
Sometimes we need to separate a mixture of
solids from each other. The four methods below
all depend on differences in the properties of the
solids.
1 If one solid is soluble in water and the other
is insoluble, you can add water. When you
filter the mixture, the residue is the insoluble
solid. The filtrate contains the soluble solid in
solution. It can be recovered by evaporation.
The process can be summarised in a
flowchart.
MIXTURE OF SOLIDS
Add water to
mixture
Filter
INSOLUBLE SOLID
(residue)
Evaporate
filtrate
SOLUBLE SOLID
If one solid is attracted to a magnet and

the other is not, you can use magnetic
separation. This method is used in industry
to separate the magnetic minerals in mineral
sands.
Fig 27
A magnet will separate the magnetic

minerals in sand.
If one insoluble solid floats on water and

the other sinks, you can add water to the
mixture and skim off the floating solid. For
example, you can separate sawdust and sand
this way. Sometimes this method can be used
even if both solids normally sink in water. A
special chemical is dissolved in the water, and
air is bubbled into it. A froth of bubbles floats
to the top, taking one of the solids with it.
This method is called froth flotation. It was
invented in Australia, at Broken Hill, and is
often used to separate valuable minerals from
rock.
To see how froth flotation works, open the
Froth Flotation animation on the CD.
4 If one solid is heavier than the other, you

can use gravity separation. A good example
of this is gold panning. Here the water is
swirled about in the pan, allowing the heavy
gold to sink and the lighter mud and sand to
be washed off the top. This is like decanting.
Fig 28
When you pan for gold, you use gravity to

separate heavy gold particles from lighter
sand.
17
18
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Experiment
WATER PURIFICATION
4 Decidehowyouwillattacktheproblem.
The problem to be solved
Whichtechnique(s)willyouuse?
Thenormalwatersupplyhas
brokendown.Theonlywater
availableiscreekwater,which
isgreenishincolour,smells,
andhasallsortsofthings
init,egtwigsandmosquito
wrigglers.Howcanyoumake
thiswaterpureenoughtodrink?
Whatequipmentwillyouneed?
Who will do what?
Howmuchtimewillyouneed?
5 Whenyouandyourteacherarehappywith
yourplan,putitintoaction.
Keeparecordofwhatyoudid.
Method
Whatwasthewaterlikeafteryoupuriiedit?
1 Formagroupwithotherstudents.Yourteacher
willgiveyouasampleofabout200mLof
impurecreekwater.Yourtaskistorecoveras
muchpurewateraspossible.
Howmuchpuriiedwaterdidyourecover?
6 Ifyourtechniqueisntsuccessful,tryanother.
Youmayneedtodiscusstheproblemwithyour
teacher.Youmayalsoneedtousethelibrary.
2 Observethecreekwaterandrecordwhat
impuritiesareinit.
Writing your report

Writeareportdescribingwhatyoudid,for
someoneelsetoread.Youcouldprepareaposter
forpresentationtotherestoftheclass.Include a
discussionofhowsuccessfulyourmethodwas.
3 Inyourgroup,discusswaysofpurifyingthe
water.
Whichoftheseparationtechniquesyou
havelearntinthischaptercouldyouuse?
Isyourmethodpractical?
Thelowdiagrambelowshowshowwater
ispuriiedinawatertreatmentplant.Couldyou
modifythisforuseinthelaboratory?How?
screening
(water passes
through
mesh)
Howlongdidittake?
Wouldyourmethodworkforlargervolumesof
water?
alum
sedimentation
(letting the suspension settle)
filtration
sand
pump
storage
tank
flocculation
(alum causes
colloids to settle)
gravel
sludge
drinking
water
chlorine added
to kill germs
Fig 30
A water treatment plant
Separating colours
Chromatography (CROW-ma-TOG-ra-fee)
can be used to separate a mixture of coloured
substances. (Chromos is the Greek word for
colour.) For example, this method will separate
the coloured substances in black ink, as shown
below.
rs
How to separate the colou
in black ink
pen
filter
paper
Science
in action
Gas chromatography is used in industry and in
scientific research to detect very small amounts of
chemicals in mixtures. It is used to test the purity of
medicines and to see if harmful pollutants are being
released into the air.
Forensic scientists use it to detect poisons and
drugs in blood or traces of chemicals at crime scenes.
The peaks on the graph on the monitor in the photo
are the different chemicals in the sample being tested.
Use a black pen to

place a spot in the
centre of a piece of
ilter paper.
beaker
colours begin
to separate
yellow
ring
blue
ring
red
ring
Drip water onto the

spot, one drop at a
time. The ink spreads
out into coloured rings.
3 With this ink there

are three ringsblue,
red and yellow. This
shows that the ink
contains three different
substances, coloured
blue, red and yellow. The
yellow substance is the
most soluble in water.
The blue is the least
soluble.
19
20
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
4 PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Aim
Toplanandcarryoutaninvestigationtoseparate
thedifferentcolouredsubstancesininksorfood
colouringsusingpaperchromatography.
Materials
variouscolouredinksfrombiros,feltpensor
markingpens(Indianinkworkswell.)
foodcolourings
250mLbeaker
ilterpaperorblottingpaper
dropper
scissors
adhesivetape
jellybeans,Smartiesorsimilarsweets
smallpaintbrush
Method
UsethePlanningandSafetyCheckandthe
diagramsbelowtoplanwhatyouaregoingtodo
andhowyouaregoingtodoit.

Youcanuseoneormoreofthethree
methodsbelow.
Blackanddarkcoloursusuallygivegood
results.
Forsomeinks,egbiro,youmayneedto
usealcoholormethylatedspiritsinsteadof
water as the solvent.
Toremovethefoodcolouringsfromajelly
beanorsimilar,putitinawatchglassand
addthreedropsofwater.Brushthejelly
beanwithasmallpaintbrushuntilthe
colouringdissolvesinthewater.
Allowtheilterpaperstodry,thenlabel
themandsticktheminyournotebook.
Whenyouhaveinishedtheinvestigation,
writeareportdescribinginafewsentences
whatyoufoundout.Forexample,whichink
orjellybeancontainsthemostcolours?
You could use a digital camera to take

photos of your results and use them in a
PowerPoint presentation.
Method A
Add solvent a
drop at a time.
spot of
ink or food
colouring
Method C
beaker
Method B
filter
paper
Tape strip onto pencil
filter paper
strip
solvent
(1 cm below spot)
spot
(2 cm from
end of strip)
spot of ink or
food colouring
solvent
Make two cuts

in the filter to
create a tongue.
Check!
1
Work with a partner and give each other a

spelling test of these words. Correct any
mistakes.
apparatus
filter funnel
beaker
laboratory
dilute
solubility
distillation
solute
evaporation
solution
C
D
A
Look at the food strainer below. Explain

how it works.
Why is filtering usually a better method of

separation than decanting?
Suppose you filter river water which

contains mud, sand, dissolved salt and some
plant materials. Which of these materials will
be present in:
a the residue?
b the filtrate?
What is a centrifuge? Where is a centrifuge

found in most homes?
Write a sentence or sentences using these

words correctly: condensation, distillation
and evaporation.
The diagram at the top of the page shows

the apparatus used to distil salt water.
Write down the correct letter for each of the
following:
a Bunsen burner
b where evaporation takes place
c where the vapour changes to a liquid
d distilled water
e where the salt stays.
Go back to the three problems in Getting

Started on page 3. Can you now suggest
other solutions?
Which method would you use to do each

of the following?
a separate iron filings from sawdust
b make fresh water from sea water
c remove the water from wet clothes
d remove the dust from the smoke going
up a factory chimney
e separate the coloured dyes in an ink
f separate cream from milk
g separate a mixture of salt and pepper
10
A dye is known to be a mixture.

When a spot of the dye
was put on a strip of
filter paper and placed in
alcohol, three coloured
spots appeared, as
shown.
a Why have the parts
of the mixture
separated?
b Which coloured
substance do you
think is the most
soluble in alcohol?
Why?
11
solvent
reached
here
green
blue
red
original
spot
Draw a simple diagram of

the apparatus needed to separate a mixture
of sea water and sand so that you obtain
clean sand. On your diagram label at least
three pieces of equipment, and show where
the salt and sand end up.
21
22
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
1 InInvestigate2(page12)youusediltration
apparatus.Whatisthedifferencebetween
equipmentandapparatus?
2 Whyisitimportanttoreplacetheiltersusedin
carsfromtimetotime?
3 UsingFig16onpage11,explainhowa
centrifugeworks.
4 Achemistusedpaperchromatographyto
investigatesomeink.Herresultsareshown
below.
a Whichdifferentcoloureddyesdidtheink
contain?
b Inferthecolouroftheink.
8 Thephotobelowshowsaseparatingfunnel.
Itcanbeusedtoseparatetwoliquidsthatdo
notmix,forexampleoilandwater.Explainhow
youthinkitworks.
Solvent reached this far.
pure
red
dye
pure
blue
dye
pure
yellow
dye
pure
green
dye
ink
mixture
5 Kirk,Nathan,PatsyandJadeeachhada
mixturetoseparate.Thefourmixtures(notin
order)were:
a mudandwater
b mudandsalt
c salt and water
d mud,saltandwater.
Patsysirststepinherseparationwastoadd
somewatertohermixture.Kirkseparatedhis
mixturebydecantingit.Jadehadmorestepsin
herexperimentthanNathandid.
Whichstudentseparatedwhichmixture?
6 Afterusinganelectrickettlewithhardwaterfor
sometimeaninsolublesubstancebuildsup
insideit.Inferwherethiscomesfrom.
7 Lookatthephotooftheswimmingpoolilteron
page12.Describehowyouthinkitworks.
9 Imagineyouareawastemanagement
engineer.Youhavebeensuppliedwitha
mixturethatcontainssand,sawdust,iron
ilingsandleadshot.
Yourtaskistoseparate
asmuchofeach
componentas
you can, so that
they can be
recycled.
10 Supposeyouownalollyshop.Yoususpectyour
supplierissellingyouacheap,inferiorbrand
insteadofSmarties,butchargingyouforthe
realthing.Howcouldyoucheckthis?
Copy and complete these statements to make a summary

of this chapter. The missing words are on the right.
chromatography
1 A ______ is a substance that dissolves in a ______ to form a
concentrated
colloids
______.
decanting
2 When a substance ______, it is said to be soluble. Substances
dilute
which do not dissolve are ______.
dissolves
3 In a ______ (eg muddy water), the solid settles to the bottom
distillation
when left standing. Solutions do not settle.
filtering
4 Many everyday substances are ______, with properties in
insoluble
between solutions and suspensions.
mixture
5 A ______ solution contains only a small amount of solute in a
properties
given volume of solvent. A ______ solution contains a larger

amount of solute.
solute
solution
6 Separation techniques depend on differences in the ______ of
solvent
the substances in the ______.
suspension
7 Suspensions can be separated by ______, using a centrifuge or

by ______.
8 A dissolved solid can be separated from a solvent by evaporation or by ______.

9 A mixture of coloured substances can be separated by paper ______.
Try doing the Chapter 1 crossword on the CD.
1 If you dissolve instant coffee in hot water, the

water is the:
A solvent
B solute
C solution
D suspension
2 If more water is added to a coloured
solution it becomes:
A more concentrated
B more dilute
C saturated
D a darker colour
3 Water can be separated from alcohol by:
A chromatography
B filtration
C evaporation
D distillation
4 Four liquidswater, kerosene, alcohol and

petrolwere used to test the solubility of three
unknown solids, A, B and C.
Georgia did the tests and recorded the mass
of solid that dissolved in equal volumes of the
liquids.
Solvent
water
kerosene
alcohol
petrol
Grams of solid that dissolved

Solid A
Solid B
Solid C
5
1
4
1
6
1
3
0
0
5
4
6
a Which liquid is the best solvent for solid B?

b If solid A was accidentally mixed with
solid C, which liquid could you use to
separate them? Explain your answer.
23
ScienceWorld8
24
c Is there any way of separating a mixture of

A and B?
REVIEW
5 Look at the diagram below.

a What are the pieces of equipment labelled
AE?
b Label the filtrate and the residue.
c There are two mistakes in the diagram.
What are they?
d Redraw the diagram correctly.
8 a Write one complete and scientifically

correct sentence using these words:
colloid
emulsion
milk
b Do the same for these words:
concentrated
dilute
solution
9 The police receive a ransom note written
using a felt pen. They also have felt pens from
three suspects. How could they use paper
chromatography to find out who wrote the
ransom note?
A
D
6 The apparatus below can be used to obtain

pure water from salt water.
a What is this separation method called?
b Explain how the method works.
c What is the purpose of the ice-cold water?
You have a mixture of salt and dirt that Ken
collected on his recent trip to Lake Eyre. Your
task is to separate the salt by removing the
dirt.
ice-cold
water
salt
water
heat
pure
water
7 When a can of fruit juice is left to stand, a

sediment forms on the bottom of the can. Is
fruit juice a solution, a suspension, a colloid
or a combination of these? Explain.
1 Work out a way of separating the salt.

2 Make a list of the equipment you will need.
3 Do the separation correctly and safely.
For Step 3 work with a partner, who will watch
what you do and note any errors you make.
They will discuss these with you when you
have finished. Then swap jobs and check your
partners skills.
Check your answers on pages 276277.
Learning focus: Possible career paths
in science
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
Forensic science
A 16-year-old girl has been killed in a hit-and-run
accident. The police send the victims clothing
to the police crime laboratory, where a forensic
scientist finds a tiny chip of dark-green metallic
paint on the right leg of the jeans. She subjects
the paint chip to extreme heat and allows the
vapours to pass into a gas chromatograph. A
stream of inert carrier gas pushes the vapour
through a long capillary tube which is heated in
an oven. The inside of this tube is coated with a
liquid solvent. The different components of the
paint vapour dissolve in the solvent to different
extents. The ones that dissolve most are held
back on the column. The ones that dissolve least
are carried through by the gas. In this way the
different components of the paint are separated.
The components reach the end of the tube at
different times, as indicated by the peaks of the
chromatogram on the computer monitor. See the
diagram below and the photo on page 19.
2005 Pajeros registered within a 20 km radius of

the accident. They also visit panel beaters in the
area. Eventually they find a red 2005 Pajero with
damage to the front. In the police garage they
discover that the Pajero has been freshly painted
and there is dark-green paint underneath the red.
They send a sample of the dark-green paint to
the forensic scientist. When she runs it through
the gas chromatograph she obtains the same
chromatograph as from the chip from the victims
jeans. On the basis of this evidence the owner of
the Pajero is arrested for the hit-and-run.
Questions
1 Chromatogram A is of the paint from a
victims clothes. Chromatogram B is of the
paint from a suspects car. Are the paints the
same? Explain your answer.
3
5
1
4
2
paint chip
crucible
heater
Paint A
capillary
tube
carrier
gas
2
Time (min)
2
Time (min)
oven
computer monitor
Paint B
detector
Different car paints produce different

chromatograms. By contacting car manufacturers
the scientist is able to identify the model (a 2005
Pajero) that used the paint found on the victim.
The police then use this information to search for
2 How is gas chromatography similar to

paper chromatography (page 20)? How is it
different?
3 Would you like to be a forensic scientist?
Why or why not?
25
2
Science
atwork
Planning page
Getting started
Skillbuilder page 29
Writing reports
Experiment
Paper bridges

page 28
Activity page 32
Experiment
Which filter?
Skillbuilder pages 3536
Drawing graphs
TRB
2.2 Experimenting
page 32
Assessment task 2
Types of scientists
Activity page 36
Investigate 5
Dissolving time
Investigate 6
Stopping distance

page 40
Experiment
Science at work
Main ideas
Chapter 2 crossword
Review
TRB
Chapter 2 test
Learning focus: Carrying

out investigations

Experimenting
Chapter2 Scienceatwork
r you wil
In this chapte
l learn abou
LearningFocus
carrying out investigations (page 50)
Skills
planning and performing first-hand investigations (Activity page 32, Experiments pages 30 &
34, Investigate 5 & 6)
processing informationidentifying relationships (Activity page 36)
presenting information (Skillbuilders pages 29 & 3536)
thinking criticallyinferring and generalising (Experiments pages 30 & 34, Investigate 5)
working individually and in teams (Investigate 6, Experiment page 42, Doing a project page 43)
You and your friends sit down to watch a movie

on DVD. You slide the DVD into the machine and
nothing happens.
Work in a small group to complete the
following tasks.
Make a list of all the possible reasons why your

DVD doesnt play.
For each reason, discuss how you could test
whether it is right or wrong, and suggest how
the problem could be fixed.
27
28
ScienceWorld8forNSW

Finding out why your DVD doesnt play involves
asking questions like Is the DVD player plugged
into the TV?, testing the question, asking more
questions if the DVD still doesnt work and doing
more tests.
Science is all about asking questions, testing,

asking more questions and doing more tests.
Science is a way of finding out how or why things
happen.
You learnt previously that an experiment is a
well thought out test. The test has a series of steps
involving several different skills as shown below.
Generalising
Observing
Observing is
when you us
e your
senses to fin
d out as muc
h as you can
about an obje
ct or event. O
bservations
can lead to tw
o different ty
pes of
description.
One is record
ed in words,
and is called
qualitative (Q
UAL-i-tateive) observa
tion. Other o
b
servations
involve takin
g measurem
ents. These
are called qu
antitative (QU
ANT-i-tateive) observa
tions. Both o
b
servations
are called da
ta.
u write a
Generalising is where yo
e in most
statement that seems tru
many
cases after you have made
may be
observations. Since there
tion, words
exceptions to a generalisa
often used.
like most and many are
ks
Often a generalisation lin
am
ex ple,
two different factors. For
s that the
when a painter generalise
the paint
warmer the day the faster
time to
dries, he is linking drying
temperature.
Recording
rite down
where you w
Recording is
this
often record
u
o
Y
.
ta
a
d
r
you
le.
in a data tab
Inferring
Inferring is trying to explain your
observations. For example, to explain why
the DVD doesnt load, you might say that
there is a faulty connection between the
DVD player and the TV. This inference may
not be correct, but it could be tested by
making further observations.
ng a
ing
t
f maki n
c
o
i
s
d
s
e
e
c
io
Pr
the pro
servat
ure ob
ting is
ur
Predic of what a fut based on yo
now.
e
st
foreca redictions ar you already k
.P
at
will be ions and wh
t
a
observ
Investigations
and experiments
In Chapter 1 you did some
laboratory investigations involving
filtering, solubility, evaporating and
distilling and paper chromatography.
In this chapter you will be doing
experiments where you have to design
tests to answer questions or solve problems.
Whats the difference between an
investigation and an experiment? The terms
mean much the same thing. Both involve
carefully planned laboratory or field work.
However, an experiment is based on solving a
problem or answering a question.
Experiments involve designing tests, observing
and recording data, then writing full reports. The
Skillbuilder below shows you how to write up a
report.
Skillbuilder
Writing reports
A report is organised using seven headings.
TITLE
AIM
MATERIALS
METHOD
A very brief description of the

investigation, your name and the
date.
You say why you did the
investigationsometimes this is a
question.
A list of the equipment and
chemicals you used in the
investigation
You say what you did in the
investigation in numbered steps.
Whenever possible include a large,
neat diagram of the apparatus.
You record the data. Data includes

qualitative observations (words)
and measurements (numbers).
Usually these are recorded in a
data table. This makes the data
easier to read.
DISCUSSION You try to explain your results,
and list any problems that you
experienced. You might also
explain how you could improve
the investigation.
CONCLUSION You answer the question posed
in the aim. Often your conclusion
will contain a generalisationone
that seems true in most cases. For
example, a student investigating
paper bridges concluded: The
more folds the paper bridge has,
the more weight it can support.
RESULTS
29
30
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Experiment
PAPER BRIDGES
Suppose you suspend a piece of A4 photocopy paper between
two blocks. How much weight will the paper support? None, you
say! Well look at the paper bridge in the photo.
Writing your report

The paper has been folded many times. It is a
paper bridge, and it can support a container with
stones in it.
1 Write a full report of your experiment, using the

headings: Title, Aim, Materials, Method, Results,
Discussion and Conclusion.
2 Your discussion should contain an inference

that tries to explain your observations.
If we increase the number of folds in a piece of

paper, will it support more weight?
Your task is to work in a small group to design
an experiment that will answer this question.
3 Your conclusion should contain a generalisation

that links weight and the folds in the paper.
Designing your experiment

1 Discuss what tests you will do to answer the
question.
3 Discuss how you are going to record your
observations. Will you take quantitative
observations?
4 When you and your teacher are happy with
your plan, get started.
4 You might like to take a digital photo of your

set-up and include it in your report.
Extending the experiment

You might like to extend your experiment by
testing these predictions:
1 Two layers of folded paper will support twice the
weight supported by a single piece of paper.
2 Heavier paper will support more weight than
ordinary paper.
3 Dry paper is much stronger than damp paper.
Check!
3
You placed a young mouse in a cage with

dishes containing three different foods.
After observing her for 30 minutes you
noticed that she had eaten nothing. What
inferences could you make from this?
Cameron has a mouse in a cage. The mouse

has an exercise wheel with a counter on it.
Cameron wrote down the counter reading
each morning, but the bottom of his results
sheet has been torn off.
a Predict what the counter reading for Day
4 should be (approximately).
b Explain how you made this prediction.
Use the following words to complete the

sentences below.
A generalisation
Predicting
An experiment
a ______ is a scientific test.
b ______ is a statement that is true in most
cases.
c ______ is saying what may happen in
the future.
2 For each statement below say whether it is
an observation, inference, prediction or
generalisation.
a It tends to rain more in winter than in
summer.
b She must have eaten something that
doesnt agree with her.
c There should be a full moon next week.
d The leaves on this plant are turning
yellow.
e That colourless liquid must be an acid.
challenge
1 Heidi dropped a ball from two different heights
and measured how high it bounced each time.
She used her data to draw a graph.
70
Bounce height (cm)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
100
Drop height (cm)
a Predict how high the ball will bounce if she

drops it from 75 cm.
day
counter reading
49
100
152
b Predict the bounce height for a drop height of

150 cm.
2 Mick peeled a banana for lunch and left it in
his bag when he went to play soccer. Later he
discovered that the banana had turned brown
and soft.
a Pose a question based on Micks
observations.
b Suggest an inference that tries to answer this
question.
3 Ask other students in your group these
questions:
Willitraintomorrow?
Willitbeafullmoontonight?
Howfastcanyouswim50metresfreestyle?
a Decide whether the answers they gave you
are predictions (based on observations and
knowledge), or just guesses.
b What information would you need to turn the
guesses into proper predictions?
31
32
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2.2 Experimenting
In the paper bridges experiment, you tried to find
out if the number of folds in the paper affected
the weight the paper could support. Was your
experiment a fair test? Did you consider the other
factors that might have affected the result?
Controlling variables
There are other factors that could have affected
the results of your paper bridge experiment. Look
at the photos below.
There are at least three factors that could affect

the results of this experiment:
1 the number of folds in the paper
2 the length of the paper between the supports
3 the shape of the weight container.
These factors that could change the results of
an experiment are called variables.
You should test only one variable at a time. If
you want to increase the number of folds in the
paper, then you must keep the other two variables
the same: use the same type of container, and keep
the length of the bridge the same. This is then
called a fair test.
The test becomes a fair test when you control
the variables. You keep all the variables the
same, except one.
Activity
Fig 7
One paper bridge is longer than the other.

The shorter bridge can support more weight.
You can make a pendulum by suspending

a steel nut on a paper clip tied by cotton to a
metal clamp and stand.
Suppose your group wants to find out
whether the mass of a pendulum makes any
difference to the time it takes to do a complete
swing (from start back to start again).
Use the questions below to design an
experiment that will test the statement above.
What are the variables in
this experiment?
Which variables will
we purposely change?
Which variables will
we need to keep the
same?
How will we measure
the swing time?
Do the experiment, if
you have time.
Fig 8
The containers are different shapes. The

paper bridge supports the rectangular
container better than the circular one.
Testing a hypothesis
A hypothesis (high-POTH-e-sis) is a generalisation
which can be tested. It explains a set of observations
or gives a possible answer to a question. Note
that the plural of hypothesis is hypotheses (highPOTH-e-sees). An example of a hypothesis is
given on this page.
Based on his results he made this

generalisation.
I can generalise that the
things made of metal
are magnetic.
Thats my hypothesis.
Rosco recorded his observations of the

effect of a magnet on various materials.
Material
tested
Magnetic ( )
Non-magnetic ( )
nail
piece of glass
wooden pencil
knife
paperclip
From this generalisation he was able to make

a prediction that could be tested.
If my hypothesis is
correct, I predict that a
pin, a one dollar coin
and a piece of
aluminium foil will be
attracted to a magnet.
He looked through his results.
The nail, knife and

paperclip are attracted
to the magnet, and they
are all made of metal.
Rosco experimented further. Because his

prediction turned out to be wrong, he had
to modify (change) his hypothesis.
Only the pin is attracted
to the magnet.
Ill have to modify my
hypothesis.
Things made of iron and
steel are magnetic.
33
34
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Experiment
WHICH FILTER?
In Investigate 2 on page 12 you learnt how to
filter some muddy water. In this experiment you
will design tests to see whether folding a filter
paper in different ways has any effect on the time
it takes to filter some muddy water.
5 Which variables will you control? Which variable

are you going to change?
6 Discuss how you are going to record your
observations.
7 When you and your teacher are happy with
your plan, get started.

To compare the time it takes to filter muddy water
using filter papers folded in different ways. Refer
to page 13 to recall how to make a folded filter
paper. Follow the instructions below for making a
fluted (folded many times) filter paper.
Writing your report

1 Write a full report of your experiment, using the
headings: Title, Aim, Materials, Method, Results,
Discussion and Conclusion.
that tries to explain your observations.
Designing the experiment

1 Work in a small group and discuss the tests you
will do.
3 Do your results support your hypothesis? If not,

write a better hypothesis.
2 Write a hypothesis for the experiment.

Extending the experiment
4 Make a list of the safety precautions you will

take.
You might like to test this prediction: A sixteen-fold

fluted filter paper filters twice as fast as an eightfolded one.
Making a fluted filter paper
Fold here.
Unfold the
filter paper.
Fold into
quarters ...
... then fold three

more times.
Adjust the folds so that

the filter paper forms an
eight-pointed star.
Independent and dependent variables
Graphing
A line graph is a way of displaying data so that
it can be interpreted easily. It may be a straight
line or a curved line. A line graph shows you the
relationship between two variables.
Look at this data from the side of a milk
carton. The data was obtained by storing milk at
various temperatures and recording the average
time before it went off.
The temperature was changed on purpose. It is

called the independent variable, because you
can select any value for it. The number of days
the milk lasted is called the dependent variable,
because it depends on the temperature. All other
variables, eg brand of milk and type of container,
were controlled (kept the same).
Skillbuilder
Drawing graphs
1 On a piece of graph paper draw the
horizontal axis and the vertical axis.
2 On a line graph, the dependent variable is
plotted on the vertical axis. The independent
variable is plotted on the horizontal axis.
Label the horizontal axis Temperature (C).
Label the vertical axis Time (days).
title for graph
vertical axis
8
How long milk lasts

at various temperatures
dependent variable
Time (days)
6
5
smooth pencil line

through points
4
3
2
To see a step-by-step
drawing of the line
graph on this page,
open the Drawing a
line graph animation
on the CD.
horizontal axis
2
independent variable
10
Temperature (C)
12
14
16
35
36
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Activity
3 Select suitable scales for the two axes so
that the graph fills most of the page.
4 Look at the first pair of numbers in the data
table. They are:
temperature
4C
time
9 days
In pencil, mark the point where the grid lines
meet with a small neat cross, as shown on
the previous page. Then do the same with
the other pairs of numbers.
5 By looking at the four crosses you have
drawn, you can see that this graph is a
curved line. Use a pencil to draw a smooth
curve through the crosses, as shown. (This
may take some practice.) Dont join the
crosses with straight lines.
6 Finally, write a title for the graph at the top.
This tells others what the graph is about.
Science
in action
Elaine Perriman is a food technologist. She works in
the laboratory of a country milk factory that makes a
range of full fat, reduced fat and skim milks, cream and
flavoured milks.
She routinely samples the pasteurised milk from the
factory and tests for the presence of disease-causing
bacteria. In this way she can tell that the pasteurisation
process is working correctly.
She also samples the raw milk that comes in from
dairy farms to make sure there are no antibiotics in the
milk. When farmers treat sick cows with antibiotics, the
antibiotics pass into the milk. Some people are allergic
to certain antibiotics, so it is Elaines responsibility
to make sure that the raw milk does not contain
antibiotics.
Milk is a very important food in most peoples lives.
Most states have milk factories, but 61% of all the milk
produced in Australia comes from Victoria.
Use the graph on the previous page to

answer these questions.
1 How long does milk last when stored
at 8C?
2 A carton of milk lasted 1 days. At what
temperature was it probably stored?
3 Describe in your own words what the
shape of the graph tells you about the
relationship (link) between the
temperature of the milk and how long it
lasts.
4 Complete this hypothesis. The lower the
temperature
Investigate
5 DISSOLVING TIME
Aim
To write and test a hypothesis about how
temperature affects the time it takes an antacid
tablet to dissolve in water.
2 Drop in an antacid tablet. Do not stir. Time how

long it takes for the tablet to dissolve: that is,
how long before it disappears completely.
Record this time in your data table.
Materials
beaker,eg250mL
thermometer
stopwatchorwatchwithasecondhand
4antacidtablets,egAlka-Seltzer
hotwater(fromhottap)
icewater
Note: Clear aspirin
sheetofgraphpaper
tablets can be used

instead of Alka-Seltzer.

1 Write down your hypothesis about how you
think temperature affects dissolving time.
(Base your hypothesis on your previous
experience of making hot and cold drinks
or doing the washing up.)
2 Prepare a data table like the one below in
which to record your results.
Temperature
(C)
Time to
dissolve
(seconds)
Ice water
Room
temperature
Warm water
3 Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for the other

temperatures. Remember to control the
variables you listed in the Planning and Safety
Check.
Record your results.
4 Plot a graph with water temperature on the
horizontalaxisanddissolvingtimeonthe
vertical axis. Draw a smooth curve through
the four crosses. This line shows how the
dissolving time depends on the temperature of
the water.
5 Write a report of the investigation using the
usual headings.
Hot water
Discussion
Write down all the variables that could
affect the dissolving time. Which ones will
you need to keep the same?
Method
1 Fill the beaker with water from the tap.
Use the thermometer to measure the
temperature of the water.
Record this temperature in your data table.
1 Which is the independent variable, and which

is the dependent variable in this experiment?
2 What does your graph tell you about the
relationship between temperature and
dissolving time?
3 Do your results support (agree with) your
hypothesis from the Planning and Safety
Check? If not, write a better hypothesis.
37
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
6
1
Rebecca, Alistair and Ian compared the

hardness of three different types of wood.
They did this by measuring how far a dart
went into the wood, as shown below. Was
this a fair test? If not, explain how the test
could be improved.
Pauls parents measured his height every

year, starting when he was two. They
recorded these measurements on a graph.
a How old was Paul when he was 100 cm
tall?
b Predict how tall he will be when he is
eight.
c Can you predict how tall he will be when
he is 20? Explain.
Rebecca
120
Alistair
Height (cm)
38
Ian
110
100
x
x
90 x
80
2
What are the variables that affect how long

it takes you to get to school?
You have three different powders. You want

to find out which one dissolves most rapidly
in water.
a Which variables will you need to control
in your test?
b Which variable will you purposely
change?
c What will you measure?
Which of the following are inferences and

which are hypotheses?
a This piece of iron must be a magnet.
b All things fall towards the Earth because
of gravity.
c Plants grow more in summer than in
winter.
d I think the wet road caused this accident.
Justify your answers (explain why they are
inferences or hypotheses).
Dan used a decibel meter to measure

the noise given off by a car travelling at
different speeds.
a Design a data table for Dans results.
b Which measurement is the independent
variable? And which is the dependent
variable?
Age
Rebecca and Megan want to test whose

bike has better brakes. Design a fair test for
them. Remember, when designing fair tests
you:
changesomething
measuresomething
keepeverythingelsethesame.
Ace planted 2 bean seeds in each of 4 pots

of soil. Every three days he added water to
the pots as shown below.
Pot 1
no water
Pot 2
10 mL of water
Pot 3
20 mL of water
Pot 4
40 mL of water
a Write a hypothesis for Aces experiment.
b Why did he plant 2 bean seeds in each
pot and not just one?
challenge
4 Use the graph below to answer the following

questions.
a What is the graph about?
b Which is the independent variable?
c Which is the dependent variable?
d By what amount do the numbers on the
vertical axis increase?
e How much mass does each small grid line
on the vertical axis represent?
f By what amount do the numbers on the
horizontalaxisincrease?
g What was the mass of the baby at birth?
h When did the baby reach a mass of
4000 grams?
i What was the babys mass at the end of
the seventh week?
j During which week did the babys mass
decrease?
1 The following questions refer to Investigate 5

Dissolving time on page 37.
a Suppose you wrote Antacid tablets dissolve
faster in hot water for your hypothesis. What
would you need to do to test this hypothesis?
b Use the graph you drew to predict how long
a tablet would take to dissolve in water at
35C.
c What temperature would the water need
to be for a tablet to dissolve in exactly one
minute?
2 A group of students was investigating the
growth of seedlings. They measured the
average height of the seedlings every day.
a Draw a graph of their data.
b Is the graph a straight line or a curve?
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Height (cm)
0
1.0
2.1
2.6
3.8
5.0
5.8
0
2
4
6
8
10
x x
5000
4500
3 Mark and Dylan used a datalogger and

temperature probe to find out how quickly the
temperature of ice-cold water changed as it was
heated. They obtained the data list below on
their calculator screen.
a Draw a graph to display their results.
b Use the graph to find out approximately how
long it took the melted ice to reach a
temperature of 70C.
c What was the approximate temperature of the
heated ice after three minutes?
Time (min)
Babys mass
Temperature (C)
0
5
30
75
93
98
Mass (grams)
Time (days)
x
4000
x
3500
x
x
3000
2500
0
10
Time (weeks)
Use the ideas from Investigate 5 on page 37 to

design an experiment to test the effect of stirring
on dissolving time.
39
40
ScienceWorld8forNSW

Josh is playing a computer game in which he has
to find the buried treasure. He is using his science
skills to solve this problem.
Read carefully through the six steps on this
page. Note that at Step 6 you should be prepared
to change your hypothesis if necessary. You
cannot ignore some data or change it to fit in
with what you think should happen. Also, not all
problems are easy to solve. And you may have to
do many experiments.
In Investigate 6 you can try to solve a problem
yourself.
STEP 1: THE PROBLEM

How do I find the hidden treasure?
STEP 2: HYPOTHESIS
This could be the answer to the problem.
If it is, what predictions can I make?
Try other tests

I can't tell whether
the results agree with
my hypothesis.
STEP 3: TEST
How can I test my hypothesis?
I must be careful to control variables.
STEP 4: RESULTS
Record my observations.
STEP 5: CHECK HYPOTHESIS

Interpret the data.
STEP 6: THINK AGAIN
My results agree
with my hypothesis.
BINGO!!
What else can I
predict?
Back to the
beginning!
My results don't agree
with my hypothesis.
I need to modify it.
Investigate
6 STOPPING DISTANCE
Aim
To investigate the variables that affect
the distance it takes a moving vehicle to
stop (stopping distance).
Method
Step 1: The problem
Form a group with other students,
and make a list of all the variables you
think may affect a moving vehicles
stopping distance.
Step 2: Hypothesis
Decide which one of the variables
from Step 1 you are going to test.
Write a hypothesis that says how this
variable will affect the stopping distance. (Make
sure your hypothesis is testable.)
Using your hypothesis, write a prediction
you can test. (See Step 4 on page 33 for an
example.)
Step 3: Test (experiment)

In your group, decide what equipment you
will need to test your prediction. For the vehicle
you could use a toy car or truck. Or you could
build one out of Lego or a similar building kit. To
get the vehicle moving you could run it down a
ramp.
Write a brief plan for your experiment.
Remember to control all variables except the one
you are purposely changing. Show your plan to
your teacher.
Step 4: Results
Do your experiment. You may need to do some
trial runs before making any measurements.
Record all your results in a data table. Which
is the independent variable and which is the
dependent variable?
You may want to display your results on a graph.
(This would be useful for showing to the rest of
the class.)
rement
Repeating the measu
ment of the stopping

If you repeat a measure
bly get a slightly
distance, you will proba
because there are some
different value. This is
control, eg whether the
variables you cannot
not. For this reason it
vehicle runs straight or
ch measurement three
is a good idea to do ea
average.
times and calculate the
nts you make, the
The more measureme
ge will be, but three
more reliable the avera
ually enough.
measurements are us
Step 5: Check hypothesis

Do your results support your hypothesis? That is,
was your prediction in Step 2 correct?
Write a conclusion, giving an answer to the
question you investigated.
Which variables did other groups investigate?
What did they find? How do their results compare
with yours?
Step 6: Think again

How accurate do you think your results are? Can
you think of ways to improve your experiment?
Write a report of your experiment using the
usual headings.
41
42
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Experiment
SCIENCE AT WORK
It is fun to solve everyday problems by
experimenting. Choose one or more of the
problems below or think of your own problem.
In designing your experiment, use the six steps

in investigating you used in Investigate 6, starting
with a hypothesis you can test.
PROBLEM A
PROBLEM B
What sorts of liquids flow through the funnel most

easily? Liquids you could try are water, glycerine,
cooking oil, sugary water
thistle
funnel
Does the shape of a boats hull affect its speed?
stopwatch
pulley
cup for
weights
boat
shapes
plastic
tubing
dropper
blocked section of drain
PROBLEM C
PROBLEM D
Which colour cloth is the coolest in summer?

Which is the warmest in winter?
no cloth
(control)
black
cloth
white
cloth
Florists say that a vase of flowers will last longer

if the stems of the flowers are crushed and if you
add a little sugar to the water.
Do these variables really
affect the life of the
flowers?
43
t
c
je
o
r
p
h
c
r
a
e
s
e
r
a
g
Doin
Any of the problems on the previous page would
make a good student research project. Here are
the steps you need to follow in doing a project.
1 Choose a topic
Pick something you are interested in. There are
project ideas in some of the Challenges and
Try this activities in this book, and many of
the experiments can be extended into projects.
Check the websites on this page to see what other
students have done. Make sure your ideas are
feasible. Are there experiments you can do on this
topic? Can you get the equipment and materials
you need? Can you finish it in the time available?
Talk with other people about your ideas.
2 Plan your project

Write a brief outline of what you plan to do and
discuss it with your teacher before you start.
3 Do it
Use the skills you have learnt in this chapter to

carry out your project. Put your notes straight
into a special project logbook so that they are
not lost. It is important to record your failures as
well as your successes. After each experiment ask
yourself What would happen if ? then try it.
Repeat your experiments to make sure you always
get the same results, and be prepared to change
your ideas in the light of your results, as you may
not always get the answers you expect.
4 Prepare a report
This may be a written summary, a poster display,
a short talk using overhead transparencies or a
PowerPoint presentation. The websites below give
information if you want to enter your project in a
science contest.
< WEB watch >

Go to www.scienceworld.net.au and follow the
links to the websites below.
BHP Billiton Science Awards

The site includes what you can win, entry
requirements and details of last years winners.
Science Talent Search (Victoria)
Young Scientist Awards (NSW)
CREST
CREST stands for Creativity in Science and
Technology. You can look up current and past
projects and CREST schools in your state.
Science Fair Links
This site has links to many other sites that have
ideas for projects.
Sci-Journal
On this site you can browse through research
projects done by other students. You can also
publish your own.
Fig 28
Michael Morris won a BHP Billiton Science Award

when he was in Year 8 for investigating ways of
controlling house dust mites with tea tree oil. He
has since gone on to win other awards for his
science projects.
44
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Science
in action
Scientists are ordinary people who solve problems
using the skills you have learnt in this chapter.
Over the years scientists have made many
important discoveries which affect our daily lives. Five
of these are described on the following pages. Select at
least one of these and answer the questions about it.
Post-it self-stick notes

Some discoveries in science are made by
accident, or serendipity.
Art Fry was in church one Sunday in 1974.
He sang in the choir but he had a problem. The
bits of paper he had put in his book to mark
the hymns kept falling out. Suddenly he had an
inspiration. Several years ago the 3M company
where he worked had made a glue that was
thrown out because it wasnt sticky enough.
Perhaps it would be sticky enough to make
sticky bookmarks for his choir book.
Fry went back to his laboratory at 3M and
tried the old glue. It worked, but he spent a
year and a half modifying and testing it. When
he took it to the advertising department they
werent very keen on his idea for sticky note
pads. However, they put them on the market,
and soon people around the world were buying
Post-it self-stick notes.
Questions
1 Use a dictionary to find the meaning of the
word serendipity.
2 Did Art Fry work scientifically to make
self-stick notes? Explain.
3 Suggest uses for Post-it self-stick notes.
4 For information on Art Fry go to
www.scienceworld.net.au and follow the
links to Inventions at play.
Dung beetles
Cattle were introduced to Australia over 200 years
ago. We now have a problem of too much cattle
dung. It covers grazing land and flies breed in it.
George Bornemissza, who came to Australia from
Hungary, started studying the problem in 1951.
He found that Australia has dung beetles that can
break down the dung of native animals such as
kangaroos. However, very few of these beetles can
break down cattle dung. He therefore suggested
bringing dung beetles from other parts of the world
to Australia.
The first of these beetles were released in 1967,
and today dung beetles are well established in
some areas. However, they have not spread far
enough, and flies are still a problem throughout
Australia. Scientists from CSIRO, Australias largest
scientific research organisation, are therefore still
working on the problem.
Questions
1 Why is cattle dung such a problem?
2 Why was it necessary to introduce dung beetles
to Australia when there were some here already?
3 How can the spread of dung beetles throughout
Australia reduce the number of flies?
4 Suggest a plan to spread dung beetles more
evenly across Australia.
5 What precautions must be taken when a foreign
animal or plant is planned to be introduced to this
country?
Twin lambs
Medicines from frogs
Dr Helen Newton Turner was experimenting with

the breeding of sheep. In 1951 someone sent
her some ewes that produced twins much more
often than usual. She knew that twin lambs were
rare, and wondered whether she could use the
ewes to breed whole flocks of sheep that produce
twins more often. She therefore set up a series of
experiments with ewes that had produced twins
and rams that had been twins. At the same time
she did similar experiments with single-bearing
ewes mated with single-born rams.
Her results showed that twinned parents
produced three times the number of sets of twin
lambs as the single parents. She then worked
with a farmer near Cooma (NSW) and by 1972
his merino flock was producing 210 lambs each
year for every 100 ewes!
The sheep industry has benefited enormously
from Dr Turners work.
Dr Michael Tyler from the University of Adelaide

has been studying frogs for 30 years. The
secretions produced by the skin of frogs contain
many different chemicals. Some of these are
toxic, but others have been found to be useful as
medicines. For example, scientists have recently
isolated a pain-killer 200 times more powerful
than morphine.
Dr Tyler wanted to find a way of extracting
the secretions from the frogs without harming
them. One day he was having acupuncture for
a headache. The acupuncturist inserted needles
in his skin and passed a small electric current
through him, causing his skin muscles to twitch
slightly. This caused him to wonder whether
frogs would release their secretions when their
skin muscles were twitched using a small electric
current.
Back in his laboratory Dr Tyler found that
his idea worked, without harming the frog, and
without using needles. From a single milking he
could obtain up to 100 milligrams of secretions.
He found that these secretions contain as many
as 30 different chemicals. The secretions kill
several different bacteria, fungi and viruses,
and his recent work has been to find out which
secretions kill which organisms.
Questions
1 Why do sheep farmers like twin lambs?
2 What is meant by twinned parents and single
parents for sheep?
3 How did Dr Turner control the variables in her
sheep breeding experiments?
Questions
1 Dr Tyler discovered a new laboratory technique.
What is it?
2 He repeated his tests several times. Why do you
think he did this?
3 Suggest how he could find out which of the
30 chemicals in the secretions kills a particular
virus.
4 Suppose he identifies the virus-killing chemical.
What do you think he should do next?
Fig 34
Dr Tyler with one of

his frogs
45
46
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Rabbit plague
Thomas Austin liked to go shooting at the
weekends. So in 1859 he imported 24 rabbits
from England to his property near Geelong in
Victoria. A female rabbit can produce 4050
young in one year, and with few natural enemies
there was soon a plague of rabbits. In one year
Tom Austin shot over 14 000, and within 20 years
or so the rabbits had spread to almost all parts
of Australia. Fences didnt seem to
keep them out. They ate every blade
of grass and stripped the bushes
they could reach, turning once
green areas into deserts. Many
of Australias wallabies and native
rodents became extinct or endangered.
In 1919 a Brazilian scientist said he
knew about a virus called myxoma which
infected rabbits and gave them a disease called
myxomatosis (MIX-a-mat-toe-sis). However the
Australian government ignored his advice because
people were making lots of money selling rabbit
meat and using the fur to make hats. By the 1940s
the rabbit plague was out of control and Jean
MacNamara, an Australian expert on viruses,
eventually convinced CSIRO to try the myxoma
virus. At first CSIRO scientists couldnt get the
virus to spread, but they found that it spread more
quickly in wet weather, because the disease is

carried from one rabbit to another by mosquitoes,
which breed when it is wet.
Myxomatosis killed up to 80% of the rabbits
in most of Australia and as a result beef and wool
production increased. However, as the years
passed the virus was less effective. So in 1991
the CSIRO found another weapon against the
rabbitsthe calicivirus (cal-LEE-sea-virus) which
doesnt need mosquitoes to spread
it. It was released in 1996 and one
year later about 100 million of
Australias 300 million rabbits had
died. For the first time in living
memory there was lush vegetation
across the Nullarbor Plain and in the
Simpson Desert.
Questions
1 Why was the rabbit plague such a disaster for
sheep and cattle farmers, and for native plants
and animals?
2 The rabbit plague resulted in severe soil erosion,
with soil washed away during heavy rain. Why
did this happen?
3 Suggest why the Australian government was
reluctant to introduce the myxoma virus into
Australia.
Check!
1
When you are doing an experiment, what is

the usual order for the following?
check hypothesis
hypothesis
predict
results
test
think again
Which of the following are true, and which

are false?
a An experiment is a test containing a
series of steps used to solve problems.
b Hypotheses are always correct.
c Scientists dont know the answers to
some questions.
b
c
In an experiment all variables must be

kept the same.
You should ignore data that does not
agree with your hypothesis.
A good hypothesis allows you to make
predictions.
When you write a report of an
experiment, what should the section
headed Aim tell the reader?
What should the conclusion of a report
tell you?
Under which heading would you
describe how you carried out the
experiment?
Sometimes you have to modify a

hypothesis. When would you need to do
this?
While cooking
on the barbecue
Tammy was
annoyed by
all the insects
that were
attracted to the
light. Then she
remembered
reading that
insects are less
attracted to
yellow light.
Use the steps
on page 40
to design an
experiment to test Tammys idea. Discuss
your design with others.
An oil company claims you get more

kilometres per litre from their petrol. They
say this is because of an additive called Z.
How could you test this claim?
A group of students collected the

equipment shown below. They wrapped
can A in four layers of aluminium foil
each 0.25 mm thick. They wrapped can B
(identical to can A) in a single layer of foil
1 mm thick. They filled both cans with hot
water and recorded the temperature of each
can every two minutes for 10 minutes. (The
data table is shown below.)
a
b
c
What hypothesis were the students

testing?
Look at the students data and decide
whether it supports their hypothesis.
Write a conclusion for the experiment.
Times (minutes)
Can A (C)
Can B (C)
0
2
4
6
8
10
90
87
85
84
84
83
90
87
84
82
80
78
< WEB watch >

For the websites listed below, go to
www.scienceworld.net.au and follow the links.
1 What does CSIRO stand for? If there is a
branch of CSIRO in your city or town, see
if you can find out what scientists do there.
Your teacher may be able to arrange a visit or
a scientist may visit your school to talk with
you. Visit the CSIRO website.
2 Join a science club such as CSIROs Double
Helix Science Club. Visit their website.
Perhaps your teacher could help you set up
one at school.
3 During the next few weeks check newspapers
and magazines. Collect articles about new
discoveries in science and technology. You can
also check out the latest science news at these
websites:
Science Daily
New Scientist
Nova
CNN
4 Use a library to find out about the life and
work of one particular scientist. Once you
have collected your information, prepare
a three minute talk to the class about your
scientist. You may like to use the plan below.
Name of scientist:
Dates born (and died):
Country of birth:
Details of work:
Any other interesting information:
The Bright Sparcs site has information
on more than three thousand Australian
scientists.
47
48
ScienceWorld8forNSW

controlling
1 ______ is a way of finding answers to questions by doing
generalising
experiments.
experiments
graph
2 Solving ______ by doing experiments involves using skills such as

observing, inferring, predicting and ______.
hypothesis
problems
3 A ______ is something which can change the results of an

experiment.
relationship
same
4 In an experiment you purposely change one variable and keep

all the rest the ______. This process is called ______ variables.
science
variable
5 A ______ is a generalisation which explains a set of observations

or gives a possible answer to a question.
6 Hypotheses can be tested by doing ______. If necessary they can be modified to

explain further observations.
7 A ______ is a way of displaying data. It can also be used to show the ______
REVIEW
between two variables.
1 What name is given to a generalisation which a

scientist can test?
A experiment
B hypothesis
C inference
D observation
2 Lim is checking the burning of a candle. He
finds that after 2 hours, one-quarter of the
candle has burnt. Predict how long it will take
the whole candle to burn.
A 1 hour
C 4 hours
B 2 hours
D 8 hours
3 Sally and Bonita both bought the same kind
of rubber ball. Sally said: My ball will bounce
better than yours. Bonita answered: Id like
to see you prove that. What should they do to
find out which ball bounces better?
A Drop both balls from the same height and
see which ball bounces higher.
B Hit the balls against a wall and see how
far each bounces off the wall.
C Throw the balls against the floor and see

how high they bounce.
D See which ball can be squeezed the most.
4 Tamika tested a number of substances to see
whether or not they conduct electricity (allow
an electric current to pass through them). She
also noted whether the substances were metals
or non-metals. Her results are shown below.
Substance
Metal or
nonmetal?
sulfur
zinc
copper
iodine
lead
phosphorus
steel
non-metal
metal
metal
non-metal
metal
non-metal
metal
Does it conduct
electricity?
a Use Tamikas results to write down two

specific observations about steel.
c In which range was the UVB reading at

10 am?
d How could you explain the dip in the graph
around 12 noon?
Tamika tested two more substances:

Substance
Metal or
nonmetal?
carbon
tin
non-metal
metal
Does it conduct
electricity?
c Do these results support your hypothesis?

If not, modify it.
5 The amount of salt that will dissolve in
100 mL of water is called its solubility. This
solubility was measured at different
temperatures and the results graphed.
extreme
Intensity of UVB
b Write a hypothesis about metals and

non-metals and electricity.
very high
high
moderate
8
10
11
12
Time of day
7 You see this advertisement on TV.

600
Solubility 400
(g/100 mL)
200
0
SUDSO
20
40
60
Temperature (C)
80
Which of the following statements best

describes this graph?
A As the temperature changes the solubility
stays the same.
B As the temperature increases the solubility
decreases.
C As the temperature increases the solubility
increases slowly.
D As the temperature increases so does the
solubility, slowly at first, then more quickly.
6 The graph above right is from a TV news

weather report. It shows the amount of UVB
radiation received on a particular day.
a At what time did the UVB radiation reach
its peak?
b During what times of the day was the UVB
reading in the very high range?
washes
brighter
in hot
or cold
water
You decide to do an experiment to see if Sudso

is in fact better than other washing powders.
a Write a brief plan for your experiment.
b Which variables will you need to control?
c Which variable will you purposely change?
d Which variable will you measure?
Check your answers on page 277.
49
REVIEW
50
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Learning focus: Carrying out investigations
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
Experimenting
Food poisoning
Rice flow
The Browns were on holidays when Mr Brown

and the two children, Ryan and Lia, became ill.
Mrs Brown took them to the hospital where they
saw Dr Singh.
Mr Brown, who had had a recurring stomach
ulcer, complained of pains in the stomach. Ryan
had been sick in the car and was badly sunburnt
because he hadnt put any sunscreen on that
morning. Lia said she was dizzy and had a
headache. Mrs Brown was worried because Lia
had been stung by a bee earlier in the day.
Dr Singh listened to the Browns problems
and made notes. He also asked a lot of questions,
including what they had eaten that day. Mrs
Brown didnt think that had anything to do with
the fact that all three of them were sick, but she
told the doctor they had fish at a caf on the
beach. Mrs Brown didnt have anyjust a salad.
Dr Singh thought their symptoms were like
those of several other patients he had seen. He
suspected food poisoning from the fish they had
eaten for lunch. He ordered several tests on the
Browns and on samples of fish from the cafe.
When he got the tests back it was fairly obvious
that they did have food poisoning.
Copy and complete the table below to show
how Dr Singh used science skills to solve the
problem.
Lachlan saw his little sister pouring rice through a

funnel. He wondered whether the size of the hole
in the funnel makes any difference to how fast the
rice flows out. So he designed an experiment with
a paper cone, as shown below. He used scissors
to cut a bit off the bottom of the cone to make
different-sized holes. For each cone he used the
same amount of rice, and measured the time for it
to flow through. Here are his results.
Science skills
1 Identify the problem
2 Make observations
3 Make a hypothesis
4 Test the hypothesis
5 Make a conclusion
What Dr Singh did
Add rice.
paper
cone
0 mm
10
20
30
Measure hole diameter.

rice flowing through
Diameter of
hole (mm)
4
6
8
10
12
Time taken (s)

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
38
28
18
11
5
41
24
16
9
4
39
26
16
11
5
1 Which variable did Lachlan purposely change?

2 Which variable did he measure?
3 Which was the independent variable and
which was the dependent variable?
4 List two variables that Lachlan controlled.
5 Use graph paper to draw a line graph of
Lachlans results.
6 Write a generalisation that Lachlan could use
as a conclusion for his experiment.
3
Whatare
thingsmadeof ?
Planning page
Getting started
Activities page 54
Investigate 7
Measuring density

page 53
Activity page 58
Activity page 64
Activity page 65
3.2 Solidliquidgas
page 61
Animation
Particle theory
Investigate 8
Melting and boiling
TRB
Assessment task 3
A particle model
Activities page 70
Activities page 71

page 70
Activity page 73
Main ideas
Chapter 3 crossword
Review
Learning focus: An idea
can gain acceptance in the
scientific community as
either theory or law
Chapter 3 test

From idea to theory
TRB
52
ScienceWorld8forNSW
t
l learn abou
r you wil
In this chapte
LearningFocus
an idea can gain acceptance in the scientific community as either theory or law (page 76)
the particle theory of matter (Sections 3.2 and 3.3)

properties of solids, liquids and gases
change of state (Section 3.2)
Skills
planning and performing first-hand investigations (Investigate 7 and 8)

processing informationusing mathematics (Investigate 7) and identifying trends in data
(Investigate 8)
presenting informationtables and graphs (Investigate 8)
thinking criticallyinferring, predicting and generalising (Investigate 8 and Activities
pages 71 and 73)
Use the three photos on this and the previous

page to help you to answer these questions.
Which of the things in the photos are solids?
Which are liquids? Which are gases?
Can you change the shape of solids, liquids
and gases?
Can you compress a solid, that is, squeeze

it into a smaller volume? Can you do this for
liquids and gases?
What do solids, liquids and gases have in
common?
Chapter3 Whatarethingsmadeof?

What is matter?
Everything around you is made up of matterthe
desk, your shirt, the water in a swimming pool,
the hair on your head, even the air you breathe.
Most matter can be classified into one of three
main groups: solids, liquids and gases. These are
usually called the three states of matter.
Solids, liquids and gases have two important
propertiesthey all have mass and they all take
up space. To find the mass you use a balance. To
find the amount of space occupied by something
you measure its volume. So all matter has mass
and occupies space.
Gases
The air around us is a gas. In fact, it is a mixture
of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen. Other
common gases are helium and carbon dioxide. All
these gases have mass and occupy space. Gases do
not have a fixed shape or volume. A gas fills its
container, no matter what the shape or size of the
container. For example, helium gas fills a metal
gas cylinder. The gas can be let out through the
tap to fill balloons of various shapes and sizes. If
the balloon bursts, the gas will escape and spread
out into the air. Gases can also be compressed
(squeezed into a smaller volume like the helium in
the cylinder). You cannot do this with liquids and
solids.
Solids
Solids include such things as steel girders, this
book, and most of the objects you can see. They
all have mass and occupy space. The shape of
most solids cannot easily be changed, and nor can
their volume. Powders are also solids but their
shape can be changed.
Liquids
Water, milk and oil are all examples of matter in
liquid form, and they all have mass. The volume
of a quantity of liquid does not change, but its
shape can. For example, pour some milk from
a carton into a glass. The volume of the milk
doesnt change, but its shape does. And if the
milk is spilt, it has another shape (Fig 4).
Fig 5
Fig 4
The volume of a liquid does not change, but its shape may.
Gases do not have a fixed shape or volume.
53
54
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Activities
A Crumple a tissue, and fit it tightly into the
bottom of a glass. Push the glass, mouth
down, into a large container of water until
most of the glass is under water.
What do you observe?
Pull the glass out of the water and check
whether the tissue is wet.
Write an inference to explain your
observations.
tissue
glass
water
B Use a balloon and an electronic balance

to test whether air has mass.
C Place your finger over the end of a

syringe containing air. Try to push the
plunger in.
Can air be compressed?
Push in.
Draw some water into the syringe.

Can water be compressed?
D To summarise what you know about

solids, liquids and gases, copy the
following table. Complete it by putting
a 4 or a 8 in each box.
State of
matter
Have
mass
solids
liquids
gases
Occupy
space
Properties of matter
Fixed
Fixed
shape
volume
Can be
compressed
Density
I dont care if they

DO weigh the same.
Im not swapping!
Similarly, iron is denser than wood. Suppose

you have a 1 cm cube of iron and a 1 cm cube of
wood. Both cubes take up the same amount of
space, so they both have the same volume
(1 cubic centimetre). However, their masses are
very different. The iron cube has more mass
packed into one cubic centimetre. The density
of iron is therefore greater than the density of
wood. Density is how much mass is packed into a
measured volume. It is usually measured in grams
per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).
The table at the top of the page shows the
densities of some common substances. Notice that
the density of water is 1 g/cm3, and that gases are
much less dense than solids and liquids.
Anything will float in water if its density is
equal to or less than the density of water, that is
1 g/cm3. For example, a piece of pine wood
(density 0.4 g/cm3) floats in water, but a piece
of granite (density 2.7 g/cm3) sinks. Fruit and
vegetables sometimes float and sometimes sink.
For those that float, the lower their density the
0.00018
0.0013
0.002
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.9
0.9
water
1.0
sea water
aluminium
granite
iron
nickel
lead
gold
osmium
FLOAT IN WATER
helium gas
air
carbon dioxide gas
polystyrene foam
cork
pine wood
petrol
polythene plastic
ice
1.03
2.7
2.7
7.8
8.9
11.3
19.3
22.5
SINK IN WATER
An important property of matter is its density.

Which is heavier, a kilogram of feathers or a
kilogram of gold? The answer is neitherthey
both have the same mass. The difference is that
a one kilogram bar of gold would be about the
size of a Mars bar, while one kilogram of feathers
would fill a very large pillow. The mass of the
gold is packed into a much smaller volume than
the feathers. A small volume of gold has a large
mass. We say that gold is much more dense than
feathers.
Table of densities (g/cm3)
more they stick out above the water. You can try
this at home with a bowl of water.
Humans, like most animals, float in water, but
only just. This is because we are mostly water.
However, we have a layer of fat under our skin,
and this has a density less than water. There are
also air spaces, such as lungs, inside our bodies.
Sharks are unusual in that they are denser than
water. If they dont keep swimming they sink to
the bottom.
Why dont we stop here

for a bit and give these
surfers a scare?
Fig 9
Its tempting Shazza, but

we have to keep swimming.
Anything will float in water if its density is

equal to or less than the density of water.
55
56
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Measuring density
To find the density of something you must first
measure its mass and volume. You then divide the
mass by the volume to find the density.
density (g/cm3)
mass (g)
volume (cm3)
Measuring the volume of a regular solid such

as a cube is easy, but how would you measure
the volume of an irregularly shaped object such
as your body? The secret is to drop the object
into water, and measure the volume of water it
displaces (pushes out). This method was
discovered by Archimedes in Greece about
250 bc. In Investigate 7 you can use this method
to find the density of a small object.
Fig 10
One way to measure your volume
Investigate
7 MEASURING DENSITY
Aim
To measure the density of two different objects.
Recordthemassesinthedatatable.
Materials
Checkwithyourteacherifyouhaveforgotten
how to do this.
measuringcylinder,100mL
balance
pieceofwire
2smallobjectsonethatloats(egwooden
cube)andonethatsinks(egmarble)
2 Abouthalfillthemeasuringcylinderwithwater.
Itisbestifyouillittoasetmark,say30mL.
Make sure the bottomofthemeniscus(the
curvedwatersurface)isexactlyonthemark.
Recordthisinitial
volume(V1) in the data
table.
50
40
Readthesixstepscarefullyanddrawup
adatatableliketheonebelow.
30
20
10
Method
1 Usingthebalance,indthemassofeachobject.
Object
Mass (g)
Initial volume of Final volume of

water, V2 (mL)
water, V1 (mL)
Volume of object
V2 V1 (cm3)
Density
(g/cm3)
3 Holdingthecylinderatanangle,carefullyslide
intheirstobject.Ifitloatsyouwillhaveto
holditunderthewaterwithapieceofwire,as
shown.
5 Calculatethevolumeofeachobjectby
subtractingtheinitialvolumeofwater(V1) from
theinalvolume(V2).
Recordyourresultsinthedatatable.
(Note:1millilitre=1cubiccentimetre.)
Recordthewaterlevelinthecylinderwith
theobjectcompletelyunderwater(V2).
volume of object
= V2 V1
6 Calculatethedensityofeachobjectusingthe
formula:
density
thin
wire
mass of object (g)

volume of object (cm3)
Giveyouranswertothenearest0.1gramsper
cubic centimetre.
Discussion
4 Taketheobjectoutofthecylinder,andrepeat
Steps2and3fortheotherobject.
Recordthewaterlevelforthesecond
object.
Using materials
All the materials around us are taken from or
made from the Earths natural resources. For
example, we use cotton, wood and rubber from
plants and wool, leather and silk from animals.
We breathe the air and extract various gases
from it, eg oxygen, nitrogen and argon. We use
the rocks of the Earth and extract metals such as
iron, copper and gold, and other useful materials
like coal, oil and limestone. We eat seafood from
the oceans and extract salt from seawater.
Some of these materials we use in their natural
state. For example, a gold nugget can be made
into jewellery and wool can be woven into
clothing. Often we process these materials to
improve or alter their properties. For example,
1 Compareyourresultswiththosefoundbyother
students.Iftheyaredifferent,suggestpossible
reasons.
2 Which object is more dense?
3 Suggestanotherwayofindingthevolumesof
theobjects.Tryit,andcheckyourresults.
we may treat the wool to make it shrink-resistant,

and we grind up corn to make flour, which we use
to make bread. These are processed materials.
Over the years, however, we have made many
totally new materials. For example, 2000 years
ago the Chinese discovered how to make paper
from wood. In recent times we have made an
incredible range of materials such as concrete,
glass, plastics, paints and pesticides. These
materials do not occur naturally, and are said to
be synthetic.
57
58
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Science
in action
The properties of a material determine what it
can be used for. Wool is used for winter clothes
because it keeps your body heat in. Aircraft are
made of aluminium metal because it is light.
Copper is used to make electric wires because it is a
good conductor of electricity, and because it can
be shaped to form wire. Drills are sometimes
diamond-tipped, because diamond is much harder
than most other substances.
Synthetic materials are continually being
developed with special properties to do particular
jobs. Here are four examples.
1 Since 1996 Australias banknotes have been made
from polypropylene plastic. These last longer than
paper notes, stay cleaner and are very difficult to
counterfeit. They can also be recycled to make
compost bins, plumbing fittings and other useful
household and industrial products.
2 In 1999 CSIRO developed a new sunscreen called
Sunsorb. It is similar to zinc cream, but because
the powder it is made from is so fine, it is virtually
invisible.
Activity
For this activity you will need some peanutshaped starch packing beads.
How many starch packing beads do you
think will disappear in two teaspoons of
water?
To test this, add one starch bead at a time,
stirring well to form a suspension. Observe
how the beads change and how the water
changes.
Could you get the beads back again?
How?
3 If you break open a disposable nappy, you will find a

white powder called WaterSorb. It forms a gel when
water is added to it. It can soak up a large volume of
urine, keeping the babys bottom dry. It is also used
to prevent pot plants drying out.
egan
Ken b tific
ien
his sc ents at
m
i
r
expe arly age.
e
y
a ver
4 Polystyrene packing beads are being replaced by

ones made from wheat or corn starch. This makes
sense because wheat and corn are renewable,
unlike polystyrene which is made from oil and is
non-renewable. These beads cause less damage
to the environment since they form a suspension
in water and are biodegradable.
< WEB watch >

The secret of the disposable nappy
This site has an experiment to test the
superabsorbent powder in a disposable nappy.
Reserve Bank of Australia
This site has information on the famous
Australians on our notes, how the notes are
made and recycled, and how to detect counterfeit
notes.
Try searching under the trade names of some
of the newer synthetic materials, eg Kevlar,
Mylar, Nomex, Teflon, Tyvek. Keep notes on
the properties and uses of each material you
research.
Check!
1
In which state would a substance be if it

had:
a no fixed volume?
b a fixed volume and shape?
c a fixed volume but took the shape of its
container?
Each of the cartoons below illustrates at
least one property of matter. Which shows
that:
a a solid has a fixed shape?
b a liquid can be made to have any shape?
c a gas can be compressed?
d a gas does not have a fixed volume?
Look at the data table below.
Object A
Object B
Object C
a
b
5
a
b
How many kilograms are there in

2000 g, 100 000 g, 1530 g?
How many grams are there in 2 kg,
kg, 6.7 kg?
volume (cm3)
39
54
6
6
20
5
Which object has the greatest mass?

Which object has the greatest density?
Look at the diagrams below. Suppose

you keep your finger over the end of the
syringe, starting in position A. You push
in the plunger to B, then pull it back to C.
In which position is the air in the syringe
most dense? Explain your choice.
A
mass (g)
It is easier to float in sea water than in fresh

water. Use your knowledge of density to
explain this.
A balloon filled with helium rises when you

let it go. A balloon filled with carbon dioxide
sinks. Explain the difference.
In each of these pairs, which is the object,

and which is the material it is made from?
Describe the properties of each substance
that make the object useful. Record your
answers in a table with three columns.
a window / glass
b styrofoam / coffee cup
c plastic / ruler
d aircraft / aluminium
e bank note / polypropylene plastic
59
60
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Classify the following materials as natural,

processed or synthetic:
concrete
milk
petrol
flour
natural gas soft drink
marble
nylon
superphosphate
marijuana oxygen
uranium
challenge
1 Manypeopleincorrectlysaythatleadisheavier
thansteel.Whatshouldtheyreallysay?
2 Whichpropertiesallowyoutodistinguish
between the substances in each of the
followingpairs?
a steelandaluminium
b lemonadeandwater
c saltandsugar
d woodandplastic
e polystyreneandstarchpackingbeads
3 Whichofthefollowingwouldyouusetomake
thebaseforastand-upsignoutsideashop
concrete,aluminiumorgold?Explainyour
answerintermsofthepropertiesofthethree
substances.
4 a Apieceofcopperhasamassof50gand
avolumeof5.6cm3. What is its density?
b Anotherpieceofcopperhasavolumeof
7 cm3. What is its mass?
5 Arectangularblockofwoodhassides8cmby
4cmby5cm.Ithasamassof120g.
a What is its density?
b Wouldthisblockofwoodloatinwater?
10
Make a table listing the properties of the four

synthetic materials described on page 58.
11
What is the difference between a renewable

material and a non-renewable one? Give
examples, in addition to the ones on page 58.
6 Whatisthemassofairinaroommeasuring
10m5m3mifthedensityofairis
1.3kg/m3?
7 Suggestsomeusesforaplasticthatdissolves
in water.
8 Theballoonsinthephotoaremadeofamaterial
calledMylar.Theyareilledwithheliumgas
andstayinlatedformonths.Suggestwhich
propertiesofMylarmakeitsuitableforusein
thesespecialballoons.
t r y t his
1 One-third fill a glass vial with
glass vial
glycerine. Carefully pour an equal
volume of coloured water down
the inside of the vial so that it flows
gently onto the glycerine, as shown.
Drop a small piece of perspex into
the vial. Observe what happens,
and try to explain it in terms of
density.
coloured water
glycerine
2 Does a fresh hens egg sink

or float in water? Try it. Now
add salt to the water, while
stirring carefully, and observe
what happens. Explain your
observation.
A rotten egg floats in
fresh water. Suggest why.
3.2 Solidliquidgas
The three different states of matter can be
changed from one to another by adding or
removing heat. These changes are called changes
of state.
If you heat a solid it will form a liquid. For
example, ice melts to produce liquid water.
Metals such as iron and gold also melt if you heat
them enough.
sublimation
melting
solidification
or freezing
ENERGY OUT (cooling)
condensation
Heating also causes evaporation of liquids

to produce gases. For example, when water
is heated it evaporates to form water vapour,
which is a gas. The hotter the water gets, the
more quickly it evaporates. When bubbles of
water vapour appear in the water it is said to be
boiling. The water vapour forms more quickly,
and is now called steam. This occurs at 100C,
the boiling point of water. Water can evaporate
at any temperature, but boiling occurs only at the
boiling point.
Cooling causes gases to condense and form
liquids. For example, steam is invisible, but
when it meets cooler air it forms a cloud. This
is because the steam condenses to form tiny
droplets of water. A similar thing happens in the
bathroom when you have a hot shower. Some
of the hot water evaporates and changes into
water vapour. Because the air in the bathroom is
cooler, the water vapour condenses to form tiny
evaporation
or boiling
Solid gold melts at about 1000C. The liquid

gold can then be poured into moulds.
ENERGY IN (heating)
Fig 18
drops of water which float in the air and fog up

the mirror. Similarly, as water from the Earths
surface evaporates it forms water vapour. As this
water vapour rises it becomes cooler and may
condense to form clouds and perhaps rain.
Cooling also causes water to freeze or solidify.
This occurs naturally when snow and hail form.
We use the same process to make ice blocks and
ice-cream. Molten metal can be poured into
moulds to solidify into various shapes (see
Fig 18).
Some solids do not change to a liquid when
they are heated. Instead they turn straight into a
gas in a process called sublimation. For example,
dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. When it sits on
the bench it soon warms up and changes directly
into gaseous carbon dioxide, which is invisible.
Another way to look at changes of state is to
think of the three states of matter as rungs on an
energy ladder. To change state by climbing up the
ladder, energy must be added to the matterit
must be heated. To change state by going down
the ladder, energy must be taken from the
matterit must be cooled.
61
62
ScienceWorld8forNSW
The particle theory
More than 2000 years ago in ancient Greece a
philosopher called Democritus suggested this
hypothesis: all matter, living and non-living, is
made of tiny particles too small to be seen. His
idea was that if you kept cutting something into
smaller and smaller pieces you would eventually
come to the smallest possible particlesthe
building blocks of matter. He used the word
atomos (which in Greek means cannot be
divided) to describe these tiniest particles. This
is where the word atom comes from. (You will
learn about atoms in Chapter 8.)
Since then scientists have done many tests with
matter, and the results have always agreed with
Democritus hypothesis. Such a hypothesis that is
supported by many experimental results is called
a theory. So the hypothesis that matter is made
up of tiny particles too small to see is now called
the particle theory of matter.
This particle theory can be used to explain the
properties of solids, liquids and gases.
The particle theory

of
matter
1 All matter is made up
of tiny
particles too small to see.
2 There are spaces betw
een the
particles.
3 There are attractive fo
rces between
particles. The weaker thes
e forces
are, the further apart the
particles
are.
4 The particles are alway
s mo
ving.
5 At high temperatures
the particles
move faster than they do
at low
temperatures.
Solids
The particles in a solid (eg steel) are packed

tightly in a fixed pattern. There are strong forces
called chemical bonds holding them together,
so they cannot leave their positions. The only
movements they make are tiny vibrations to and
fro.
We cannot see these invisible particles, but we
can use a model. For example, we can represent
the particles by the students in your class. When
everyone is sitting down, the class is a model for

a solid.
The word model has a special meaning in
science. It is not the latest model car or a fashion
model. It is a way of representing something
that is too small to be seen, or too large or
complicated to be studied easily. A model is not
the real thing. It is only a representation that
helps you understand or explain something.
Liquids
HEAT
The particles in a liquid (eg water) can move

about and slide past each other. They are still
close together but are not in a fixed pattern. The
forces (bonds) that hold them together are weaker
than those in a solid.
When the students are moving about busily

doing practical work, the class is a model for a
liquid.
HEAT
Gases
The particles in a gas (eg air) are far apart, and

they move about very quickly. There are still
attractive forces between them but they are very
weak. The particles collide with each other and
the walls of the container, and bounce off in all
directions.
When the lesson is over students go in many

different directions. Some may stay in the room,
while others go to different parts of the school.
63
64
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Activity
1 Make a model for matter by putting some
ball bearings in a flat dish or box.
What do the ball bearings represent?
What does the dish or box represent?
Draw the arrangement of the ball
bearings.
What state of matter does this
represent?
2 Shake the dish gently so that the ball
bearings move about.
Describe the new arrangement of ball
bearings.
What state of matter does this
represent?
3 Shake the dish vigorously.
Describe the new arrangement. What
state of matter does it represent?
Your teacher may demonstrate this model
using a dish on an overhead projector.
Explaining melting
We can use the particle theory to explain changes
of state. When a solid is heated, its particles gain
more energy and vibrate more. This makes the
solid expandget bigger. At the melting point the
particles vibrate so much that they break away
from their positions. When this happens the solid
becomes a liquid.
solid
heat
The particles
vibrate more.
heat at melting
point
A liquid is
formed.
Teacher note: It is possible to buy special

magnetic marbles for this activity.
Fig 24
The particle theory can be used to explain

the melting of a solid.
Activity
Explaining boiling
When a liquid is heated, its particles have more
energy and move faster. They bump into each
other more energetically and bounce further
apart. This makes the liquid expand. At the
boiling point, the particles have enough energy
to break the bonds holding them together. They
break away from the liquid and form a gas.
At low temperatures the

particles in the liquid move
slowly.
Set up the apparatus shown below and

observe carefully what happens.
Where does evaporation occur?
Where does condensation occur?
Where does water exist in:
a a solid state?
b a liquid state?
c a gaseous state?
ice cubes
watchglass
beaker
heat
gauze mat
Bunsen burner
(or hotplate)
water
tripod
As the liquid gets hotter,

the particles move more
quickly. Some have
enough energy to break
the bonds holding them
together and escape
(evaporate).
heat at boiling
point
Science
in action
To see how this works,
open the Particle
theory animation on
the CD.
At the boiling point all the

particles have enough
energy to evaporate.
Fig 25
The particle theory can be used to explain

the evaporation and boiling of a liquid.
If you are fascinated by the weather, you may

be interested in becoming a meteorologist.
Meteorologists study how water evaporates from
the Earths surface to form water vapour which rises
into the atmosphere where it condenses to form tiny
water droplets which we see as clouds.
Meteorologists analyse and interpret weather
data collected around Australia, including satellite
photos. They then prepare weather reports for TV
and newspapers, and issue warnings for storms,
cyclones, floods and droughts. They work in field
stations throughout Australia and its territories,
from the tropics to Antarctica.
65
66
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
8 MELTING AND BOILING

stopper
with hole
Aim
Tomeasureandgraphthetemperature
asicemeltstowaterandthenboils.
Materials
For information on
using dataloggers,
smallbeaker,eg250mL
open the ICT
crushedice
skillsheet on the CD.
thermometer
(10to110C)or
dataloggerandtemperatureprobe
burner,tripod,gauzeandheatproofmat
stopwatch
stirringrod
retortstandandclamp
stopperwithholetoholdthermometerinclamp
graphpaper
stirring rod
thermometer
crushed ice
Wear safety
glasses.

ReadthroughtheMethod.
Whatsafetyprecautionswillbenecessary?
Whichistheindependentvariableand
whichisthedependentvariable?Howdo
you know which is which?
Designadatatable,withcolumnsforthe
twovariablestobemeasured.
Method
1 Setuptheapparatusasshown.
2 Half-illthebeakerwithcrushedice,and
measureitstemperature.(Remembertowait
untilthereadingissteady.)
Recordthetemperatureoftheiceinyour
datatable.
3 Lighttheburnerandadjustittoamediumlame.
Putitunderthebeakerandimmediatelystart
timing.
4 Measurethetemperatureeveryminute.Usethe
stirringrodtostirgentlybeforeeachreading.
Continueyourmeasurementsuntilthewaterhas
beenboilingfor3or4minutes.
Recordthedatainthedatatable.
5 Graphyourresultsorprintthemfromthe
datalogger.
Discussion
1 Whatcausedtheicetomelt?
2 Whatdidyounoticeaboutthetemperatureas
theicemelted?
3 Whatdidyounoticeaboutthetemperatureas
thewaterboiled?
4 Yourgraphhastwolatsectionsjoinedbya
slope.Whatdoesitmeanwherethegraphis
lat?Onthegraph,markwhentheiceismelting.
Alsomarkwherethewaterisboiling.
5 Useyourgraphtoindthetemperatureofthe
water10minutesafteryoustartedheating.
6 Predictthetemperatureofthewater
10minutesafteritstartedtoboil.
7 Thetemperaturedidnotincreasewhiletheice
wasmeltingandwhilethewaterwasboiling
eventhoughtherewasaconstantsupplyof
energyfromtheburner.Usetheparticlemodel
toexplainwherethatenergywasgoing.
Check!
LIQUID
freeze
Copy the diagram above. Put one word in

each box and on each arrow to summarise
what you know about changes of state.
Complete these sentences:

a The melting point of ice is the
temperature when it changes from
a ______ to a ______.
b The melting point of ice is ______C.
c The boiling point of water is the
temperature when it changes from a
______ to a ______.
d The boiling point of water is ______C.
Choose from the words solid, liquid or
gas to say what type of substance will be
formed when:
a a gas condenses
b a liquid freezes
c a solid melts
d a liquid boils
Changes of state
a
b
c
d
e
Name the change of state that occurs

when
a dew forms on the grass
b a bottle of perfume is opened and can
be smelt on the other side of the room.
c a puddle of water on the road
disappears when the sun shines.
d moth balls placed in a suitcase of
clothes are gone after a few months.
e lava flows from a volcano and slowly
forms a rock called basalt.
Heating
Cooling
solid to liquid
liquid to gas
gas to liquid
liquid to solid
solid to gas
Indicate whether each of the following

statements is true or false. If the statement
is false, rewrite it so that it is true.
a Melting occurs when a solid changes to
a liquid.
b All matter consists of particles.
c To change a liquid to a gas you have to
cool it.
d Solids have a definite shape because
their particles are free to move around.
e Water can evaporate at any
temperature.
f If water boils for a long time, its
temperature rises above 100C.
g Condense is the opposite of evaporate.
h The particles of a gas are so far apart
that they do not attract each other at all.
i The particles of a solid do not move.
Write your answers in complete sentences.

4
The table below lists five changes of state.

For each change decide whether heating or
cooling is needed. Copy the table and tick
the correct columns.
b
c
In which state do the particles move

fastest?
In which state are the particles closest
together?
In which state are the particles close
together but not arranged in a regular
pattern?
In which state of matter are the bonds
between particles greatest?
67
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
6 Belowisagraphshowingthechangein
temperatureovertimeaswaxisheated.
1 Luigiwearsglasses.Heindsithardtosee
when he enters a hot steamy bathroom. Use
whatyouhavelearntinthischaptertoexplain
this.
100
Temperature (C)
68
50
A
0
2 Ifgasesandliquidsarebothmadeofparticles,
whyaretheirpropertiessodifferent?Explainin
termsofparticlesandbonds.
3 Answerthesequestionsincompletesentences.
a Howcanyoumaketheparticlesinasolid
move faster?
b Whataretheparticlesdoingifaliquidis
evaporating?
c Whatcanhappentoagasifitsparticles
slowdown?
4 Whenyoucookfoodinasaucepanwithalid
on,youmaynoticewaterontheinsideofthelid.
Why is this?
5 Useyourknowledgeoftheparticletheoryto
explaineachchangeinthediagramsbelow.
10
20
Time (min)
30
a Whichpartofthegraphshowsthatachange
ofstateistakingplace?
b Whatisthemeltingpointofthewax?
c Whatisthestateofthewaxduringtheirst
10minutesofheating?
d What is the state of the wax between C
and D?
e Inwhichpartofthegrapharethebonds
betweenthewaxparticlesgreatest?
7 Hexaneisusedasanindustrialsolvent.Ithas
ameltingpointof94Candaboilingpointof
69C.
a Ishexaneasolid,aliquidoragasatroom
temperature(20C)?
b Ifhexaneisheatedto90Cwouldyou
expectittobeasolid,aliquidoragas?
8 Whichwouldevaporatemorequickly:waterina
lattray,orwaterinanopenbottle?Explainyour
answerintermsoftheparticletheory.
9 Whydoclothesdryfasteronawindydaythan
theydoonacalmday?
10 Angiewantedtokeepheryoghurtcool,soshe
putitinajarwithsomeiceandscrewedthelid
ontightly.Whenshewenttoputitinherlocker
15minuteslater,shesawthattheoutsideofthe
jarwasquitewet.
Everyonehadagoatexplainingwhathad
happened(seethecartoon).
a Whoseinferencedoyouagreewith?Why?
b Canyousuggestabetterinference?
11 Dryiceissometimesusedtocreatefogand
mistonstage.Ifcarbondioxideisinvisible,how
canyouseethedryicefog?
12 Onahotdayyouperspire(sweat).Asthis
perspirationevaporatesitcoolsyou.Usethe
particletheorytoexplainhowevaporation
producescooling.
A fourth state of matter

We are familiar with the three states of matter we
find on Earthsolids, liquids and gases. However
there is a fourth state of matter called plasma
which makes up 99% of the universe. Plasma
consists of charged particles that are even further
apart than the particles in a gas. You dont see
much plasma on Earth because it requires very
high temperatures. However the sun is made of
plasma, as are all the stars.
Lightning is a type of plasma that occurs
naturally on Earth. You may have seen a plasma
sphere in a science centre. The glass sphere
contains a gas at a very low pressure and when
very high voltage passes through it, it glows and
looks like bottled lightning. Plasmas also occur
in neon signs and fluorescent bulbs.
Because the particles in a plasma are charged,
they are affected by a magnetic field. Loops of
plasma erupt from the surface of the sun and
follow the curved magnetic field of the sun.
Scientists are experimenting with plasmas as hot
as 100 million degrees. They are trying to make a
The jar
must have
leaked.
Water from
the ice has come
through the jar.
Water in
Coldness comes
the air
through
the glass
sticks to
and
turns
to water.
the glass.
Jan
an
Se
An
gie
h
Ko
fusion reaction that produces energy as the sun

does. They use powerful electromagnets which
create a magnetic bottle to contain the superhot plasma.
< WEB watch >

To find out more about plasmas, go to
links to Amazing Plasmas.
69
70
ScienceWorld8forNSW

We have used the particle theory to explain solids,
liquids and gases, and how they can change from
one state to another. In this section we will try to
use it to explain some other properties of matter.
Diffusion
If someone opens a bottle of perfume in the
middle of the classroom you soon smell it in other
parts of the room. The fragrance spreads through
the air in all directions. This gradual mixing of
substances is called diffusion.
Lets explain how perfume diffuses. When the

lid is on, the gas particles remain inside the bottle.
When the lid is taken off, the liquid perfume
evaporates easily. Since there are only weak
forces between the particles, they can spread
out, moving away from the crowded bottle to
places where there are fewer particles of perfume.
Eventually the particles spread evenly throughout
the air in the room.
Activities
A Put a beaker on a sheet of white paper and
half fill it with water. Let it stand for a while
to let the water become perfectly still. Use
a pair of tweezers to drop a single crystal
of potassium permanganate (Condys
crystals) down a drinking straw as shown.
Then leave the dish undisturbed overnight.
Explain what you observed in terms of
particles.
potassium
permanganate
crystal
tweezers
drinking straw
B This activity involves the poisonous gas

nitrogen dioxide and can only be done
as a teacher demonstrationin a fume
cupboard.
Place a few pieces of copper in a small
beaker. Pour a few drops of concentrated
nitric acid on the copper and immediately
cover the beaker with a larger beaker, as
shown.
Observe what happens to the brown
gas. (It helps to put a piece of white
cardboard or paper behind
the beakers.)
white
Use a
fume
cupboard.
cardboard
beaker
water
white paper
copper +
nitric acid
As you saw in the activity on the previous
page, when a crystal of potassium permanganate
is placed in water, the water slowly turns purple.
Both the crystal and the water are made of
particles. Being in the liquid state, the water
particles are moving and bump into the particles
The water particles are
continuously moving.
in the crystal. This causes some particles to leave

the crystal and move into the spaces among
the water particles, as shown below. This is the
process of dissolving. As the particles continue to
move, they diffuse throughout the water and the
purple colour spreads evenly.
Particles leave
the crystal.
Because the particles are all

moving, they become evenly
mixed.
crystal
Activities
Your teacher may demonstrate the following
activities. For each activity, predict what you
think will happen, then observe what happens
and finally explain what happened.
A Using a ball and ring apparatus (or other
metal shapes), put the ball through the
ring. Then heat the ball strongly and try to
put it through the ring again.
What do you predict will happen if you
heat the ring and try again? Try it.
B Fill a flask with coloured water and fit
a stopper with a piece of glass tubing
through it. The coloured water in the tube
should reach just above the stopper. Mark
this level with a marking pen. Put the
flask in a container of hot water for a few
minutes. Now put it in a container of cold
water.
How could you use this apparatus to
measure temperature?
C Put a balloon over the mouth of a flask.
Heat the flask gently using a Bunsen
burner.
Write a generalisation to explain the results
of all three activities.
ball
ring
glass tube
coloured
water
hot water
71
72
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Expansion and contraction
Air pressure
As you saw in the activity, solids, liquids and

gases all expand (get larger) when they are
heated. That is, they occupy more space.
Similarly, when they are cooled they contract
(get smaller) and occupy less space.
In solids the particles vibrate in fixed positions.
As the solid is heated the particles absorb energy,
vibrate more violently and start to bump into
each other. This causes them to move further
apart so that they have more room for their
violent vibrations. As a result, the solid as a
whole expands. When the solid is cooled, energy
is lost. The particles slow down again and occupy
less space (contract).
Expansion and contraction of liquids and
gases can be explained in a similar way.
When Rhys pulls into the service station, he

discovers his car has a flat tyre. What keeps the
tyre inflated is air pressure. The invisible particles
of air are only tiny but they move very rapidly
about the speed of a rifle bullet. These tiny bullets
bombarding the walls of the tyre cause the air
pressure. What has happened to Rhys is that
some of the air has escaped from the tyre and
there are not enough particles to give the pressure
needed to keep the tyre inflated. Rhys gets the
tyre fixed and pumps it up with compressed air.
Now the air pressure is back to normal.
HEAT
(expansion)
COOL
(contraction)
Fig 43
Fig 42
In the cool balloon the air particles

move slowly. In the warm balloon the
faster-moving particles hit the walls
of the balloon more violently, pushing them
out and causing the balloon to expand.
A flat tyre contains few air particles and the

air pressure is low. An inflated tyre contains
many air particles and the pressure is high.
It is a hot day and Rhys drives non-stop for

two hours to get to the beach. When he checks
the tyre pressure, he finds it has gone up. There
cant be any more air particles in the tyre. What
has happened is that friction between the tyre and
the road has caused the air inside the tyre to heat
up. This means the particles have more energy
and are moving faster and hitting the walls of
the tyre harder. Hence the air pressure is higher.
When the tyre cools down, the particles will lose
energy and slow down, and the pressure will
return to normal.
You have seen how the particle theory
(page 62) can be used to explain changes of state,
diffusion, expansion and contraction, and air
pressure. You can now try to explain some other
properties of matter for yourself.
Activity
For each observation below write an
inference to answer the question in terms of
the particle theory. Draw a model to explain
what is happening to the invisible particles.
1 Observation: Lead is four times denser
than aluminium.
Question: How can you explain this?
2 Observation: Add a teaspoon of sugar to
a glass of water and stir.
Question: Explain what happens.
3 Observation: You can pour water from
one container to another, but honey is
much harder to pour, especially when it
has been in the fridge.
Question: How can you explain this?
4 Observation: Crystals have a definite
shape, with straight edges and sharp
corners. For example, salt crystals are
cubes, while quartz crystals (below) are
like pointed columns.
Question: How can you explain these
different shapes?
5 Observation: Hold your finger over the

end of a bicycle pump and push in the
plunger. Let go of the plunger and it
moves back to where it came from.
Question: What pushed the plunger
back?
6 Observation: Make a soap

film on a frame like the one
shown below. Pull the thread to
stretch the film. When you release the
thread the film contracts, pulling back
the thin wire.
Question: Why does this happen?
73
74
ScienceWorld8forNSW

attract
1 Matter has ______ and takes up space (its ______).
heat energy
2 There are three common ______ of matter on Earth: solids, liquids
mass
density
moving
and gases.
3 ______ is how much mass is packed into a measured volume.

4 Materials may be natural, processed or ______. What you use a
material for depends on its ______.
5 Matter can be changed from one state to another when ______ is

added or removed.
6 The particle ______ of matter states that all matter is made of
properties
spaces
states
synthetic
theory
volume
particles too small to see. These particles:

have______betweenthem
______eachother
areconstantly______
movefasterasthetemperatureincreases.
REVIEW
1 The statement All matter is made of

particles is:
A an observation
B an inference
C a prediction
D a generalisation
3 A substance has no fixed shape. From this

information it would be correct to say that the
substance is a:
A gas
B solid or liquid
C liquid or gas
D solid or gas
2 Copy the diagrams below and label them by

replacing the letters (AG) with one of these
words: condensation, evaporation, gas, liquid,
melting, solid, solidification.
4 Give three examples of how the use of a

substance depends on its properties.
G
A
F
B
Table of densities (g/cm3)
aluminium
lead
platinum
polystyrene foam
petrol
water
2.7
11.3
21.5
0.1
0.7
1.0
6 Archimedes was asked to find out if the crown

belonging to the king of Syracuse (in ancient
Greece) was made of pure gold. The king
thought some silver may have been added to
reduce the amount of gold needed. Archimedes
decided to use his knowledge of density to
solve the problem. He found the volume and
mass of the crown. He also found the mass
of an equal volume of pure gold. Here are his
results.
volume of crown = 100 cm3
mass of crown = 1500 g
mass of 100 cm3 of pure gold = 1930 g
a What is the density of pure gold in g/cm3?

b What was the density of the crown?
c Was the crown made from pure gold?
7 Write a paragraph describing the advantages
and disadvantages of plastic, paper and
cotton canvas for making supermarket bags.
In your answer use these words: processed,
non-renewable, renewable and synthetic.
SALE
8 The questions below refer to the following list

of some of the possible properties of particles.
Rate of movement
A vibrating or moving very slowly
B moving around freely but slowly
C moving freely and rapidly
Spaces between particles
D very close together, almost touching
E fairly close together
F wide spaces between them
Forces between particles
G very strong bonds
H held together to some extent but free
to move around
I very weak bonds
a Aluminium is a solid. Which three

properties listed above would probably be
true of its particles?
b Ozone is a gas. Which three properties
would probably be true of its particles?
c Petrol is a liquid. Which three properties
would probably be true of its particles?
d Steel cannot easily be compressed. Which
description in Spaces between particles
would best explain this?
e Diamond is a very hard substance. Which
two properties above would best explain
this?
f Property E in the above list can sometimes
be changed to property F by:
A heating the substance
B cooling the substance
C putting it in another container
D compressing the substance
9 Use the particle theory to explain each of the
following questions:
a Why do gases have much lower densities
than solids and liquids?
b Why do gases condense to form liquids
when cooled?
REVIEW
5 Mercury is a liquid with a density of 14 g/cm3.

Use the table below to find something that
would sink in water but float in mercury.
75
76
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Learning focus: An idea can gain
acceptance in the scientific community as
either theory or law
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
From idea to theory
Democritus (de-MOK-rit-us) was a Greek philosopher

who lived from 460 to 357 BC. He had the idea that
everything is made of atoms.
John Dalton (17661844) turned Democritus idea into

a scientific theory. There is more about Dalton on
page 181.
Use the internet and other resources to research

the following questions about Democritus
and Dalton. You could search under atomic
theory history. Do this individually or in a
group. Because there are so many questions you
may need to divide the task between different
individuals or groups.
1 Why did Democritus use the Greek word
atomos to describe invisible particles of
matter? (see page 62).
2 Were Democritus particles all the same?
Explain.
3 How did Democritus explain the difference
between a solid and a liquid?
4 Who was Leucippus?
5 Did the ancient Greeks do scientific
experiments? Explain.
6 We know very little about Democritus and his
ideas. Suggest a reason for this.
7 Aristotle was a famous Greek philosopher. Did
he agree with Democritus ideas? Explain?
8 Were the Greeks the only ancient people to
come up with the idea of atoms?
9 In the Middle Ages the church associated
atomic thinking with Godlessness. Suggest a
reason for this.
10 Suggest why Democritus idea was not
developed any further for 2000 years.
11 When did people start doing proper scientific
experiments?
12 What experiments were done by Dalton and
other scientists around 1800?
13 What was Daltons atomic theory?
Once you have finished your research, share
your findings with the class. Then use what you
have found out to discuss these final questions.
14 Why was Dalton able to convert Democritus
idea into a scientific theory? Why did this
process take more than 2000 years?
15 Do you think the atomic theory has changed
since the time of Dalton? Explain.
4
Building
blocksoflife
Planning page
Getting started
Activity page 79
Using a microscope
Activity page 81
Drawing cells
4.1 Cells
page 79
TRB
Assessment task 4
A model cell
Investigate 9
Observing cells
Activity page 87
Activity page 90
Investigate 10
Observing flowers
Activity page 96
4.2 Growth and reproduction

page 89
page 93
Main ideas
Chapter 4 crossword
Review and Lab review
TRB
Chapter 4 test
Learning focus: The place

of social and ethical
considerations in science

Stem cell research
78
ScienceWorld8forNSW
t
l learn abou
r you wil
In this chapte
LearningFocus
the place of social and ethical considerations in science (page 101)

positive and negative impacts of recent applications of science (page 101)
cell theory
unicellular and multicellular organisms (page 79)
Skills
safely use a microscope (Skillbuilder page 80, Activities pages 81 & 87, Investigate 9 and 10)
presenting informationdrawing cells (Skillbuilder page 83)
presenting informationusing tables (Activity page 96)
x100
You are using a magnifying glass to look at a

tiny insect on a stick. The magnifying glass
has x2 on it. What does this mean?
Another magnifying glass has x4 on it. How
is this different from the first one? What will
you see if you look at the insect with this
magnifying glass?
The organisms in this photo live in freshwater
ponds and creeks. What does the x100 mean
on the photo? Can you think of a way to find
out how big these organisms are?
Chapter4 Buildingblocksoflife
4.1 Cells
All organisms are made of small building blocks
called cells. Your body contains over 3 billion of
them. Most cells are very small and can be seen
only with a microscope. However some cells, such
as birds eggs, are large enough to be seen with
your eye. The emu egg is the largest single cell of
all!
Some organisms are unicellular. These single
cells are complete organisms. The photo below
shows unicellular organisms called euglena
(you-GLEEN-a), which live in fresh water and
contain chlorophyll to make their own food by
photosynthesis.
x4000
Fig 4
Red blood cells are specialised cells that

carry oxygen around your body.
flagella
x500
Fig 5
Nerve cells have an irregular shape. They

carry nerve messages throughout your body.
Activity
x200
Fig 3
Euglena live in freshwater lakes and ponds.

Long, whip-like hairs called flagella at one
end of the cell help it move through the water.
Multicellular organisms contain many different

types of cells and each type of cell is specialised.
This means that each type of cell has a different
job to do in the organism. For example, in
humans, red blood cells carry oxygen, muscle
cells contract and relax to move bones and
organs, nerve cells conduct nerve messages, and
stomach lining cells make substances which help
in the digestion of foods.
The photos of the cells on this page are many

times larger than the actual size of the cells.
Each photo shows the number of times that
the cell has been magnified. For example, the
x200 on the euglena photo means that the
cells have been magnified 200 times. You can
use this information to find the actual sizes of
the cells.
Measure an average-sized euglena cell
with your ruler. Then divide this by 200 (the
magnification) and give your answer in
millimetres.
Use this method to find the sizes of the
other cells in the photos.
79
80
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Skillbuilder
Using a microscope
In this chapter you will be using a microscope
to view different types of cells
Parts of the microscope

Study the diagram below which shows the
parts of a microscope. Your microscope may be
slightly different from this one. However, the
basic parts will be the same. If you are in doubt,
ask your teacher for advice.
eyepiece lens
body tube
Setting up a microscope
1 Rotate the objective lenses until the low
power lens clicks into position directly
above the hole in the stage. (The low power
objective lens is usually the shortest one,
and has the lowest number stamped on it,
eg 4.)
2 Place a hair on a
microscope slide and put
it on the stage.
3 Looking from the
side, turn
the focusing
knob to move
the lens very
close to the
slide.
4 Now look through the
eyepiece lens and move the objective lens
away from the slide until the hair is in focus.
Rotate the higher power
objective lens into place.
(You may need to use the
fine focus knob to make the
image clearer.)
objective lenses
stage clips
stage
focusing knobs
coarse
adjustment
fine adjustment
light source
base
Observing prepared slides
What x10 means
of a
A microscope magnifies things. Each lens
ked
microscope has its magnifying power mar
on it.
the
Look at the eyepiece lens. You may see
lens
this
number 10. This means that
inal size.
magnifies things to 10 times their orig
same way.
The objective lenses are marked in the
roscope
The total magnifying power of the mic
eyepiece
is found by multiplying the power of the
. If the
lens by the power of the objective lens
then the
10,
is
e
eyepiece is 10 and the objectiv
es.
tim
microscope will magnify the object 100
Your teacher will give you a microscope slide

containing some cells for you to practise your
microscope technique.
Observe the shapes and features of the cells.
Questions
1 A microscope has a x4 eyepiece and a x10
objective. What is the total magnification of
the microscope?
2 When focusing, why do you turn the
focusing knob so that the objective lens
moves away from the slide?
3 A hair is 0.005 mm wide. How wide would
it be if you looked at it with the lenses in
Question 1?
Activity
Making a wet-mount slide
1 Place a drop of water in the middle of a
microscope slide.
2 Cut out a small lower case e in the piece
of newspaper and place it on the drop
of water on the slide. Cover the e with
another drop of water.
3 Place the edge of the cover-slip on the
edge of the drop of water, and lean it on a
pencil, as shown.
4 Lower the pencil slowly and let the coverslip fall flat on the slide. (This stops air
bubbles forming under the cover-slip.)
You should do this a few times to master
the skill. Show your slide to your teacher.
5 Place the slide on the stage and observe

the letter under low power.
Record your observations. Is the e the
right way up? Move the slide to the left.
Which way does the e move when viewed
through the lens?
Questions
1 Suppose you place the number 5 under
the microscope. Draw what you would
expect to see through the lenses. Explain
your drawing.
2 A cell is 0.01 mm long and 0.02 mm wide.
How big would it be if you viewed it under a
microscope with a 10 eyepiece lens and
4 objective lens?
81
82
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Cells in organisms
The cells of living things vary in shape and
function, but they do have features in common.
All cells are surrounded by a thin covering
called a cell membrane, which acts like a fence
controlling the movement of substances into and
out of the cell. The cell membrane also helps to
hold the cell together and to give it shape.
The round, dark-coloured object in the cells in
the photos below is the nucleus (NEW-klee-us).
This controls all the cells activities, and without
it the cell eventually dies.
The inside of cells is filled with a jelly-like
substance called cytoplasm (SIGH-toe-plaz-um).
This is where many chemical reactions take
place. The cytoplasm also contains many other
small bodies and structures called organelles
(OR-gan-els). These help to keep the cell

functioning correctly.
How are plant cells different from animal
cells? Plant cells have a cell wall on the outside
of the cell membrane. This is a thick, tough layer
that protects the softer parts inside the cell and
also provides stiffness that helps support the
plant.
Plant cells also contain large liquid-filled
spaces called vacuoles (VAK-you-oles) where
water and dissolved substances are stored. Some
animal cells have small vacuoles, but most have
none at all. Inside the cytoplasm of plant cells
there are organelles called chloroplasts. These
contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which is
needed for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis occurs
in the chloroplasts.
Animal cells
Plant cells
These cells are from the inside lining of a human

cheek. The diagram below will help you interpret
the photo.
These cells are from the leaf of a plant. The

diagram below will help you interpret the photo.
600
1200
cell wall
nucleus
cell
membrane
cell
membrane
vacuole
cytoplasm
chloroplasts
cytoplasm
nucleus
Science
in action
Shane is a baker. He makes different kinds of bread with
the help of a unicellular organism called yeast.
When making bread, Shane adds the basic
ingredientsflour, sugar, water and yeastand mixes
them together to form dough. The dough is then left for
a while in a warm place. During this time, the yeast cells
grow and multiply rapidly using the sugar as a food.
Yeast cells get the energy needed for growth and
reproduction by breaking down the sugar. Carbon dioxide
and alcohol are produced as waste products. This process
is called fermentation.
glucose
carbon dioxide + alcohol
The carbon dioxide gas given off by the yeasts causes

the bread to rise and makes the holes in the bread. When
the bread is baked, the heat of the oven quickly evaporates
the alcohol from the dough.
Skillbuilder
Drawing cells
In the next investigation you will be using
the microscope to observe some animal
and plant cells. In these observations, you
should include drawings in your report.
How to draw cells

1 Always use a sharp HB pencil, and have
a clean eraser handy.
2 The cells you see under the microscope
are fairly complicated. Try to keep your
drawings as simple as posssible.
3 Choose 2 or 3 cells to draw. Draw the
lines and shapes. Dont shade or colour
the drawing.
4 Make the drawing as large as possible.
Include only the structures you can
identify. Label these structures.
83
84
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
9 OBSERVING CELLS
Aim
To use a microscope to observe plant and animal
cells.
Materials
microscope
2microscopeslidesandcover-slips
pieceofonion
methylenebluestain
leaffromafreshwaterplant(egelodea)
smallpiecesofapple,mincemeat,fresh
chicken, moss, potato, spirogyra etc

CarefullyreadthroughPartsA,BandC,
and make a list of the materials you will
need for each part.
Askapartnertodescribewhattheyare
going to do in Part A. Then you describe
whatyouaregoingtodoinPartB.
4 Observe both slides under low power, then

under higher power.
Record the differences between the two
slides. In which one are the cells more easily
observed? Which parts of the cell can you
easily see?
Draw two or three stained cells. Label the
cell wall, the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
PART B
L ook in g a t chloroplasts
Method
1 Tear a small leaf from the top of the freshwater
plant.
2 Prepare a slide as you did for the onion skin,
butthistimeusetheleaf.(Youcanuseadropof
waterorthemethylenebluestainifyouwish.)
PART A
O n i o n ski n ce lls
Method
1 Remove one layer from the onion. Then peel a
small piece of the very thin skin from inside the
layer.
2 Put a drop of water on a slide then place the
piece of onion skin on the drop. Add another
drop of water on top of the onion
skin. Then add a cover-slip
as shown below.
onion skin
drop of
water
3 Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with a second slide,

but instead of adding water, add one drop of
methylene blue stain. Then place a cover-slip
over the onion skin.
3 Observe the leaf under low power, then under

higher power.
Use the photo of the plant cells on page 82
to help you identify the round chloroplasts, the
cell wall, the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Draw a labelled diagram of what you
observe. How do these cells compare with the
onion cells from Part A?
PART C
O t her ce lls
Method
1 For this part you will look at cells in apple,
mince meat, chicken, moss, potato, spirogyra,
duckweed etc.
2 Place a small amount of material on the end of
a toothpick. Scrape it onto a slide.
3 Addadropofwaterandacover-slip.Youcan
add a drop of stain if you wish.
Discussion
1 Why is a stain used when observing cells?
2 What general shape are the onion cells? Do
other types of cells also have a regular shape?
Do other cells have the same shape as onion
cells?
Video microscope: Your teacher may

connect a camera to a microscope to show
you different types of cells.
Observe the cells. Draw and label two or

three of the cells.
Bacteria
Sizes of cells
You have seen that cells have a variety of shapes
depending on their function. Most animal and
plant cells are about 0.005 mm to 0.02 mm in
diameter. The largest single cell is the ostrich egg,
which is about 15 cm long. However, the longest
cell is a type of nerve cell found in the giant squid
and can be up to 7 metres in length.
Bacteria are unicellular organisms and have a

much simpler cell structure than animal and
plant cells. A bacteria cell is usually smaller than
other cells, ranging in size from 0.0005 mm to
0.003 mm.
Bacteria are usually classified by their shape.
There are rod-shaped ones (bacilli), spherical
ones (cocci) and spirals (spirilli). Bacteria have
a cell wall, but no nucleus. This is the major
difference between a bacterial cell and a plant or
animal cell.
Questions
1 What is the main difference between an
animal cell and a bacterial cell?
2 What is the average diameter of an animal or
plant cell? What is the average diameter of a
bacterial cell? How much larger is an average
animal cell than an average bacterial cell?
< WEB watch >

links to Bacteria.
Use the websites to find out about different types
of bacteria: the ones that cause disease and the
ones that are useful to us.
85
86
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Cells, tissues and organs
Unicellular organisms such as euglena contain
all the structures necessary to exist on their own
and be independent from other cells. However,
the cells in large, multicellular organisms are
generally specialised, and therefore need to work
together with other cells for the survival of the
organism. For example, a single cheek cell cannot
exist on its own for very long and will die after a
short time outside the body.
Cells of the same type are generally found
together in tissues. A tissue is a group of similar
cells organised to do a particular job. For
example, the muscle tissue in the wall of your
stomach and gut is made from muscle cells. The
nerve tissue in your brain and spinal cord is made
from nerve cells.
In multicellular organisms, various tissues are
arranged into a structure called an organ. An
organ is a collection of specialised tissues that
has a particular function. For example, a leaf
whose main function is to make food, contains
food-making tissue, transport tissue, support
tissue and lining tissue.
muscle cell
nerve cell
Fig 17
muscle tissue
nerve tissue
Many cells of the same kind combine to form

tissues in the body.
The leafa plant organ
Food-making tissue
The cells in this
tissue contain many
chloroplasts and are
generally found
underneath the top
surface of the leaf.
Lining tissue
The cells in this tissue
act as a skin for the
leaf. They are flat and
have a waxy coating to
stop the leaf from
losing water.
Transport tissue
These cells form the
tubes that carry water
up from the roots,
and nutrients from
the leaves to other
parts of the plant.
Support tissue
have an irregular
shape and act like a
framework to support
the leaf and help form
its shape.
Activity
You will need a microscope and slide, some
prepared slides of various tissues, some clear
nail polish and a leaf.
A Looking at tissues
Set up a microscope and ask your teacher
for a prepared slide of a tissue.
Draw a sketch of the cells in a small
section of the tissue (about six to ten cells).
Write down the name of the tissue (this
will be written on the slide).
B Observing the cells on a leafs surface
Brush some nail polish on the underside of a
leaf, so that it covers an area about the size
of a 20 cent piece. Let it dry for a few minutes.
The stomach is an organ whose function is to

break down (digest) food. It contains glandular
tissue which produces substances that chemically
break down foods, muscle tissue which churns
the food, and connective tissue which holds the
other tissues together.
Peel the dried nail polish from the leaf and

look at it under a microscope. You will see a
copy of the surface cells on the leaf.
You will also see cells that form holes or
pores in the surface of the leaf. Find out from
the library what these pores are called. What
is their function?
Connective Tissue
This tissue is found between
other tissues and helps to
hold these tissues together.
from the mouth
Muscle Tissue
The cells in this
tissue contract and
relax, thus helping
to mix and move the
digestive food in the
stomach.
stomach
to small
intestine
Fig 20
stomach
cut open to
show lining
The tissues in the stomach have a number

of functions. Cells in the gland tissue make
chemicals that help digest foods, and muscle
tissue moves the stomach to help mix the food.
Gland Tissue
make substances that
help break down the
food in the stomach.
87
88
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Copy the following sentences into your

notebook, then complete them using the
words you have learnt in this section.
a Organisms are made of building blocks
called ______.
b Cells in large organisms are called
______ cells, because they perform a
particular function.
c The lens that you look through at the
top of a microscope is called the ______.
d Organelles are found in the ______ of a
cell.
e Chloroplasts are organelles that contain
______.
Explain the difference between a tissue and

an organ. Give an example and use the
words cells and function in your answer.
On page 79, the word multicellular was

used. Explain what this word means.
Look at the diagram of the leaf on page 86.

Make an inference for each of the following
observations.
a The lining cells are very flat and fit
together like tiles.
b There are many chloroplasts in the
food-making cells.
c There are holes or pores in the
underside of the leaf.
d The cells in the support tissue fit
together like trusses in a house frame.
You are an illustrator for a Year 8 science

textbook. Try to explain, using labelled
drawings, how to make a wet-mount slide.
Draw up a table similar to the one below

and list the features of plant and animal
cells so you can compare them. One feature
has been done for you.
Plant cells
Have a nucleus
Animal cells
Have a nucleus
A microscope lens has 10 marked on it.

What does this mean?
Copy the drawing of a cell below into your

notebooks. Use the information in the table
above to determine whether it is a plant cell
or an animal cell, then label the cell.
1
2
3
5
4
Describe the function of each of the five

parts of the cell in Question 3.
challenge
1 A microscope has two eyepiece lenses, 4 and
10, and three objective lenses, 4, 10 and 40.
a What combination of lenses gives a 160
magnifying power?
b What are the lowest and highest magnifying
powers of the microscope?
c A specimen was photographed using the 10
and 10 lenses. On the photo the
specimen measured 55 mm in diameter.
What is the actual size of the specimen?
2 a What does the letter F look like through a

microscope?
b Under a microscope you observe a tiny
insect moving diagonally across a slide, as
shown in the diagram. Where
should you place your
finger to prevent it from
escaping from the
slide?
4.2 Growth and

reproduction
When a bean seed is planted in moist soil, the
roots begin to grow and become larger and
longer. This growth occurs because certain cells
in the roots multiply and make more cells by a
process called cell division.
Producing new life

All organisms reproduce to make more of their
own kind. Unicellular organisms do this by cell
division. They simply split in two to produce
offspring that are identical to the original
organism. This is called asexual reproduction.
cell
division
cell growth
Fig 24
Fig 23
All living things grow when cells divide to

make new cells. Each of these new cells then
grows in size and becomes a mature cell.
All living things grow by making new cells.

Your body grows rapidly in stages up to the age
of about 15. During this time your bones grow
thicker and longer. For example, your thigh bone
(femur) grows to about three times the length
it was when you were born. Bone cells in the
enlarged rounded ends of the femur divide to
make new cells.
Your skin grows in much the same way.
Certain cells below the surface of the skin divide
to make new cells. So, as the bones and other
parts of your body grow larger, your skin also
grows. However, unlike bones, which stop
growing at adulthood, cell division continues in
your skin until death. The skin continually loses
cells from its surface and replaces them with
new ones.
Microscopic organisms, like these

paramecia, reproduce by splitting in two.
Larger organisms reproduce sexually. To do

this, the two parents (one male and the other
female) produce sex cells. These cells are different
from other cells. They can combine to make a cell
that eventually becomes a new and independent
organism.
The female sex cell is called an ovum or egg
cell. Ova (plural of ovum) are made in organs
called ovaries (OH-var-ees). The male sex cell is
called a sperm cell and is much smaller than ova.
Sperm are made in organs called testes (TES-teez).
When a sperm and ovum meet, the nuclei of
the two cells join together, and a new living thing
is formed. This process is called fertilisation
(FUR-til-eyes-AY-shun).
Fertilisation can occur externally or internally.
For example, in humans internal fertilisation
occurs. The male deposits the sperm inside the
females body. They then swim towards the ovum,
where fertilisation occurs. Female frogs, on the
other hand, release their eggs in the water, and
sperm released by the male swim to the eggs.
89
90
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Fig 25
Human sperm cells (2500) look like miniature

tadpoles. They use their tail to swim through
liquid. The head of the sperm contains the
nucleus and a small amount of cytoplasm.
The sex cells of organisms are not all the same

size and shape. Fig 27 shows the actual sizes of
ova from five different animals.
Fig 26
A human ovum (1000) with sperm cells on

its surface. The ovum is much larger than
a sperm cell, because it has much more
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains food for
the fertilised egg during the first few days of
cell division and growth.
Activity
mullet
frog
hen
human
mouse
Fig 27
The sizes and shapes of five different ova
The eggs of mammals are small compared with

the eggs of birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish.
They have only a small quantity of cytoplasm,
because the eggs develop internally and receive
nourishment from the mother within a few days
of fertilisation. In birds and many other animals,
the fertilised egg develops outside the mothers
body and must contain enough food for the
whole period of growth.
Break open a hens egg in a flat glass dish

or petri dish. Notice the yellow yolk and clear
albumen (the white). These make up the
cytoplasm of the cell.
Look at the yolk carefully and you should
see a tiny white patch. This is the nucleus
of the egg. It is this part of the egg that
develops into a young chicken.
Observe the ropes in the albumen. These
keep the young chicken in place in the egg
and stop it
albumen ropes
egg shell
from rolling
over.
yolk
nucleus of egg
albumen
Dogs
Eggs and life cycles

Humans
In humans, a baby girl at birth has ovaries that
each contain about 200 000 eggs. These eggs do
not begin to mature until certain changes take
place in a young girls body. These changes occur
during a stage called puberty (PEW-ber-tee). In
girls, this occurs somewhere between the ages 10
and 14.
From the onset of puberty, a womans ovaries
will produce usually one egg a month for about
the next 40 years. At about age 50, the ovaries
stop producing eggs. This is called menopause.
The ovaries in a female dog contain thousands

of immature eggs when it is born. At about
6 months old, the female dog starts producing
mature eggs. This is the period the female is said
to be on heat, and it is a sign that she is ready
to mate with a male dog. Unlike in humans, the
ovaries in dogs can release many eggs during this
period, and the female can give birth to as many
as 15 puppies.
Female dogs go on heat about every
6 months, so it is possible for dogs to have two
litters of puppies in a year. The pregnancy lasts
just over two months.
Chickens
Like humans and dogs, hens are born with many
thousands of immature eggs in their ovaries. At
3 months of age, hens start laying eggs. They have
been bred to lay up to 200 eggs a year. However,
these eggs are usually used for food and not for
producing more chickens. The eggs you buy at the
supermarket have not been fertilised by a rooster
and therefore cannot develop into chickens.
The ancestor of the modern hen was the
red jungle fowl, found in South-East Asia. It is
believed that this bird was domesticated about
4000 years ago. The present-day jungle fowl lays
between 3 and 12 eggs a year, which is similar to
the number of eggs laid by other birds.
91
92
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Copy and complete the following sentences.

a ______ ______ is a process in which cells
split into two.
b In organisms that reproduce sexually,
the male produces ______ and the
female produces ______.
c Fertilisation occurs when the ______ of
sex cells combine.
d In males the ______ produce sperm, and
in females the ______ produce eggs.
Name two places in the body of a 1-year-old
child where cell division occurs. Would this
be the same for a 50-year-old person. Give a
reason for your answer.
Look at the Term and Meaning lists top
right. Match the terms in the left-hand
column with the meanings in the right-hand
column. To do this, draw up a table like the
one below.
Term
Meaning
challenge
1 Celldivisioninmicroscopicorganismscan
occur rapidly if the conditions are suitable. For
example, bacteria can divide every 20 minutes.
Assuming one bacterium divides every 20
minutes, and none die, how many bacteria
would there be after six hours?
2 Women usually give birth to one child at a time,
but multiple births do occur. Identical twins
occur when the egg splits into two just after
fertilisation and each develops separately.
Fraternal twins occur when two eggs are
released from the ovary and each is fertilised by
a different sperm.
Use the information above to answer the
following questions.
a Identical twins are always the same sex and
look almost exactly alike. Why?
Term
Meaning
ovary
where sperm are made
semen
when the nuclei of a sperm

and ovum join
fertilisation
a liquid containing sperm
ova
the organ that produces

eggs
testes
female sex cells
Look at Figs 25 and 26 on page 90. Use

a ruler and the information given in the
captions to calculate the sizes of a sperm
cell and an ovum.
Why do sperm cells have tails while eggs do

not?
External fertilisation occurs in frogs and

mullet. Suggest why these animals produce
many more eggs than humans or mice do.
A male usually releases millions of sperm

when it is mating with a female.
a How many of these sperm do you think
usually fertilise the females ovum?
Suggest a reason for your answer.
b Suggest why the male makes and
releases so many sperm.
b Why is it possible to have fraternal

twins with quite different features?
c Suggest why twin births are much less
common than single births.

All organisms reproduce, but not all organisms
do this in the same way. In animals, sperm can
fertilise eggs inside the females body (internal
fertilisation) or outside the females body after
she has laid her eggs (external fertilisation). In
mammals, birds and reptiles fertilisation takes
place internally, while in most other animals the
eggs are fertilised externally.
Fig 33
Fig 32
Fertilisation occurs externally in frogs.

However, in some types of frogs, to make
fertilisation more effective, the male clasps
the females back and produces sperm while
she lays her eggs.
Newly hatched turtles scramble towards the

water. Many of the hatchlings die because
there is no parental care and therefore no
protection from enemies.
Birds and mammals produce considerably

fewer eggs than reptiles, frogs and other animals.
Young birds and mammals are generally
dependent on their parents for food, warmth
and protection from enemies. This increases the
chances of survival of the young. For example,
newly hatched birds cannot fly and cannot feed
themselves and would certainly die without the
protection of one or both parents.
The table at the top of the next page compares
the method of reproduction and the parental care
of four different types of animals.
Caring for offspring

The young animals that hatch from eggs which
are laid and fertilised externally are completely
independent of each other and of their parents.
For example, when a frogs eggs hatch, the
tadpoles swim away from the leftover egg mass
and have to find their own food and protect
themselves from enemies.
The eggs of reptiles are fertilised internally, but
most reptiles do not care for their young after the
eggs hatch. For example, sea turtles lay their eggs
in the sand on the beach. The eggs are covered
up and left to incubate. When the young turtles
hatch, they dig their way to the surface and then
scramble down the beach to the water. On their
journey to the water, many of the young turtles
are eaten by birds and other animals.
Fig 34
These newly hatched birds

are completely dependent
on their parents for food,
warmth and protection from
enemies.
93
94
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Bream
(fish)
Number of
eggs produced
each year
How eggs are
fertilised
Parental care
Green tree frog
Magpie
(bird)
Common wombat
(mammal)
about 5 million
up to 2000
three or four
one
externally in water
(sea)
Nonethe eggs are
left in the water, the
young hatch and
have to find food and
protection.
externally in water
(ponds and creeks)
Nonethe eggs
are protected by a
mass of jelly, but
after hatching the
tadpoles have to find
food and protection.
internally
internally
The female sits on

the eggs until they
hatch, then feeds
and protects the
young until they
can fly.
A bean-sized baby
is born, which
develops inside the
mothers pouch for
up to 10 months.
It is then protected
by the mother for
another 10 months.
Parental care in seahorses

Many animals have peculiar reproductive
behavioursthe seahorse is one such animal.
The seahorse is a bony fish (as distinct from
non-bony fish such as sharks and rays), and in
most bony fish fertilisation occurs externally.
The female seahorse has a long, hollow
appendage called an ovipositor. In some types of
seahorses, she uses this to place her eggs in the
males front belly pouch. Here he fertilises the
eggs and protects them until they hatch (note the
belly pouches on the two male seahorses in the
photo).
< WEB watch >

links to Wildlife Africa.
This is a commercial website, but it has
interesting information on the habits and
behaviour of many African animals.
Reproduction and survival in

flowering plants
Trees, shrubs, bushes, palms and grasses are
examples of flowering plants. All these plants
reproduce sexually. Flowers contain the
reproductive organs that make the sex cells.
Pollen contains sperm cells and is made in the
anthers. The ova, or eggs, are made in the ovaries.
Pollen lands on the stigma of the flower (part of
the female reproductive organs). The pollen tubes
carrying the sperm then grow down the style and
the sperm eventually fertilise the ova in the ovary.
Asexual reproduction
Some flowering plants are able to repr

oduce asexually
as well as sexually. For example, a stra
wberry plant
has flowers and produces fruit (strawb
erries)
containing seeds. The plant can also send
out runners
from which new strawberry plants grow
. This form
of asexual reproduction produces new
plants with
features identical to the original plan
t.
Investigate
10 OBSERVING FLOWERS
Aim
PART B
To dissect a flower and identify its parts.
Di s sect in g a f lowe r
Materials
afewdifferenttypesoflowers,eghibiscus
petridish
smallbrushortoothpick
microscopeandmicroscopeslide
cavitymicroscopeslide
single-edgedrazorblade
stereomicroscopeorhandlens
Method
1 Touch the end of the stigma with your finger or
a pencil. Notice that it is sticky.
2 Use forceps to gently hold a flower while you
cut it in half by cutting down the stem.

CarefullyreadthroughPartsAandB,and
make a list of the materials you will need for
each part.
Make a list of the safety precautions you
will need to take in this experiment.
PART A
O bs er vi ng flo w er s
Method
1 Use the diagram of a flower below to identify
the following parts of one of your flowers
petal, sepal, stigma, anther, filament and ovary.
pollen on stigma
petal
anther
stamen
filament
style
4 Use a stereomicroscope or hand lens to

observe the ovary and ovules.
Record your observations. Draw the
arrangement of the ovules in the ovary.
5 Cutanantherinhalfandobservethepollen
grains with the stereomicroscope. Repeat this
for other flowers.
2 Repeat for other flowers.

stigma
3 Look at the ovary. It contains a number of

rounded objects called ovules. Each ovule
containsanegg(ovum).
Record your observations.
Discussion
1 Why is the stigma sticky?
2 Different types of flowers have different shapes
and sizes of pollen. Suggest a reason for this.
3 Infer the functions of the sepals.
ovary
containing
ova
sepal
pollen tube
growing down
towards ova
4 The petals on most flowers are brightly

coloured. Suggest a reason for this.
5 What is meant by the word pollination. How is
it different from fertilisation?
95
96
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Seeds and dispersal
After the ova have been fertilised and the seeds
develop, the petals, sepals and stamens of the
flower wither and fall off. The ovary becomes
a fruit with the seeds inside it (or sometimes on
the outside of it, eg a strawberry). In some fruits,
such as apples, the wall of the ovary thickens to
form an edible fruit. In others, such as eucalypts,
it is hard and woody.
Seeds must be spread away from the adult
plant to give the plants that grow a better chance
of survival. This is called dispersal. There are four
main methods by which fruit disperse their seeds.
1 The seeds fall out of the fruit and are carried
away by the wind.
2 Animals eat the fruit, and the indigestible
seeds pass out of the animal in its droppings.
In this way the seeds can be spread many
kilometres away from the adult plant.
3 Some seeds are sticky or have hooks or
spikes which get caught in the fur or hair of
animals. These seeds may be carried a long
way before they fall off or are rubbed off.
4 Some fruit explode, throwing out the seeds.
Science
in action
Nick Hansa operates a large native plant nursery. For
many years he has studied plants, and their methods
of reproduction and seed dispersal.
He often goes looking for the seeds of rare or
endangered native plants. To do this, he needs to
know the type of seeds the plants produce.
For plants whose seeds are very small and are
normally dispersed by wind, he covers the seed pods
with special bags before the seeds mature. When the
seed pods open, the seeds fall into the bag and are
collected.
Larger seeds are collected on the ground after
they have fallen from the plants.
Activity
1 Collect about 10 different types of fruit or
the seeds from the fruit.
2 Draw up a data table and classify the
seeds into groups, depending on the way
you infer they are dispersed. Include a
brief description of the way each group
of seeds is dispersed in your data table.
3 Find more fruits or seeds, classify them
and add them to your table.
4 Take digital photos of the seeds or fruit
and present your report in a PowerPoint
presentation. Or design a poster to
record and display your results and talk
about your findings to the class.
< WEB watch >

Fruit and seed dispersal
Has great photos and interesting descriptions.
Seed dispersal
Contains video clips showing types of seed
dispersal.
97
Growing plants from cuttings

Many plants, including flowering plants, are
able to reproduce from parts of the adult
plant. This is a form of asexual reproduction
called vegetative reproduction.
Strawberry plants send out runners which
produce new strawberry plants with leaves
and roots. Potatoes are actually underground
stems called tubers. The buds (eyes) that
develop on a potato can grow into new
potato plants.
The advantages of vegetative reproduction
are that a plant can multiply quickly in a
place which suits it, and that it stops other
plants from growing near it.
You can try growing plants from cuttings
using the instructions opposite and the hints
below.
Leaf cutting
1
sealed plastic bag

not touching the leaf
leaf stalk
moist propagating mix
Helpful hints
1 Plants that are suitable for leaf cuttings are
the ones which have soft, furry or velvety
leaves: for example, African violet and
coleus. You could also try begonia and
snowflake (Euphorbia leucocephala).
2 Many types of shrub or small tree are
ideal for growing plants from stem
cuttings.
3 Daisies, fuchsias and native correas
propagate easily from cuttings. For best
results use a good quality propagating
mix.
4 When growing plants from stem cuttings,
dip the stem into some plant cutting
powder (root growth powder). This will
promote root growth on the cutting.
5 Do not over-water the propagating mix.
It is best to add a little water often.
6 The plastic bag stops the plants from
drying out and dying from water loss. You
can also buy mini-hothouse trays at plant
nurseries to grow your plant cuttings in.
Place the cut end of the leaf stalk in a pot of

moist propagating mix. Then tie a large clear
plastic bag over the pot. Make sure the bag
does not touch the cutting.
If the leaf has large veins, use a sharp knife

to cut three or four of them as shown. Lay the
leaf flat on a pot of moist propagating mix.
sealed plastic bag
moist propagating mix
leaf
small cut in leaf vein
Stem cutting
Cut a stem about
10 cm long and remove
all but 2 or 3 of the
leaves at the top of
the stem. Dip the cut
end of the stem in
plant cutting powder.
Then tie a large clear
plastic bag over the
pot. Make sure the
bag does not touch
the leaves.
bamboo
stake for
support
sealed
plastic bag
not touching
the leaf
moist
propagating
mix
98
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Some of the following statements are false.

Choose the false ones and rewrite them to
make them correct.
a Pollen contains the male sex cells and is
produced in the ovary.
b Fertilisation in most reptiles occurs
externally.
c Young reptiles are dependent upon their
parents for food and protection.
d All flowering plants reproduce sexually.
Describe the degree of care given to their

young by most:
a fish
b frogs
c birds
d mammals
Suggest why the number of eggs produced

per year by different types of animal
decreases as the degree of parental care
increases.
About 3 in every 100 000 eggs laid by a

bream grow to be adult fish.
a Suggest why the survival rate of the
eggs is so low.
b Use the table on page 94 to work out
how many adult bream would be
produced from the eggs laid by a bream
in a year.
Use your own words to describe what the

word disperse means on page 96.
Suppose a particular type of plant can

reproduce sexually (by seeds) as well as
asexually (by sending out runners). List the
advantages and disadvantages of each type
of reproduction for the plant.
The coconut is a fruit with a very hard

covering. It is hollow and does not sink
in water. Suggest how coconut seeds are
dispersed.
The photo shows

a close-up of the
seeds of the plant
called cobblers
pegs. Suggest how
these seeds are
dispersed.
challenge
1 Suggest why plants with bright flowers are
mainly insect-pollinated, while grass flowers are
usually wind-pollinated.
2 The seeds below are drawn at their actual size.
a Whichone(s)doyouthinkwouldbe
dispersed by the wind? Give a reason for

your answer.
b Whichone(s)mightbecaughtonthefur
of animals. Give a reason.
seed A
seed B
seed C
seed D
3 In most types of frogs, the eggs are laid in the

water together in a mass of foul-tasting jelly,
whereas fish lay their eggs individually in the
water. Suggest how these two reproductive
behaviours help in the survival of each type of
animal.
4 Many types of animals show courtship behaviour
before they mate and produce offspring. Use
the internet and other library resources to find
out what courtship behaviour means. Write a
report of what you find out, giving examples.
How does courtship help in the survival of each
animal?
5 The most devoted
parent award for
caring for offspring
should go to the male
emperor penguin.
Use library books
or the internet to find
out why the emperor
penguin would win
this award.
Copy and complete these statements to make a summary of this

chapter. The missing words are on the right.
cell division
1 All organisms are made of ______. There are many different
cells
types of cells, with different shapes and different functions.
2 A ______ can be used to identify the various parts of a cell: the

nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm and organelles. A ______,
chloroplasts and vacuoles can be observed in plant cells.
3 Cells of the same type are generally found together in ______.

Each type of tissue has a particular ______ in an organism.
4 Tissues are arranged in structures called ______ in multicellular

organisms. Each tissue has a specific function in an organ.
5 An organism grows in size by making new cells in a process
cell wall
disperse
fertilisation
function
mammals
microscope
organs
reptiles
sperm
tissues
called ______.
6 In sexual reproduction, ______ occurs when the nucleus of a ______

cell joins with the nucleus of an ovum.
7 Organisms that care for their young (birds and ______) generally produce
fewer eggs than those whose young are independent (fish, ______ and
frogs).
8 Flowering plants show a variety of methods to ______ their seeds away

from the adult plant.
REVIEW
A cell is observed under a microscope to have a

nucleus, cytoplasm and organelles. The cell is:
A definitely an animal cell.
B definitely a plant cell.
C either a plant cell or an animal cell.
Which one of the following statements about
cells is false?
A Plant cells have large vacuoles.
B A nerve cell is an example of a specialised
cell.
C All cells are rectangular or brick-shaped.
D Plant cells have cell walls.
Match the cell part in the list with the correct

description below.
cell membrane
chloroplast
cytoplasm
nucleus
vacuoles
cell wall
a an organelle that is involved in the process

of photosynthesis
b the jelly-like material that fills a cell
c the part of the cell that controls its activities
and keeps it alive
d a covering that controls the movement of
materials into and out of a cell
e a thick, tough layer that helps support and
protect the cell
f liquid-filled spaces found in some cells.
99
ScienceWorld8forNSW
1 00
A microscope has a 10 objective lens and a

4 eyepiece lens. How big would an object
0.05 mm in diameter appear through the
microscope?
REVIEW
Kate labelled a drawing of a microscope, but

she made some mistakes. In your book write
the correct names of parts 1 to 7.
1
2
4
5
Kates list
1 objective lens
2 body tube
3 focusing knob
4 eyepiece lens
5 stage
6 light
7 stage clips
10 The fruits and seeds from various plants are

shown in the diagrams below. Infer how the
seeds are dispersed by each type of plant.
seed
fruit
open cap
seeds
wing
seeds
a pine
seed
b apple
c eucalypt
seeds
3
6
fruit
spikes
d burr
e paw paw
Microscope licence test

6
a A male fish externally fertilises the eggs laid

by a female fish. Give two reasons why
many of the eggs are never fertilised.
b Less than 0.5% of eggs laid by a frog reach
adulthood, but over 60% of eggs laid by
birds reach adulthood. Suggest reasons for
this.
You will be working in pairs and assessing each

others work in this practical test of microscope
skills.
You will be givena microscope, microscope
slide and cover-slip and a small piece of
newspaper which contains a few letters. Your
teacher will also give you an assessment grid to
help you assess your partners task.
Explain how a unicellular organism is different

from a multicellular organism.
Why is your stomach called an organ?

Use the words cells and tissues in your answer.
Your taskto make a wet-mount slide of some

letters on a small piece of newspaper without
any air bubbles or excess water, and then draw it
under the microscope.
The two cells in the drawing below are found

in different tissues in your body. The cell
from tissue A is box-like and makes a watery
substance called mucus. The cell from tissue B
is very flat. Infer the function of each tissue and
where it might be found in your body.
The testyour teacher and the class will discuss

what you have to do to pass the licence test.
Your partner will then assess the quality of your
wet-mount slide and drawing and record your
results on the assessment grid. Remember, you
can only pass or fail this test. If you fail you must
repeat the test until you pass.
Your teacher may issue you with a microscope
operators licence when you pass the test.

cell from tissue A
cell from tissue B
Learning focus: The place of social and
ethical considerations in science
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
Stem cell research

Imagine if scientists
could produce
Christopher Reeve, the star of the film, Superman

(1978), was paralysed when he fell from a horse
in 1995. He was confined to a wheelchair and
for the rest of his life he lobbied politicians to
approve stem cell research to find a cure for
people with spinal cord injuries. But what are
stem cells?
Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can
develop into any one of over 200 different types
of cells in the body. They can also divide and
make accurate copies of themselves (see page
89). Scientists see the possibility of using these
stem cells to treat some diseases and to replace
damaged tissue.
Where do scientists get stem cells? They can be
found in bone marrow, but unfortunately these
stem cells have already started to become the cells
they will replace. However, stem cells in human
embryos (35 days old) have not yet started to
develop, so they are much better to use. So far
scientists have used donated embryos remaining
after IVF procedures. However, the problem is
If they could do this

they could treat
nerve cells
spinal cord injuries and

Parkinsons disease
heart muscle cells
damage caused by heart

attacks
insulin-producing cells
diabetes
skin cells
burns and ulcers
retina cells
some kinds of blindness
whether it is ethically correct to use these human

embryos.
With any scientific development there will
always be people who are for it and people
against it. Religious groups and right-to-life
groups are against the use of embryonic stem cells
because they believe that even though they are
unborn, the embryos have the right to life. There
is also a fear that the use of stem cells could lead
to humans being grown in the laboratory. On
the positive side, the potential medical benefits of
stem cell research are enormous, as listed in the
table above.
As Christopher Reeve once asked Is it more
ethical for a woman to donate unused embryos
that will never become human beings, or to let
them be tossed away as garbage when they could
help save thousands of lives?
Corner discussion
1 Your teacher will put the following signs in the
four corners of the room: agree, disagree,
unsure but I think I agree and unsure but I
think I disagree.
2 Do you think leftover human embryos should
be used for stem cell research? Move to the
corner that applies to you.
3 People in each corner now try to convince
the people in the two unsure corners to join
them. Everyone should be given a chance to
contribute to the discussion.
101
5
Energyin
ourlives
Planning page
Getting started
Investigate 11
Energy from food
5.1 What is energy?

page 104
Activity page 108
5.2 Forms of energy

page 107
Animation
Roller-coaster
Investigate 12
Observing energy changes
Assessment task 5
Energy changes
Investigate 13
Where does the energy go?
TRB

page 116
Main ideas
Chapter 5 crossword
Review
Learning focus: Different
groups use different
criteria to make a decision
about an issue
Chapter 5 test

Nuclear power station inquiry
TRB
Chapter5 Energyinourlives
t
l learn abou
r you wil
In this chapte
LearningFocus
different groups use different criteria to make a decision about an issue (page 125)
viewpoints about issues with a major scientific component (page 125)
the law of conservation of energy (page 117)

natural resourcesfossil fuels and renewable & non-renewable energy (pages 118120)
technologyenergy transformations (Section 5.2)
Skills
gathering first-hand information using dataloggers (Investigate 13)

processing informationusing mathematics (Investigate 11)
presenting informationusing graphs (Investigate 13)
You have probably used the word energy

many times, but what is energy? And are your
ideas about energy the same as other peoples
ideas? A good way to sort out your ideas is by
brainstorming. To do this follow these six steps.
1 Sit in a group of about six people, facing
each other.
2 Select someone to write down all the ideas.
3 Everyone should try to give at least one idea
about energythe more ideas the better at
this stage. If you cant think of anything here
are some suggestions:
Think of a sentence with the
word energy in it.
Draw something with a lot of energy.

What do we use energy for? List the
different types of energy and give
examples.
4 Dont discuss the ideas yet, and dont criticise
anyone elses idea.
5 After 2 or 3 minutes of brainstorming, discuss
the groups ideas about energy. You might like
to select some of these ideas, write or draw
them on a large sheet of paper and present
them to the class.
103
1 04
ScienceWorld8forNSW
5.1 What is energy?

If you use a torch for a long time, the light
gradually gets dimmer and dimmer until it no
longer shines. We say the batteries are flatthey
have run out of energy. In a similar way you cant
pedal a bicycle or dig in the garden for too long
because your body runs low on energy. If you
dont eat food, your body becomes weaker and
weaker. This is why we say that food gives us
energy.
Everything around us depends on energy.
Plants need energy from the sun to make food.
Cars depend on the energy stored in petrol.
Energy is used in homes, offices and industry to
run all sorts of machines. It is used for lighting
and heating our homes, and for cooking and
storing food.
Obviously energy is very important to us, but
you probably found in Getting Started that it is
difficult to say exactly what it is. It is easier to say
what energy can do. If you have a lot of energy,
then you can do a lot of work. You do work
when you use a force to move something. Energy
is the ability to do work.
The more energy something has, the more
work it can do. A gale-force 100 km/h wind has
more energy than a gentle 10 km/h breeze. It can
therefore do more work, for example turning
windmills or ripping off roofs. Also, a raised
sledgehammer has more energy and can do more
work than an ordinary hammer, because it is
heavier (has more mass).
Lets see who can bang
their nail in the fastest.
Anything that does work must have a supply

of energy. A motorbike will not keep running
unless it is supplied with petrol. Petrol provides
energy that the engine uses to do work. When
you pedal a bicycle, the energy comes from the

muscles in your body, and your muscles get their
energy from the food you eat. If you have a
higher intake of energy than you need, then the
extra energy is stored in your body as fat. On the
other hand, an inadequate energy diet will lead to
a thin and unhealthy body.
Energy source
- petrol
Fig 3
Energy source
- food
The bicycle and the motorbike both need

energy to move them.
Measuring energy
In talking about how much energy something
has, it is important to have a unit for
measuring energy. In the same way that the
litre is the unit for measuring volume, energy
has a unit called the joule (J). This unit was
named after a British scientist called James
Joule. You use one joule of energy to lift a
100 gram mass one metre. Because a joule is
only a small amount of energy, it is common
to use kilojoules (kJ) and megajoules (MJ).
The table on page 106 shows you how
much energy is involved in various everyday
activities.
= 1000 joules
1 kilojoule
1 megajoule = 1 000 000 joules
To find how much energy is stored in food,
you can turn it into heat and measure what
that heat can do. In Investigate 11 you will
burn some food to do that. Of course there are
no fires burning inside you. The food combines
with oxygen in your cells in the chemical
reaction called respiration, and heat energy is
released.
Investigate
11 ENERGY FROM FOOD

Aim
To find out how much energy is released
when a small piece of food burns.
Wear safety
glasses.
Materials
smallpieceoffood,egNutri-Grainor
Tiny Teddy
Bunsenburner
wiretomakeholder
Teacher note: When
smalltesttube
selecting foods remember
thermometer
some students may be
measuringcylinder
allergic to burning peanuts.
standandclamp
thermometer

Readthroughtheinvestigation,then
describe to your partners what you have
todo,measureandrecord.
Whatdatawillyouneedtorecord?
Whatsafetyprecautionswillbe
necessary?
Method
2 cm
piece of food
wire
holder
1 Use the measuring cylinder to measure exactly

10 mL of water into a small test tube.
2 Clamp the test tube as shown.
3
Use a thermometer to measure the initial

temperature of the water.
4 Usethewiretomakeaholderforthepieceof
food.
5 LighttheBunsenburner.Thenputthefood
inthelame.Assoonasitcatchesire,holdit
about2cmunderthetesttube.
6
Whenthefoodstopsburning,stirthewater
gentlywiththethermometer,andmeasurethe
final temperature.
7 Ifyouhavetime,repeattheexperimentwith
otherfoods,egpotatocrisps,nuts,bread,rice,
spaghetti.
Discussion
1 Byhowmanydegreesdidthetemperatureof
the water increase?
2 Ittakes4.2joulestoraisethetemperatureof
1mLofwaterby1C.So,tocalculatetheheat
energygainedby10mLofwater,multiplythe
temperatureriseby42.Youranswerwillthen
beinjoules.
3 Doyouthinkalltheenergyfromtheburning
food went into heating up the water in the test
tube? Explain.
4 Were there any problems with the investigation?
Ifso,suggesthowtheseproblemscouldbe
fixed.
105
1 06
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
6
1
For each of the following words, write a

sentence to show that you understand its
scientific meaning.
force
work
energy
How do you know if something has energy?
Why can a cricket ball do more work than a

golf ball moving at the same speed?
How many joules are there in:

a a kilojoule?
b a megajoule?
Use the table below to answer these

questions.
a How much energy does the average
person get from the food they eat in a
day?
b How many kilojoules of energy does a
burning match produce?
c Which has more energy stored in ita
car battery or one litre of petrol?
d Is there enough energy stored in a
battery to boil a kettle of water?
Where does the energy needed to start

a car come from?
If you leave the lights on while your car
is parked for a few hours, you may have
trouble starting it. Why?
In a science lab, Alex and Holly are doing an

experiment on the chemical energy stored
in foods. Look carefully at the illustration.
List at least five things they are doing that
are unsafe.
Energy involved in everyday activities (in kilojoules)

Energy produced by a burning match
10
Energy you gain by eating a chocolate biscuit
300
Energy needed to boil a kettle of water
700
Energy you use in walking 5 km
1000
Electrical energy stored in a car battery
2000
One days hard work
7000
Average energy gained from the food you eat in a day
11 000
Electrical energy used by a family home each day
80 000
Energy stored in five litres of petrol

Energy made by a power station every second
160 000
2 000 000
Why do you puff and pant

after running quickly or
exercising?
In Getting Started on
page 103 a student said
that whenever a change
occurs, energy is involved.
For example, a kettle boils
when you supply heat
energy. Give as many
examples as you can to
illustrate this idea.
5.2 Forms of energy

There are many different forms (types) of energy.
Kinetic energy
Any moving object has kinetic (kin-ET-ic) energy.
When you run you have kinetic energy. A moving
train has a large amount of kinetic energy. The
kinetic energy of the strong winds in a cyclone or
tornado can cause a lot of damage. As a moving
object slows down, it loses kinetic energy. When
it stops it has no kinetic energy.
Fig 6
Gravitational potential energy

Much of the energy around us is stored energy.
We notice it only when it changes to other forms.
It has the potential to do work, so stored energy
is called potential energy. For example, the
stored energy that something has when it is high
up is called gravitational potential energy. This
energy is there ready to be used because of the
pull of gravity. When you are at the top of a slide
you have gravitational potential energyyou
have the potential to slide to the bottom. The
heavier you are, and the higher the slide, the more
potential energy you have. As you slide down,
this gravitational energy is changed to kinetic
energy. Energy can easily change back and forth
between potential and kinetic.
The winds in cyclones and tornadoes have a

huge amount of kinetic energy.
The amount of kinetic energy an object has

depends on its speed. The faster the object moves,
the more kinetic energy it has. For example, a
cricket ball bowled by a fast bowler has more
kinetic energy than one bowled by a spin bowler.
Kinetic energy also depends on the mass of the
moving object. The larger the mass, the greater
its kinetic energy. A cyclist and a bus may be
travelling at the same speed, but the bus has much
more kinetic energy because it has greater mass.
Fig 7
At the top of the slide you have gravitational

potential energy.
To see how energy changes back and forth

between potential and kinetic, open the
Roller-coaster animation on the CD.
107
1 08
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Elastic potential energy
When you jump on a trampoline, what pushes
you into the air? Try to visualise what happens
in slow motion. The trampoline consists of a
frame with a flexible mat attached by springs.
When you land on the mat, it moves down,
stretching the springs and storing energy called
elastic potential energy in them. As the stretched
springs return to their original size and shape,
they release their stored energy. The mat is pulled
back up, and you are thrown into the air.
A wind-up toy stores elastic potential energy.
So does a stretched elastic band. The more it is
stretched, the more elastic energy it has, and the
more work it can do.
Fig 8
The elastic energy stored in the stretched

trampoline springs throws you into the air.
Activity
Make a motormouse as shown.
large
cotton
reel
nylon or metal
washer
rubber band
Step 1
Thread a rubber
band through the
cotton reel.
pencil
Step 3
At the other end, put
the washer over the
rubber band, then
put a pencil through
the rubber band.
To make it go, simply wind up the pencil until

the rubber band is tightly twisted. Then put
the motormouse on the floor and let it go.
broken
match
What type of energy does the

motormouse have when you let it go?
tape
Step 2
Put a piece of broken
match through one
end of the rubber
band. Tape the match
to the reel so it will
not move.
What type of energy did it have before

you let it go?
Energy is needed to wind up the
motormouse. Where did this energy come
from?
Investigate the relationship between
the number of turns of the pencil and the
distance the motormouse travels.
Chemical energy
Sound energy
Energy is stored in chemicals as chemical energy.

When fuels such as wood and petrol are burned,
this stored energy is released as heat and light.
Foods also contain chemical energy which can be
used by our bodies.
Sound is a form of kinetic energy caused by

vibrating objects. It travels from place to place as
sound waves. The louder the sound is, the more
energy it has, and the more work it can do by
vibrating things such as your eardrums.
Nuclear energy
Heat energy
Energy is also stored inside atoms as nuclear

energy. It can be released from some atoms, eg
uranium atoms, in nuclear power stations.
Heat is a form of energy that hot objects have.

If heat energy is taken away from an object, it
becomes cooler. This is what happens in
refrigerators and in air-conditioned rooms.
Fig 10
Nuclear energy stored in hydrogen atoms is

the source of the Suns energy.
Light energy
Burning chemicals, very hot objects and stars all
release light energy. It travels through space in
waves (as do radio and TV waves, microwaves
and ultraviolet waves). Light energy from the
sun, called solar energy, is used by plants to make
their food.
Electrical energy
Electrical energy is widely used because it is
easily transmitted by wires to the place where it
is needed. It can be changed into other forms of
energy by the many electrical devices that have
been invented. It can also be stored in batteries.
light energy
kinetic
energy
Fig 11
Electrical
energy
can be
converted
to...
heat energy
sound energy
Electrical energy is very useful because you can

easily convert it into other forms of energy. Four
different energy converters are shown here.
109
1 10
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Energy changes
Energy can be transferred from one object to

another. In golf, a ball at rest is made to move by
a moving golf club. Some of the kinetic energy of
the club is transferred to the ball.
KINETIC
ENERGY
HEAT
ENERGY
The club
has kinetic
energy, but
the ball
has none.
Some of
the kinetic
energy of
the club
has been
transferred
to the ball.
Fig 13
Rubbing your hands together converts

kinetic energy into heat energy.
Fig 14
The energy conversions that occur when a

candle burns.
CHEMICAL ENERGY
Another everyday energy transfer occurs when

you heat water on a stove. Heat is transferred
from the gas flame or the electrical heating
element to the water, causing it to boil.
Energy can also be converted or transformed
from one form into another. For example, if you
rub your hands together they become warm. You
have converted the kinetic energy of your moving
hands into heat energy. You can describe this
change with an arrow, as shown top right.
Sometimes more than one form of energy
is produced when an energy change occurs. A
candle is designed to convert stored chemical
energy into light, but some of the stored energy
becomes heat. When you use an electric drill,
not all of the electrical energy is converted to the
kinetic energy of the drill. Some is lost as sound
energy and some as heat energy (the drill becomes
hot).
LIGHT ENERGY
+
HEAT ENERGY
Investigate
12 OBSERVING ENERGY CHANGES

Aim
To observe the energy
changes that occur in a
variety of situations.
Part

Discuss the safety issues for each part of the investigation.
Drawupadatatableliketheoneshownbelow.Foreach
part,youwillrecordtheenergyconversion(s)thatoccur,andany
energytransfer(s)fromoneplacetoanotherwithoutanenergy
conversion.(Youmayneedtodiscussthiswithothers.)
Observations
Energy conversion(s)
that occurred
Energy transfer(s)
that occurred
A
B
PART A
PART B
Materials
Materials
pieceofmagnesiumribbon12cmlong
pairofmetaltongs
Bunsenburner
heatproofmat
6voltbattery
3connectingwireswithalligatorclips
heatproofmat
fewstrandsofsteelwool
switch
Warning: Do not look directly at the burning

magnesium. Look to one side. The light is
very bright and could damage your eyes.
magnesium
ribbon
steel wool
Wear safety
glasses.
6V
switch
Method
Method
Light the burner. Use the tongs to hold the
magnesium in the flame until it starts to burn.
Thentakeitoutofthelameandholditoverthe
heatproof mat.
Use the wires to connect the battery and switch

as shown. Put the steel wool on the heatproof mat.
Connect the wires to it. Press down the switch for
a few seconds. Observe what happens.
Do not leave the switch on.
111
1 12
ScienceWorld8forNSW
PART C
Materials
pieceofnichromewireorironwireabout
50 cm long
2piecesofcopperwireabout50cmlong
multimeter
Bunsenburner
Be careful not to touch

the hot wires.
multimeter
Method
copper
wire
Sandpapertheendsofthecopperwire,then
twist the ends of the three wires together tightly
as shown. Connect the ends of the copper wires
to the terminals of the multimeter.(Themultimeter
detectssmallelectriccurrents.)Putonejunctionin
thecrushediceandheattheotherjunctionuntilit
gets red hot. Observe the multimeter carefully.
nichrome
wire
crushed
ice
What you have made here is called a

thermocouple. It is used to measure
temperatures in ovens and furnaces.
PART D
PART E
Materials
Materials
solarcellkit(consistingofseveralsolarcells
connectedtoanelectricmotor,preferablyitted
withapropeller)
beakerofwater
tuningfork
tuning fork
electric motor
solar cells
Method
Method
Placethesolarcellkitinbrightsunshine.What
happens if you cover all or some of the solar cells?
Striketheforkedendofthetuningforkgentlyon
theheelofyourshoe(notonthebench).Holdthe
forknearyourear.Striketheforkagain,butthis
timelookcloselyattheprongs.
Striketheforkathirdtime,andtouchthe
surfaceofthewaterinthebeakerwiththe
vibrating prongs.
Check!
1
Copy and complete each of these

sentences.
a A moving object has ______ energy.
b Energy that is stored is called ______
energy.
c A boulder rolling downhill is losing
______ ______ energy, but gaining ______
energy.
d Burning a piece of coal changes ______
potential energy into ______ and ______
energy.
e Springs can ______ energy which can be
released later.
Make two columns, one headed kinetic
energy, and the other potential energy.
Place each of the following in the correct
column.
a an archery bow ready to shoot an arrow
b a running high-jumper just before
leaving the ground
c a jet plane at the point of take-off
d at the top of your bounce on a
trampoline
e a spring-loaded popgun
f a childs swing at its highest point
g a childs swing at its lowest point
What are the two types of potential energy?
The two rocks below have the same mass.

Which one has more potential energy?
Why?
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
7
Main energy conversions
battery
electrical to sound
electric motor
electrical to light & sound
lift going up
chemical to kinetic
solar cell
chemical to heat & light
radio
nuclear to electrical
TV
chemical to electrical to
light
torch
light to electrical
car
chemical to electrical
campfire
electrical to kinetic
nuclear power
station
electrical to kinetic to
gravitational
Maria connected a coil of wire to a milliammeter, as shown. When she pushed a

magnet quickly into the
coil, the ammeter
showed that there
was an electric
current flowing.
When she
stopped moving
the magnet, no
current flowed.
Write a sentence
describing what
happened in
terms of energy
changes.
Go back to Getting Started on page 103.

How have your ideas about energy
changed after working through this
chapter?
What is the difference between an energy

transfer and an energy conversion? Give
examples.
What form(s) of energy do the following
have?
a a diver standing at the top of a tower
b a bent ruler
c a block of chocolate
Pair up these lists correctly in your

notebook.
Object
a burning log
a glowing firefly
a lightning flash
ocean waves
a slice of bread
a TV set (turned on)
a warm pizza
the water in a waterfall
a wound-up toy
113
1 14
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
1 Copy and complete the table below.
Energy used
Energy converter
Energy
produced
light globe
3
4
electric fan
petrol engine
kinetic
electric
torch cell
steam engine
atomic bomb
electrical
heat
slingshot or catapult
kinetic
waterwheel
kinetic
sound
2 What energy changes are being described in

eachofthefollowing?UsearrowsasinFig13
andFig14onpage110.
a Thewindblewhard,turningthewindmill
noisily as it pumped the water from deep
underground into the trough.
b Atthelickofaswitchthewashingmachine
started turning and churning the clothes.
c two,one,zero.Therocketbelchedire
andsmoke,thegroundshookand,witha
deafeningroar,therocketleftthelaunchpad.
d Thelightninglashed,andthethunder
crashed. The gum tree was split right down
the middle.
List at least three different things in which
chemical energy is stored.
Into what forms of energy does the human body
convert the chemical energy in food?
Ifaneonstreetlightconverts300Jof
electricalenergyinto200Jofheatenergyand
90Joflightenergy,howmuchsoundenergyis
produced?(Assumethesearetheonlyenergy
conversionsthatoccur.)
Giveanexampleofsomethingthathas:
a gravitational energy due to its high position
b elastic energy because it has been stretched
c chemical energy
In each case explain how the energy can
be used to produce movement.
Howcouldyoudemonstratethatsoundisa
formofkineticenergy?
Drawacartoonofajack-in-the-box.Discuss
with another student how potential energy is
involved,andhowthisenergychangeswhen
the lid is opened. Write a caption to describe
your cartoon in energy terms.
Whatisthesourceofenergyforasolarpowered car? What energy conversion occurs
whenthecarismoving?Howwouldsuchcars
operate at night or on cloudy days?
t r y t his
1 Build a mousetrap racer as shown. To make it go,
simply wind the string around the axle by turning the
rear wheels. Then put it on the floor and release it.
What energy changes occur?
3 To make a windmill you will need 2 empty soft drink

cans, a wire coathanger, scissors and pliers.
Carefully cut the bottom 4 cm off a soft drink can (A).
Cut the top rim off a second can (B). Cut strips 2 cm
wide to within 2 cm of the bottom of can B.
trapper arm
string
cut
can A
Wrap string
around axle.
mousetrap
< WEB watch >

You could do a project on mousetrap racers.
links to Mousetrap racers.
2 Make a working model of a waterwheel as shown
below. In this device, the gravitational energy of the
water is changed to kinetic energy which is then
transferred to the spinning wheel.
water
plastic
blades
knitting
needle
styrofoam
wheel
plastic soft
drink bottle with
holes in bottom
can B
Put the base of can B into can A, then fold back the
strips to form vanes, as shown in the photo. Make
holes in the middle of the base of each can. Put the
coathanger wire through these holes and bend it as
shown.
Find some moving air and watch it spin. Can you
modify it to make it work better?
115
1 16
ScienceWorld8forNSW

Wasted energy
When we use energy it often changes from one
form to another. For example, the cyclist is using
the chemical energy stored in her muscles to
pedal her bike. So chemical energy is converted
into useful kinetic energy. But as she pedals she
gets hot. So some of her energy is wasted as heat
energy. These energy changes can be shown by an
energy arrow. The thickness of the arrow shows
roughly how much energy is converted into the
different types.
Sometimes one energy change follows
another. The series of steps is called an energy
chain. For example, the energy chain for a
moving car has three steps.
1 The stored chemical energy of the petrol is
converted into heat energy when the petrol is
burnt in the cars engine.
2 Some of this heat energy is converted into
kinetic energy of the moving engine parts.
3 This kinetic energy is then transferred through
the gears to the wheels.
waste heat
chemical energy
in muscles
Fig 27
kinetic energy
of bike and rider
An energy arrow for riding a bike
The energy chain is not 100% efficient, since

each step in the chain involves some loss of
energy. Friction between the moving parts of the
engine produces heat. This heat is transferred
to the air around the car. Also,
as the engine parts move
they produce sound energy.
Therefore, not all the stored
energy in the petrol is used
to make the cars wheels
turn. In fact, engineers
have calculated that if
you start with
100 joules of chemical
heat energy
kinetic energy
chemical
kinetic energy
energy, you end up
released
of wheels and
energy stored
of moving
with only 25 joules
as petrol burns
car
in petrol
engine parts
of kinetic energy.
The
other 75 joules is
waste heat and
sound
wasted as heat and sound.
80 J
Note that the total amount of energy you end
up
with is the same as the amount you started
chemical energy
with. The 75 joules of waste heat and sound
in petrol
100 J
kinetic energy of car 20 J
from the car is not useful, because it cannot be
used again. All energy converters waste energy
like thisusually as heat. The longer the energy
Fig 28 Energy chain and energy arrow for a car
chain, the more energy that is wasted.
The efficiency of an energy converter is the
percentage of the input energy which is turned
into useful energy.
Efficiency =
useful energy
100
input energy
For example, the efficiency of a car is about

25%. Because there is always some waste energy,
the efficiency of an energy converter is always less
than 100%.
Fig 29
This label from a microwave oven shows that

for every 1400 watts of electricity (1400 joules
per second) the oven produces only 900 watts
of heat. It is therefore 64% efficient.
Conservation of energy
You have looked at examples of how energy is
converted from one form to another. After
thousands of such observations, scientists decided
that there is a special rule or law that describes
energy changes. The law of conservation of
energy says that energy cannot be made or
destroyedit can only be converted from one
form to another. This means that the universe
always has the same amount of energy, even
though this energy is constantly being converted
from one form to another and being transferred
from one place to another.
To help you understand the law of
conservation of energy, think about a board game
such as Monopoly, where money can be used
for buying and selling. The money is transferred
between players and the bank, but the total
amount is always the same. At the end of the
game, if all the players add up their cash, the total
should be the same as at the beginning, although
it will be distributed differently. The same applies
to energy. It moves around and changes its form,
but the total amount is always the same.
Investigate
13 WHERE DOES THE ENERGY GO?

Aim
To find out what happens to the heat energy as a
container of hot water cools down.
Materials
2Lice-creamcontainerorsimilar
250mLbeakerorsimilar
2thermometers
boilingwater
You could use a
graphpaper
datalogger with
temperature probes.
stopwatch
Method
1
Open the ICT

skillsheet on using
dataloggers on
the CD.
Use one of the

thermometers to measure the temperature of
theair(roomtemperature).

ReadthroughSteps16sothatyouknow
exactly what you have to do.
YouwillneedtodoSteps2,3and4quickly.
Design and draw up a suitable data
tabletorecordyourresults.Youwillbe
measuring the temperature inside and
outsideabeakerofhotwatereveryminute
for at least 15 minutes.
2 Putthebeakerintheice-creamcontaineras
shownonthenextpage.Add200mLofhot
watertothebeakerbeingcarefulnottoburn
yourself.
3 Pour1500mLofcoldwaterintotheice-cream
container.
117
1 18
ScienceWorld8forNSW
hot water
Label the two curves and draw a third line on

your graph to represent room temperature
during the experiment.
cold water
Discussion
1 Copy and complete the following summary.
4 Placeonethermometerinthebeakerand
theotherintheice-creamcontainer.Startthe
stopwatch and measure the temperature inside
andoutsidethebeaker.
Recordthesetemperaturesinyourdata
table(fortime=0).
5 Measure the inside and outside temperatures
everyminute,usingthethermometerstostirthe
watergently.(Donttakethethermometersout
ofthewater.)
Keeptakingtemperaturesfor1520
minutes.
6 Plot both sets of results on a graph of
temperature(verticalaxis)versustime
(horizontalaxis).Drawasmoothcurveforeach
setofpoints.(Thecurvedoesnthavetogo
througheachpointsolongasitshowsthe
generaltrendoftheresults.)
Where does energy come from?

We use a lot of stored energy without really
thinking about where it comes from. We get food
from the supermarket, petrol from the service
station, and electricity through power lines. But
where does the energy in these things come from
in the first place?
Green plants store the energy of sunlight
as chemical energy (food), using the process of
photosynthesis. Animals that eat these plants
use most of the energy for their body activities
Asthetemperatureofthewaterinthebeaker
decreased,thetemperatureintheice-cream
container______.Thewaterinthebeaker
______energy,whilethewaterintheice-cream
container ______ ______.
2 Whichistheindependentvariable,andwhichis
the dependent variable?
3 Calculate how much heat energy the water in
thebeakerlost(volumeofwaterinmLxrisein
temperature).
4 Calculate how much heat energy the water in
theice-creamcontainergained.
5 Are the two amounts of heat energy the same?
Ifnot,explainwhytheyaredifferent.
6 Describe the transfer of heat energy in this
experiment.Doyouthinkthatthetotalamount
of energy changed? Explain.
7 Onyourgraph,lookatthecurveforthewater
insidethebeaker.Thecurveissteeptostart
with,thenlevelsout.Suggestareasonforthis.
8 Predict what would happen to the temperatures
insideandoutsidethebeakerifyoucontinued
this experiment for an hour or more.
and store the rest. So animals that eat plants and

other animals are using stored energy that came
originally from the sun.
Most of our electricity comes from power
stations that burn coal to produce steam. This
steam is then used to turn turbo-generators that
produce the electricity. The petrol we use in our
cars is produced by the distillation of crude oil.
We also use natural gas for heating. Coal, oil and
natural gas are called fossil fuels because they
were formed from plant and animal remains.
How oil was formed

How coal was formed
When geologists examine the fossil plants in
coal, they find that these remains come from
plants that no longer exist on Earth. They
infer that these plants probably grew in moist
warm swampy forests about the time dinosaurs
roamed the Earth. This suggests that present
coal deposits probably formed from ancient
plants that existed millions of years ago.
Over a period of time the climate changed
and the plants in these forests died, leaving
layers of decaying wood and other plant
material. Sediments such as sand and mud were
then deposited on top of the old forest, trapping
the plant material.
As more and more sediments were deposited,
the weight of these layers forced out much of the
water and gases from the plant material, making
it richer in carbon. Thus began the slow change
over millions of years from wood to coal.
Geologists infer that oil was formed from

microscopic plants and animals which died and
then settled to the bottom of shallow seas and
lakes.
The remains of these marine organisms were
covered quickly by sand and mud. After being
buried by thick sediments and subjected to heat
and pressure over millions of years, biochemical
processes formed crude oil, various gases and
water. At the same time the sediments hardened
to form rock.
Once formed, the oil and natural gas slowly
seeped towards the Earths surface through
porous rocks like sandstone which soak up the
oil like a sponge. Sometimes the oil and gas were
trapped (often under pressure) beneath a layer
of non-porous rock like shale, through which
they could not escape. To extract the oil and gas
a pipe has to be drilled down through the rocks
above.
sea
layer of dead
marine life
swampy
forest
sand
other layers
remains
of rotting
forest
layer of mud
containing
droplets of oil,
water and gases
sand
layers of
sediments
old forest
non-porous
rock
rocks raised above

sea level and folded
ground
level
gas
oil
weight of sediments
layer of
coal forms
water
porous rock
119
1 20
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Renewable or non-renewable
There is a major problem in using fossil fuels as a
source of energy. They are non-renewable. They
have taken millions of years to form from energy
that came originally from the sun. Yet once they
have been burnt in our cars or in power stations
they are gone forever. This is why we say they are
non-renewable. The process of obtaining energy
from fossil fuels is also very inefficient, as shown
below. In fact, there is more energy reaching the
unused
energy
(light and
heat)
energy used by plants
chemical energy
stored in plants
(photosynthesis)
Earth in 10 days of sunlight than in all the fossil

fuels on Earth!
It makes much better sense to use renewable
energy sources that can be replaced as they are
used. We now have the technology to capture the
suns energy directly for our use. For example,
solar cells are used to provide power supply
systems for remote and rural areas. Hydroelectricity and wind power are other renewable
energy sources. You will find out more about
renewable and non-renewable energy in later
studies.
heat energy wasted
as coal formed
chemical energy
stored in coal
waste heat energy
coal burnt
electrical energy
coal-burning
power station
ancient forests
coal mine
coal
Fig 33
Check!
1
Suppose you wind up a toy car and let it go.

a Where did the energy needed to wind
up the toy come from?
b Where has this
energy gone
when the toy
stops moving?
spring
An energy arrow showing how

the electrical energy we use
came initially from solar energy.
Notice how much energy is
wasted at each step.
When using a hacksaw to cut a piece

of metal, the blade and the metal both
become hot. Explain in energy terms why
this happens.
Classify the following energy sources as

renewable or non-renewable: coal, diesel
fuel, LPG gas, ocean waves, the sun,
uranium, wind, wood.
Copy the boxes and complete the two energy chains below.
Draw an energy chain that shows the energy changes from the sun to the woman.
Explain in your own words how the petrol

used in cars came originally from energy
from the sun.
A hot water system is 65% efficient. If it is

supplied with 3000 joules of electrical energy,
how much heat energy does it produce?
To charge a battery you have to supply

energy. But you never get as much energy
from the battery as you use to charge it. Why
is this?
The diagram on the right shows the energy

changes in a coal-burning power station.
a Draw an energy arrow to describe what
happens in the power station.
b How many joules of heat are lost to
the environment for each 100 joules of
chemical energy stored in the coal?
c A small amount of energy is lost when the
kinetic energy of the turbo-generator is
converted to electrical energy. Infer how
this energy is lost.
d What is the efficiency of the turbogenerator?
e What is the overall efficiency of the power
station?
coal
100 joules
of chemical
energy
20 joules of waste heat

energy (chimneys)
steam
80 joules of
kinetic energy
44 joules of waste heat

energy (cooling water)
turbogenerator
36 joules of
kinetic energy
35 joules of
electrical energy
121
1 22
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
1 Herearetheeficienciesofiveenergyconverters.
torch battery
90%
solar cell
10%
electricmotor
60%
filament light bulb
5%
luorescentlight
20%
a Draw a bar graph to display this data.
b Draw a table that shows for each of the
energyconverters:
thetypeofinputenergy
thetypeofoutputenergy
thetypeofwastedenergy.
c Why is it cheaper to light schools with
fluorescent lights rather than filament light
bulbs?
2 What form of energy does a frictional force
usually produce?
3 Peterburnthisingeronafrypan.He
immediately put his burnt finger in some
crushed ice. Explain in energy terms what
happenedwhen:
a he burnt his finger
b he put his finger in the ice.
4 Twocarscollidehead-on.Whathappensto
thekineticenergythateachcarhadbeforethe
crash?
5 Machines that have moving parts can be made

to run more efficiently. Use examples to explain
how this can be done.
6 Thediagramshowssomeones
idea of a perpetual motion
machine(adevicewhich
once started needs no more
energytokeepgoing).
Explain why it cannot supply
electricity to the house.
hydro-electric
power station
pump
7 State the law of conservation of energy. Illustrate

your answer by describing the energy changes
thatoccurwhenaireworksrockettakesoff
andexplodeshighintheair,emittingcoloured
balls of light as the remaining pieces fall to the
ground.
8 Writeastory(approximatelyapage)aboutThe
yearthesunstoppedshining.
9 Lookatthediagrambelow.Drawanenergy
chain tracing the energy changes from the sun
to the energy user on the left.
electric whipper
snipper
dam
hydro-electric power station

chains
1 ______ is the ability to do work. It is measured in ______ (J).
conservation
2 ______ energy is the energy an object has because of its
converted
movement. Potential energy is ______ energy.
3 There are many different ______ of energy; for example, light,

heat, ______ and sound.
coal and oil
electricity
energy
forms
4 Energy can be ______ from one object to another, and it can be

______ from one form to another.
heat
joules
5 When an energy change occurs some energy is always wasted
kinetic
renewable
as ______.
6 The law of ______ of energy says that energy cannot be made
stored
transferred
or destroyed.
7 Most forms of energy (including fossil fuels) can be traced back

to the sun using energy ______.
8 ______ energy sources such as solar energy can be replaced as they are
used. Non-renewable sources such as ______ cannot be replaced when
they are used.
REVIEW
The electricity you use in your home is a form

of energy that came originally from:
A electricity in thunderstorms
B coal
C the potential energy of water stored in dams
D the sun
Which one of the following is false?

A If an object has energy it can do work.
B A raised object has potential energy.
C Energy can appear from nowhere and also
disappear.
D When you hit something you are
transferring energy.
Which would require most energy?

A riding a bicycle on level ground
B riding a bicycle up a hill
C walking
D doing your homework
Which of the following involves a transfer of

energy from one object to another, rather than
a change in the form of the energy?
A Hot tea poured into a cup makes the cup
hot.
B A hydro-electric power station uses
running water to generate electricity.
C The tyres of a moving car become hot.
D Oil is burnt to heat a room.
123
ScienceWorld8forNSW
1 24
REVIEW
a In which position does the roller-coaster

car have the most gravitational potential
energy?
b In which position does it have the most
kinetic energy?
Bree found this data for Australias energy use

in 200304.
Substance
Percentage
of total
coal
oil
natural gas
hydro-electricity
wood, bagasse and other renewables
41.8
33.8
19.6
1.1
3.7
a Draw a pie chart to display this data.

b Which fossil fuels are used in Australia?
c What percentage of Australias energy use is
from renewable sources?
d Use a dictionary to find out what bagasse is.
For every 100 joules of energy used by an

electric light bulb, you get only about 5 joules
of light energy.
a What happens to the other 95 joules of
energy?
b What is the efficiency of the light bulb?
A rock is held above a concrete path and
dropped. Copy and complete the energy chain
below, by putting the correct energy forms in
the two empty boxes.
10 Write an energy chain to describe the energy

changes that occur in a hydro-electric power
station (shown below).
dam
water
intake
electric generator
turbine
river
KINETIC
HEAT
11 A ball bounces because the kinetic energy it

has when it hits a surface changes to elastic
potential energy as the ball is pushed slightly
out of shape. This elastic energy then changes
back to kinetic energy as the ball leaves the
surface. Design an experiment to compare the
efficiency with which different types of balls
change their kinetic energy into elastic potential
energy when they bounce.
David said that electrical energy is made in

power stations. Is he correct? Explain using the
law of conservation of energy.
Learning focus: Different groups use
different criteria to make a decision about
an issue
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
Nuclear power station inquiry

A chairperson will organise the inquiry and
keep order. You will start with a speaker from the
for side, then one from the against side, and so
on. The undecided group will be given time to ask
their questions. Finally, each of the members of
the undecided group will vote for or against the
power station, based on the arguments presented
by the groups.
FOR
Federal government
Australia must reduce its greenhouse gas emissions,
and nuclear power stations dont produce carbon
dioxide as coal-burning power stations do.
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology

Organisation (ANSTO)
Imagine there is a proposal to build Australias
first nuclear power station at Nelson Bay, just
north of Newcastle. There are individuals and
groups who have many different viewpoints on
this proposal. So a public inquiry is to be held in
Newcastle to discuss the new power station, and
to vote on whether it should be given the goahead.
For the inquiry the class will be divided into
seven different groups:
Forthree groups are in favour of the nuclear
power station.
Againstanother
three groups are against the
power station.
Undecidedthe rest of the class are undecided
and it is their job to develop a set of questions
to ask the speakers before they vote.
Each of the groups is to prepare a 3-minute
speech for the inquiry, using the brief notes in
the box. You will need to do research to fill out
the details of your argument for or against the
proposal. You will also need to elect a speaker to
present the case prepared by your group.
Coal-burning power stations produce sulfur dioxide

gas and ash containing toxic heavy metals. Nuclear
power stations dont.
Economist
Australia has huge reserves of uranium, and nuclear
power could be produced at a competitive price. The
use of nuclear power would also reduce the cost of
the governments emissions trading scheme.
AGAINST
Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF)
Nuclear wastes are radioactive for hundreds,
sometimes thousands of years, and the nuclear
industry does not have a long-term storage plan.
ACTU
Any accident at the power station is likely to
release dangerous radiation, and there is a risk of
earthquakes in the Newcastle area.
People for a nuclear-free Australia (PNFA)

Instead of funding a nuclear power station, the
government should be encouraging the use of
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar.
125
6
Investigating
heat
Planning page
Getting started
Investigate 14
Heat and temperature
Using maths equations
6.1 Heat and temperature

page 128
Animation
What effects the rate?
6.2 Heat transfer

page 134
Animation
Enzyme action

page 143
Assessment task 6
Methods of cooking
Activity page 134

Activity page 136
Investigate 15
Which absorbs more
radiation?
Experiment
Which is the best
insulator?
TRB
Main ideas
Chapter 6 crossword
Review
Chapter 6 test
Learning focus: Models and
theories that have been
modified or rejected

How a theory was rejected
TRB
Chapter6 Investigatingheat
t
l learn abou
r you wil
In this chapte
LearningFocus
models and theories that have been modified or rejected (pages 128 and 149)
heat energy
the particle theory of matter (page 129)
Skills
planning first-hand experiences and choosing equipment or resources (Investigate 14 & 15

and Experiment page 140)
gathering information from a histogram (page 131)
processing information (Investigate 14, Skillbuilder page 131 and Experiment page 140)
problem-solving (Experiment page 140)
the use of creativity and imagination (pages 145146)
The photo shows a glassworker. The molten

glass inside the furnace is at a temperature of
more than 1000C. The furnace and glass give
off a huge amount of heat.
What do you notice about the end of the metal
rod in the furnace?
List the items of protective clothing the

worker is wearing.
Suggest why the glassworkers clothing is
silver-coloured.
Describe two ways in which the heat moves
from the furnace to the glassworker.
127
1 28
ScienceWorld8forNSW
6.1 Heat and temperature

Heat is very important in our lives. Our body
functions best at a temperature of about 37C. If
we get too hot or too cold we feel uncomfortable.
If our body temperature rises too far above
normal or too far below normal we can die.
We use fans, heaters and air conditioners to
keep us comfortable. The walls and ceilings of
our homes are insulated to keep heat in during
winter and out during summer. We use heat for
cooking food and for heating water. Heat is used
by industries to make new materials such as glass,
steel and plastics. Our cars produce heat
when they burn petrol. Heat from burning coal is
used to generate electricity. But what is heat? And
how is it different from temperature?
Several hundred years ago, people thought
of heat as a special fluid called caloric which
flowed in and out of objects as they were heated
or cooled. An American named Benjamin
Thompson, who later moved to Germany and
became Count Rumford, showed that this caloric
idea was incorrect. He observed that when
holes were drilled in brass to make cannons, so
much heat was produced that water had to be
poured over the cannons to cool them. From this
Fig 2
Drilling brass cannons produced considerable heat. From this, Count Rumford inferred
that heat is a form of energy.
Rumford inferred that it was the movement of

the drills that made the cannons hot. The kinetic
energy of the drill had been converted into heat
energy. People soon realised that some heat is
always produced when energy changes from one
form to another. In other words, heat is a form of
energy (page 109). For this reason it is measured
in joules (J).
Heat and temperature are not the same, but
there is a connection. Temperature is a measure
of how hot or cold something is. It is measured in
degrees Celsius (C) using a thermometer.
You have probably used sparklers. Each
spark is actually a tiny piece of white-hot metal,
and its temperature may be as high as 800C.
(The temperature of boiling water is only 100C.)
However, if a spark falls on your hand you dont
even feel it. This is because each spark
contains only a small amount of heat energy.
Some of this heat energy is transferred to your
skin, but the resulting temperature rise is so small
that you usually cannot detect it.
Fig 3
Fig 3
Each tiny spark has a high temperature but

contains very little heat.
Heat and the particle theory
We can use the particle theory to explain heat.
When you heat an object, the particles in it move
more rapidly and therefore have more energy.
This is why the temperature is higher. When the
particles lose energy and move more slowly, the
temperature is lower.
Look at the diagram below. When a hot object
comes into contact with a cold object, heat flows
from hot to cold until both objects are at the
same temperature. The rapidly moving particles
in the hot object transfer some of their energy to
the particles in the colder object. The larger the
temperature difference, the faster the transfer.
Cool objects in warm places take in energy from
their surroundings. For example, an ice block
melts quickly on a hot day. Warm objects such as
a cup of hot coffee lose heat energy to their cooler
surroundings.
The particle theory states

that all matter is made up
of tiny little particles....
....and that these tiny

particles are in a constant
state of motion.
The more energy the

particles have, the
faster they move.
Did you know?

If the temperature of a substance was lowered
to 273C, its particles would have no energy at
all and would therefore be completely still. This
temperature is called absolute zero, and scientists
have come close to this in some experiments.
hot
metal
cold
water
direction
of heat
transfer
Heat transfer has

stopped.
Water and metal
are at the same
temperature.
129
1 30
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
14 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Aim
To find answers to these questions:
A Does the mass of a substance influence how
much its temperature rises?
B Does the type of substance influence how
much its temperature rises?
hotplate
Materials
hotplateorburner,tripodandgauze
250mLbeaker
thermometer
measuringcylinder,100mL
stopwatch
Flammable
olive oil
papertowel

Read through both parts of the investigation.
Discusswithyourteacherthesafestway
to handle the hot beaker.
HowisPartBdifferentfromPartA?
Suggestwhyahotplateisusedinthis
experimentinsteadofaBunsenburner.
Draw up a data table like the one below.
Temperature of
Rise in
the liquid (C)
temperature
before
after
(C)
heating heating
50 mL water
2 Adjustthehotplateortheburnerto
medium heat. Leave it at the same setting
throughout the experiment. This is to make sure
that the heater supplies heat at a constant rate.
3 Placethebeakerofwateronthehotplatefor
exactly 2 minutes. Then remove the beaker
from the hotplate, stir the water gently with the
thermometer and read the temperature.
Record this temperature in the data table.
Calculate and record the rise in
temperature.
4 Empty the beaker, cool it under running water,
and dry it.
5 Add100mLofwatertothesamebeakerand
measure the temperature before and after
heatingfor2minutes.
100 mL water
60 mL olive oil
Record your results in the data table.
120 mL olive oil
Discussion
PART A
1 Which variable did you change in this

investigation?
Method
2 Which variables did you keep the same?
1 Use the measuring cylinder to add exactly

50 mL of water to the beaker.
Conclusion
Use the thermometer to measure the

temperature of the water, to the nearest degree.
Record this in the data table.
Write an answer to the question How does the

mass of a substance influence how much its
temperature rises?
Discussion
PART B
WhichvariabledidyouchangegoingfromPartA
toPartB?Whichvariablesdidyoukeepthesame?
Method
RepeatPartA,butthistimeuseoliveoil60mL
and120mL.(Sixtymillilitresofoliveoilhasthe
same mass as 50 mL of water.)
Record all results in the data table.
From Investigate 14 you can conclude that

A The same amount of heat will raise the
temperature of 50 mL of water twice as much
as it raises the temperature of 100 mL of
water.
B The same amount of heat will raise the
temperature of olive oil more than it raises
the temperature of an equal mass of water. In
other words, olive oil heats up more quickly
than water does. The bar graph below shows
the amounts of heat needed to
4.2 J
warm 1 gram of various materials
by 1C.
You could also predict that if you
supply twice as much heat to
water or olive oil you raise
2.0 J
the temperature twice as
much.
0.9 J
0.7 J
0.4 J
Fig 7
ry
er
pp
co
Write an answer to the question How does the

type of substance influence how much its
temperature rises?
Skillbuilder
Using maths equations
The amount of heat energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1C is
called its specific heat capacity. For example,
the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 joules
per gram per C. To calculate the heat needed to
change the temperature of something, you can
use this mathematical formula:
heat (J) = mass (g) x specific heat capacity
x change in temperature (C)
So, the heat needed to raise the temperature of
50 mL (50 g) of water by 10C can be calculated
as follows:
heat
50 g x 4.2 x 10C
2100 joules
Use the specific heat capacities from the bar

graph on the left to answer these questions.
0.1 J
u
rc
Conclusion
s
as
gl
a
m
lu
u
ni
m
o
e
liv
oi
er
at
w
The heat needed to raise the temperature of

1 gram by 1C. You will notice that solids
generally heat up more easily than liquids.
To summarise, the amount of heat gained or

lost by an object depends on three variables:
its mass
the temperature change
what it is made of.
You can calculate the amount of heat that is
transferred if you know these three variables.
1 How much heat is required to:

a raise the temperature of 100 mL of
water by 10C?
b raise the temperature of 60 mL of
olive oil by 10C?
2 A 5 gram block of aluminium was heated
from 30C to 100C. How much heat energy
was needed?
3 How much heat is given out when 60 g of
copper cools from 100C to 20C?
4 Using your results from Investigate 14,
calculate the amount of heat transferred to
50 mL water, 100 mL water, 60 mL olive oil
and 120 mL olive oil. Are they all the same?
131
1 32
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Decide which of the following statements

are true and which are false. Rewrite the
false ones to make them true.
a Heat is a form of energy.
b When you strike a match, you convert
kinetic energy into heat energy.
c When an energy change occurs, some
heat energy is always produced.
d A block of ice contains no heat energy.
e Heat is measured in degrees Celsius.
f As an object becomes hotter, its
particles move more rapidly.
g Heat travels from cold objects to hot
objects.
Josh heats two identical iron nails together

until they are red hot. He drops one into
50 mL (50 g) of water and the other into
60 mL (50 g) of olive oil. If both liquids
are at the same temperature to start with,
predict which will be hotter one minute
after the nails are dropped in? Explain your
answer.
Explain why heat energy can be considered

a form of kinetic energy.
Eva had four identical beakers containing

different amounts of water, as shown. She
heated them for different lengths of time
and none of them boiled.
When Faith used an electric hair dryer to

dry her hair, the hair dryer became quite
hot. What energy change has occurred?
a
b
c
a
b
half full
half full
5 minutes
8 minutes
full
full
5 minutes
10 minutes
Which beaker of water received the

most heat?
Which beaker would you predict had
the highest temperature after heating?
Which beaker would have the lowest
temperature after heating?
Samples of 50 g of aluminium, copper,

glass and water all initially at 20C are
heated for 5 minutes on a hotplate with a
constant setting. Predict the order (from
highest to lowest) of the final temperatures
of each sample. See the bar graph on the
previous page.
Suggest why mercury is used in

thermometers. (Hint: see the bar graph on
the previous page.)
Which is hottera cup of water at 50C

or a bathtub full of water at 50C?
Which contains more heat energy?
A cold saucepan is put into a sink

containing hot dishwashing water.
a What will happen to the temperature of
the saucepan?
b What will happen to the temperature of
the water?
c Does heat flow from the water into the
saucepan, or from the saucepan into the
water?
10 On a hot summers day the dry sand at the

beach can be almost unbearable to stand
on, while the water is cool. Try to explain
this temperature difference.
challenge
2 Harrydidanexperimentanddrewthese
diagrams to show his method.
1 Ramone was making some ice blocks from

fruitjuice,anddecidedtoinvestigatetheir
temperatureastheycooledinthefreezer.He
put a thermometer in one of them and
measuredthetemperatureevery10minutes.
Hisresultsareinthetablebelow.
a Was heat being added to the ice blocks
during Ramones experiment, or being
taken away from them?
b PlotRamonesresultsonalinegraph.
c Suggestareasonforthelatpartofthe
graphbetween40minand60min.
d Suggestareasonforthelatpartbetween
90minand100min.
e Atwhattemperaturedidtheiceblocks
freeze?
Time (min)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
thermometers
100 mL water
methylated
spirits
kerosene
Heat for 5 minutes.
a WhichvariablesdidHarrycontrolinthis
experiment?
b Which variable did he purposely change?
c Which variable did he measure?
d WhatdoyouthinkwastheaimofHarrys
experiment?
3 Nicky measured the temperature of a saucepan
ofhotwaterasitcooled.Sheplottedherresults
as shown in the graph.
a What was the temperature of the water after
10minutes?After40minutes?
b Why is Nickys graph steep to start with but
flatter near the end?
c What do you think the temperature of the
room was when Nicky did her experiment?
Explain your answer.
Temperature (C)
25
15
8
1
1
1
1
4
8
10
10
Temperature (C)
X
Temperature as hot
water cools (Challenge 3)
X
50
X
X
X
20
40
Time (min)
60
133
1 34
ScienceWorld8forNSW
6.2 Heat transfer

Heat energy can be transferred in three
different ways. The direction in which
it flows is always from a higher
temperature to a lower temperature.
1 Conduction
This is how heat energy is transferred
through solids.
Some solids conduct heat better than others.
3 Radiation
This is how heat energy
is transferred from the
sun to Earth.
No matter is necessary.
2 Convection
This is how heat energy is transferred
in liquids and gases.
Activity
1 You will need a glass rod about 20 cm
long, and a metal rod the same length
and thickness as the glass one.
2 Use wax or grease to stick a paperclip
about 5 cm from the end of each rod.
Then lay the rods across a tripod so that
the paperclips hang down as shown.
3 Heat the end of both rods equally.
Which paperclip falls off first? What
does this mean?
Conduction
A metal rod in contact with a hot flame quickly
becomes hot. The heat is transferred along the
rod by the process of conduction. The particles
in the end of the rod gain energy from the flame.
This causes them to vibrate faster and collide
more energetically with each other. This process
continues like a chain reaction from particle to
particle along the rod. As a result, heat energy
is transferred from the hot end of the rod to the
cooler end.
Heat energy is
transferred along
the rod.
wax
To see how meat is cooked
by conduction, open the
Cooking animation on
the CD.
glass rod
metal
rod
paperclip
tripod
As you saw in the activity, some solids conduct

heat better than others. Substances that conduct
heat well are called good conductors, and most
metals are good conductors. Substances like glass,
which are poor conductors of heat, are called
insulators. Most plastics are poor conductors of
heat, so those that do not melt easily are used to
make handles for saucepans, kettles, frying pans
and irons.
Examples of conduction
Insulating handles allow you to pick up hot
objects without the heat being conducted to your
hand. Plastic foam is a good insulator, and is used
in the walls of refrigerators to keep heat out.
aluminium saucepan
(good conductor)
bakelite plastic
handle
You may have seen birds fluffing up their

feathers on cold days. This is to trap air between
their feathers. Because air is an insulator, it slows
down the loss of heat from the birds skin to the
surrounding cooler air. Woollen jumpers,
sleeping bags and the batts used to insulate
houses also work by trapping air.
The wetsuits worn by surfers and divers are
made of foam rubber. A thin layer of water
warmed by body heat is trapped between the suit
and the divers skin. Being a poor conductor, this
water helps to prevent the divers body heat from
escaping.
waterproof
neoprene
wetsuit
heat from stove
Liquids do not conduct heat very well.

The set-up below shows that water is a poor
conductor of heat. Even though the water boils
at the top of the test tube, the ice at the bottom
melts only slowly. If water was a good conductor
of heat, the ice would melt quickly.
boiling water
tongs
iceblock weighted with wire
Gases are also poor conductors of heat. You

can demonstrate this by holding your hand beside
a burner flame. If air was a good conductor of
heat, your hand would quickly be burnt, but it
isnt.
body
of
diver
body
heat
water caught
under wetsuit
water
135
1 36
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Activity
1 Fill a large beaker with water and allow it
to stand until the water is completely still.
2 Carefully drop half a teaspoon of used
tea leaves down one side of the beaker,
making sure not to disturb the water.
3 Heat underneath the tea leaves as
shown.
Suggest why the tea leaves rise.
Draw a diagram showing the
movement of the tea leaves.
Hot water systems work by convection. The

heater at the bottom warms the water which
moves upwards as the cool water takes its place,
setting up convection currents. The hot water is
drawn off from the top. When a hot water tap
is turned on, more cold water flows in at the
bottom.
Hot
water
rises...
hot water taps
...and cool
water takes
its place.
water
tea leaves
heater
cold water
Convection
The movement of the tea leaves in the activity
above demonstrates the movement of heat energy
by the process of convection. This process can be
explained using the particle theory. When water
particles at the bottom of the beaker are heated,
they gain more energy and move more rapidly.
Because of this, they move further apart than the
particles above them. Hence the warm water near
the bottom is less dense than the water above it.
This warmer water therefore rises, and colder
water moves in to take its place. This movement
of particles is called a convection current. It
continues until all the water in the beaker is at the
same temperature.
Convection currents also occur in air. When

you turn on a heater in winter, the warm air rises
above the heater. A convection current is then
set up as the cooler air sinks. The same thing
happens on a larger scale to form a sea breeze.
During the day the land is warmer than the sea,
because the sea takes a long time to warm up.
Warm air rises above the land, and cooler air
blows in from the sea to take its place.
Warm air
rises.
cooler air
(sea breeze)
Land warmer
than sea
Fig 21
How a sea breeze is caused by convection
Radiation
The Suns rays heat the Earth. However, the space
between the Sun and the Earth does not contain
matter, so heat energy cannot be transferred
by the processes of conduction or convection.
Instead, the Sun transfers heat energy by the
process of radiation.
All objects transfer some heat by radiation.
The hotter the object, the more heat it radiates.
The radiation itself is not hot, but when it is
absorbed by an object it causes the particles in the
object to move more rapidly, thus heating it.
radiation
absorbed
Fig 22
infra-red radiation
The curved silver mirror at the back of an

electric radiator reflects the radiation.
Warm objects radiate heat mainly in the form

of infra-red radiation, which we cannot see
but which can be detected by special infra-red
scanners. People are usually warmer than their
surroundings and give off more infra-red
radiation. This is why infra-red scanners are used
at night by airsea rescue helicopters to help find
people who are lost.
If a metal object becomes hot enough it will
glow, giving off visible light as well as infra-red
radiation.
Light, infra-red and other forms of radiation
all travel as extremely high-speed waves which
can pass through a vacuum, such as the vacuum
of space. In a vacuum the speed of radiation is
300 million metres per second or 3 108 m/s.
Different types of radiation have different
wavelengths. The waves travel in straight lines,
and they can be reflected, absorbed or transmitted
by matter.
All of these properties of radiation are
applied in microwave cooking. Microwaves
are reflected off metals, so they reflect from the
TRANSMITTED
(passes through
transparent
material)
ABSORBED
(taken in)
REFLECTED
(bounces off)
Fig 23
Heat and light can be transmitted, reflected or

absorbed.
inside of the oven onto the food being cooked.

The microwaves penetrate the food to a depth of
between two and four centimetres, where they
are absorbed. This causes the molecules in the
food (mainly water molecules) to move more
rapidly, and hence the food heats up. The heat
is then transferred to other parts of the food by
conduction. This process may continue for a short
time after the food is removed from the oven.
The microwaves are transmitted through the
glass dish, which remains relatively cool because
it absorbs very little radiation. (Microwaves will
also pass through paper and most plastics.)
stirrer to
reflect waves
waveguide
source of
microwaves
glass dish
food
turntable
Fig 24
How a microwave oven works. You can see

through the glass door, but the microwaves
cannot pass through the metal lattice behind
the glass.
137
1 38
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
15 WHICH ABSORBS MORE RADIATION?

Aim
To compare the amount of radiation absorbed by
a shiny silver can and a dull black can.
Materials
2thermometersordataloggerand
2temperatureprobes
portablespotlightorelectricradiator
2metalcansoneshinysilverandonedull
black
NOTES
1 Instead of using a spotlight, you could use a
microscope lamp, or you could put the cans in
direct sunlight.
2 If you use empty food cans, you could blacken
one by holding it in the smoke from a burning
candle. Painted soft drink cans work well.
3 To cut down on heat loss by convection, you
need lids.
5 Plotthetemperatureforbothcansonasingle
graph.(Adataloggerwilldothisforyou.)You
could use a different colour for each can, but
make sure you label the two curves.
Discussion and conclusion

1 Which was the independent variable, and
which was the dependent variable?
2 Which variables did you control?
3 Whichcanabsorbedmoreradiation?Howdo
you know? Was your prediction correct?
4 Look at your graph. What does the slope of
each line tell you about the warming rate of the
can?
5 Basedontheresultsofthisexperiment,writea
generalisation saying how the amount of heat
absorbedbyanobjectdependsonthetypeof
surface.
6 Could the experiment be improved? If so, how?

Read the Method carefully and discuss with
your teacher what equipment you will use.
Whatsafetyprecautionswillbenecessary?
Design a similar experiment to find out which

can cools more quickly.
Whichcandoyoupredictwillabsorbmore
radiation? Why?
In your notebook design a data table in
which to record the temperature of each can
everyminutefor15minutes.
thermometer
dull black can
hole in lid
Method
1 Addequalvolumesofcoldwatertobothcans.
2 Positionthespotlightorradiatoratanequal
distance from each can.
3
portable
spotlight
Record the initial temperature of the water

ineachcan.(Theseshouldbethesame.)
4 Turn on the lamp and at the same time start

timing.
Record the temperature in each can every
minutefor15minutes.
shiny silver can
Absorbing and emitting radiation
Dark-coloured surfaces are better absorbers
of radiation than light-coloured ones. This is
because light-coloured surfaces reflect more of
the radiation. Bright shiny surfaces are the best
reflectors and the poorest absorbers. This is
why aluminium foil is used in ceilings and walls
of houses to reflect heat. On the other hand,
the absorbing panels of solar water heaters are
painted black so that the copper pipes inside
them absorb as much of the suns radiation as
possible. Dark-coloured cars become much hotter
than light-coloured cars when left in the sun. And
dark-coloured clothes are hotter in summer than
light-coloured clothes.
light car
(good reflector,
poor absorber)
dark car
(good absorber)
Fig 28
The cooling fins on an air-cooled motorcycle

engine have a large surface area to increase
radiation of heat.
Controlling heat transfer

An object that is warmer than its surroundings
will lose heat until it is the same temperature
as its surroundings. Similarly, an object that is
cooler than its surroundings will gain heat from
its surroundings. We use insulators to control this
transfer of heat.
Eskys and thermos flasks (see page 144) are
insulated containers to keep food and drink at
the temperature we want iteither hot or cold.
Pizza delivery people put their pizzas in special
insulated boxes to keep them warm.
All objects emit (give out) infra-red radiation

if they are at a higher temperature than their
surroundings, but some radiate heat more readily
than others. Dark-coloured objects radiate heat
more effectively than light-coloured objects.
Rough surfaces also radiate heat more effectively,
due to their greater surface area.
silver teapot
(poor emitter)
cooling fins
black teapot
(good emitter)
Is the pizza still hot?
Why did
I ask for
triple chilli?
We insulate the walls and ceilings of our

homes. This keeps them cool in summer by
preventing heat from coming in from outside. It
also keeps them warm in winter by preventing
heat from escaping. (See page 146.)
139
1 40
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Experiment
WHICH IS THE BEST INSULATOR?

Yourtaskistodesignanexperimenttosolve
the problem Which type of material keeps you
warmest in winter?

The design of the experiment is up to you, but
here are some questions to guide you.
Whatwillyouuseasamodelforahuman
body? One idea is to use a can filled with hot
water.
Howwillyouclotheyourmodelbodies?What
materialswillyouuse?Somepossibilitiesare
wool,cotton,nylon,polyester,lannelette.How
many model bodies will you need?
Howwillyoumeasurethetemperature?How
often will you do this, and how long will you
continue the experiment?
Howwillyoumakeyourtestfair(asinChapter
2)?Youarevaryingthetypeofclothing,but
whatothervariablesarethere?Howwillyou
keep these other variables constant?
It would be a good idea to use an
experimental controlamodelbodywithno
clothes.Youcanthencomparetheclothed
bodies with it to see how effective the different
types of clothes are.
If possible, repeat your experiment to improve

the accuracy of your measurements. If
you get the same results, then you can be
more confident your conclusion is correct. If
someone else repeats your experiment and
gets the same results you can be even more
confident. Results like this are said to be
reliable.
Results
Howwillyourecordanddisplayyourresults?Ifa
datalogger is available you could use it. Would a
graph be useful?
Computer programs such as Excel can be
used for drawing graphs. Open the ICT
skillsheet on the CD to see how this can be
done.
Writing your report

Look carefully at your results and write a report of
your findings, giving your answer to the problem.
Youcouldtakeadigitalphotoofyourset-upto
include in your report. Could you improve your
design?How?
Instead of keeping something warm you often

want to keep something cold. Design an
experiment to find out which is the best insulator
for this.
Check!
1
What is the advantage of a copper bottom

on a saucepan?
The four beakers shown are identical and

contain the same volume of water at 80C.
After 10 minutes the temperature of each is
measured again.
Refrigerators and freezers are painted

white. Yet the coils at the back are painted
black. Why is this?
Predict the effect that a chocolate coating

would have on the rate at which an icecream melts. How could you test your
prediction?
Polar bears have white fur and black skin.

In winter their fur is fluffed up, and in
summer it sits down flat. Suggest how
these adaptations allow the bears to control
their temperature.
In a supermarket the doors of vertical

refrigerators must be kept shut, yet the
freezer unit in the foreground of the photo
has no lid. How can you explain this?
There are similarities and differences in the

way light, heat and sound are transmitted,
reflected and absorbed.
a Can heat travel through space where
there is no air? What about light and
sound?
b Can heat, light and sound be reflected?
Give examples.
c Can heat, light and sound be absorbed?
Give examples.
plastic foam
a
b
c
3
Which beaker do you think will be the

hottest after 10 minutes? Why?
Explain why the water in B will probably
be a little warmer than that in A.
What happens to the heat energy lost
from the beakers?
An ordinary gas or electric oven is more

correctly called a convection oven. Why?
Draw a diagram showing how it works by
convection.
heating
element
You put a can and a glass bottle of ginger

beer into the refrigerator at the same time.
They both contain 375 mL and are both at
room temperature. Predict which one will
cool more quickly. Why?
141
1 42
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
1 What colour would you paint large petrol
storage tanks? Why?
2 Look at the cartoon showing Jason thinking
abouthowheattravels.Isheright?Howwould
you answer him?
Wool is a very
good insulator.
So, why not wear
a woollen jumper
on a hot day?
Surely this would
reduce the
amount of heat
reaching your
body.
3 AnsaandTammyilledtwopapercups,one
with water and the other with soil. They placed
them in the refrigerator overnight. The next
morning they took both cups, put them in the
sun, and measured their temperature every
15minutes.Herearetheirresults.
Time
Water
Soil
9.00am
10C
10C
9.15am
10C
11C
9.30am
12C
13C
9.45am
13C
16C
10.00am
14C
20C
10.15am
15C
25C
10.30am
15C
30C
a Plottheseresultsonagraph.
b Whichabsorbsheatmorereadilywater
or soil?
c Duringtheday,whichbecomeshotterthe
land or the sea?
d Where would a glider pilot look for thermals
(risingair)abovelandorabovealake?
4 Hot-airballoonsworkbyusingaburnerthat
heatstheairbelowtheballoon.Howdoes
this make the balloon rise?
5 Use the particle theory to explain the
following.
a Conduction occurs much more rapidly in
solids than in gases.
b Convection currents can occur in liquids
and gases, but not in solids.
6 Design an experiment to compare the
insulating properties of four different house
bricks. Try it if you have time.
7 One end of a long glass rod is heated to
100Candtheotherendiscooledto0C.
a What will happen to the temperature at
each end if the rod is left at room
temperature?
b Sketchgraphstoillustratethetemperature
changes at the two ends of the rod.
8 Using what you have learnt in this chapter
suggest:
a four ways of preventing heat loss from
your house in winter
b four ways of preventing your house from
getting hot in summer.

This section is different from other sections of
the book. Instead of working through it page by
page, you can select any of the six activities on
the following pages. You will need to apply what
you have learnt in the first two sections and work
things out for yourself. In some of the activities

you will be designing your own experiments to
solve a problem. If you need help with this, see
Chapter 2.
1 Firewalking
each coal is actually burning. When a firewalkers
foot touches a burning coal, a small amount of
heat is transferred to the foot by conduction. This
loss of heat is enough to temporarily reduce the
surface temperature of the coal below ignition
temperature, causing it to stop burning.
The secret to firewalking is that charcoal is
a poor conductor of heat, and it takes about a
second before enough heat is transferred through
the dead outer layer of skin on the foot to the
living tissue beneath, thereby causing a burn.
So,providedthatthefootisincontactwithany
one hot coal for less than a second, it will not be
burned.
Despite all this, firewalking is still dangerous,
and you should not try it yourself! Firstly, burns
can occur where the skin is thinnest; for example,
underthearchandbetweenthetoes.Secondly,
if there is any burning wood mixed with the coals
itmayproducehotgasjetscapableofburning.
Thirdly, small bits of coals can sometimes stick to
the firewalkers feet. When this occurs the coal is
in contact with the foot for longer than a second
and a burn will result.
Exercises
YoumayhaveseenirewalkingonTV,where
peoplewalkbarefootacrossapitofred-hot
coals.Somepeoplethinkthatthisshowshow
themindcaninluencethebody.Butitcanbe
explained in terms of heat transfer.
Even when you walk barefoot on a hot bitumen
road your feet can be burned as heat is
transferredtothembyconduction.Sohowcan
youwalkonred-hotcoalsatabout800C?
Thecoalsarecharcoalformedbythepartial
combustion of wood. Only the outer layer of
1 Whatisthetemperatureofred-hotcoals?
2 What are coals made of?
3 Arecoalsgoodconductorsofheatorpoor
conductors?
4 What is the main way heat is transferred in
firewalking?
5 What is meant by the term ignition
temperature?
>
143
1 44
ScienceWorld8forNSW
6 Abouthowlongdoesittakebeforeliving
tissue beneath dead skin is burned?
7 Why is it a problem if small bits of coals
stick to the firewalkers feet?
8 Given the maximum contact time of one
second, is it safe to walk across the coals
at normal walking pace? Explain.
9 Suggestwhythemaximumcontacttimeis
slightly different for different people.
10 Howdoesirewalkingillustratethe
difference between temperature and heat?
2 How does a thermos work?

Studythelabelleddiagram.Thenwritean
explanation of how a thermos keeps liquids
hot or cold. Make sure you explain how the
various parts work to prevent heat flow by
conduction,convectionandradiation.Your
teacher may be able to show you the inside
of a thermos.
cover
well-fitting
plastic stopper
double-walled glass or
stainless steel container
silvered walls
hot or cold
liquid
heat
radiation
air space
air pumped out to

create a vacuum
rubber, plastic or
cork supports
3 Which is the coolest colour to wear?

Which is the coolest colour to wear in
summer?
Designanexperimenttoindout.You
could use a method similar to that in
Investigate15onpage138,oryoucould
workoutyourowndesign.Adatalogger
with several temperature probes would be
very useful here.
Write your report, giving your conclusion
and commenting on the accuracy and
reliability of your method and results.
Include a recommendation to people
wanting to keep cool in summer.
Phew!
Its so hot!
You must be
absolutely
roasting in
those dark
clothes.
4 Does white coffee cool faster than black coffee?

One evening as Mahdi was making coffee
for Kyle and herself the telephone rang.
Mahdiwasjustabouttoaddthemilkto
Kyles coffee when he said, The coffee will
probably stay hotter if you add the milk after
Ive finished on the phone. Mahdi knew
Kyle would be on the phone for ages, so
she said, Wouldnt it be better if I added
themilknow?Ilearntatschoolthatdarkcoloured things like coffee give off more
heatandcoolfasterthanlight-coloured
things like milk.
Who is right? Write a hypothesis about
the cooling of coffee. Then design and carry
out an experiment to test your hypothesis.
Youwillneedtomakecareful
measurements and record your results
onagraph.(Youmaybeabletousea
datalogger with temperature probes.)
Is Mahdis explanation correct? Is it to
do with colour, or is it to do with the relative
temperaturesofthecoffeeandmilk?How
could you find out?
Dont add the milk

to my coffee
til Ive finished
on the phone.
Wouldnt it be
better if I put
it in now?
145
1 46
ScienceWorld8forNSW
5 Why use a lid?

Youhavebeenglancingthroughabookcalled
101 ways to save energy in the home. One of
the tips is to always put a lid on a saucepan
whencooking.Youwonderwhether
this is in fact true.
Basedonwhatyouhavelearnt
in this chapter, write a hypothesis that
you think is correct. Make sure that the
hypothesis is written in such a way that you
can test it. For example, you need to say what
will be measured.
Now go ahead and test your hypothesis. If
possible, repeat your experiment to make sure
your conclusion is reliable.
lid
steam
boiling water
food
stove
6 Designing a house
Yourtaskistodesignahouseforyourareathat
is cool in summer and warm in winter, using what
you have learnt in this chapter about heat transfer.
Take into account how heat is gained and lost
by an average house, as shown in the diagram.
In your design you should consider:
roof 25%
thepositionofthehouse
thetypeofbuildingmaterialsused
for the floor, walls and roof
walls
35%
windows
10%
designfeaturessuchasalator
slopingroof,typesofwindows(eg
single-ordouble-glazed)andventilation
thesurroundsofthehouse,includingthe
types of trees
< WEB watch >

To find out more about energy-efficient house
designs, go to www.scienceworld.net.au and
follow the links to Sustainable energy info
(fact sheets on building) and Energy Smart
house design.
floor 15%
Fig 43
draughts &
ventilation
15%
The percentages of the total heat transfer

in various parts of an average house

absorb
1 Heat is a form of ______ which can raise the ______ of an object.
conduction
2 The temperature of an object depends on how fast its ______
convection
are moving. The faster they move, the higher the temperature.
3 The amount of heat gained or lost by an object depends on its

______, the temperature ______ and what it is made from.
4 ______ is the transfer of heat through a material by the collision

of particles. Metals are the best conductors of heat. Poor
conductors are called ______.
5 Heat energy flows from places where the temperature is ______

to where it is ______. Insulators are used to reduce the amount
of heat ______.
change
energy
high
insulators
low
mass
particles
radiation
temperature
transfer
6 ______ is where heat is transferred by circulating currents in

liquids or gases.
7 Heat energy can be transferred across empty space by means of ______.

8 Dark-coloured surfaces ______ and emit radiation better than light-coloured
surfaces.
REVIEW
1 If one end of a copper rod is held in a burner

flame, heat travels quickly along the rod to the
other end. Substances like copper which behave
in this way are called good:
A absorbers
B insulators
C radiators
D conductors
2 A building is heated by running hot water
through a number of radiators. The most
efficient colour for these radiators would be:
A silver
B white
C black
D red
3 Copy and complete the diagrams below to

show the convection currents you would
expect to form in the water.
a
147
ScienceWorld8forNSW
1 48
REVIEW
4 Which of the following statements are true,

and which are false? Rewrite the false ones to
make them correct.
a A cold object eventually heats up to the
same temperature as its surroundings.
b Conduction is fast in insulators.
c Heat transfer by conduction is very slow in
liquids and gases.
d The sun transfers heat energy to the Earth
by the process of convection.
e The hotter an object is, the less radiation it
emits.
f When an object absorbs radiation its
temperature rises.
g Heat radiation travels at the speed of light.
5 If two objects are at different temperatures,
what can you say about the movement of the
particles in the hotter one?
6 Which has more heat energya teaspoon of
water at 80C or a bucket of water at 80C?
Explain.
7 If you hold your hand above a burning candle,
you will burn yourself. Yet you can quite
comfortably hold your hand beside the flame.
Why is this?
8 Look at the diagram of a toasted cheese
sandwich being cooked in a griller.
a How does heat travel from the heating
element to the sandwich?
b Why cant the heat travel by conduction or
convection?
heating
element
9 Rory and Trent poured equal volumes of cold

water into two identical styrofoam cups, then
put identical thermometers in each. They put
one cup in the sun and the other in the shade,
and recorded the temperatures every
10 minutes. Here are their results.
Temperature (C)
Times
(minutes)
in sun
in shade
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
15
16.5
18
20
21
23
24
15
16
17
17.5
18.5
19.5
20.5
a Plot the results on a graph.

b What conclusion can you draw from the
graph?
c What variables did Rory and Trent control
in this experiment?
d Which method of heat transfer caused the
increase in temperature of the water in the
cups?
e What would be the effect of painting the
cup in the sun black?
10 A manufacturer claims that a certain
insulating material is good to keep the cold
out. Is this expression accurate? Explain using
a diagram.
11 Do sheep get colder when it is raining and their
wool is wet? Design an experiment to find out,
listing the steps you would need to take to
make it a fair test.
toasted cheese
sandwich
Learning focus: Models and theories that
have been modified or rejected
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
How a theory was rejected

Activity
1 Measure 50 mL of cold water into a beaker
and record its temperature. Then measure
out 50 mL of hot water and record its
temperature.
2 Add the hot water to the cold water and stir
carefully with a thermometer. Record the
temperature.
3 Use what you have learnt about heat to
explain your results.
To explain the results of the activity did you
write a hypothesis that heat is transferred from
a hotter substance to a colder one? Scientists
test a hypothesis like this by carrying out more
experiments. Other scientists then repeat these
experiments. If all the experiments support the
hypothesis, and none have shown it to be false,
the hypothesis is accepted as a theory. This theory
is accepted until new evidence is found that
doesnt support it.
In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier proposed the theory
that heat is a special fluid called caloric that flows
from warmer to colder objects. Unfortunately

Lavoisier was beheaded in the French Revolution
in 1794. Four years later Count Rumford did
his experiment with drilling brass cannons (see
page 128), and suggested that the caloric theory
was incorrect. However, scientists were reluctant
to reject the caloric theory since it successfully
explained many experiments.
In 1842 James Joule carried out a famous
experiment that meant the caloric theory had to
be rejected. He made the apparatus shown below
in which a falling weight turned a paddle in a
tank of water. The friction caused by the paddle
caused the temperature to rise slightly. From
this he was able to show that heat is just a form
of energy and can be explained in terms of the
motion of particles (see page 129).
1 How does a hypothesis become a theory?
2 Draw a time line showing the events outlined
on this page, as well as Daltons particle
theory in 1803. How long did the caloric
theory last?
3 Why was the caloric theory rejected?
pulley
pulley
thermometer
falling
weight
fixed paddle
water
rotating
paddle
Lavoisier, in the red coat, is carried to the guillotine

during the French Revolution.
Joules experiment
149
7
Exploring
space
Planning page
Getting started
Activity page 153
Timelines
Activity page 163

Activity page 164
Activity page 173

page 152

page 157

page 169
TRB
Assessment task 7
An astronomy survey
Main ideas
Chapter 7 crossword
Review
Learning focus:
Distinguishing between
scientific, economic and
legal argument
TRB
Chapter 7 test

Colonising Mars
Chapter7 Exploringspace
t
l learn abou
r you wil
In this chapte
LearningFocus
distinguishing between scientific, economic and legal argument (page 177)
the solar system

components of the universe (Section 7.3)
Skills
gathering information from secondary sources (Activities pages 163164, Science Bits
page 166)
processing information (Activities pages 163164)
presenting information (Skillbuilder page 155, Activity page 164)
thinking criticallygeneralising and predicting (Activity page 153)
Do aliens exist? If so, where do they come from?

How much do you know about the solar system
and the universe? Form a group and discuss the
questions below.
If aliens exist somewhere in the universe,
where are they likely to live? Describe the
body features they would have to have to live
in these places.
The nearest star is 4.3 light-years away. What
does this mean? Could we get to this star
using our present methods of space travel?
Suggest other ways of travelling to stars.
It has been suggested that humans might one
day live on Mars. Why Mars and not one the
other planets in our solar system?
151
1 52
ScienceWorld8forNSW

When you gaze into the night sky you are looking
at part of the universe. Astronomers (scientists
who study objects in space) describe the universe
as space and everything in it. However, they are
not sure how big the universe is. They do know
that it is made up of billions of stars, millions
more than the few thousand that you can observe
by looking at the night sky.
Inferences from observations

Most cultures throughout history have had very
important beliefs about the visible objects in
the universe. The Egyptians, 4000 years ago,
believed that the sky was the body of the goddess
Nut. The stars were shiny jewels on her dress,
while the planets were shiny boats that drifted
across the sky. At about the same time the
Babylonians thought that the Earth was the
centre of a huge sphere, with the Sun, Moon and
planets moving around the Earth. Many people
also thought that the Earth was flat.
In most cultures the beliefs were based on
a central Earth with the other objects moving
around it. These beliefs or inferences were based

on the observations that the Sun, Moon, planets
and stars all move in a westerly direction around
the Earth.
In AD 140 the Greek astronomer Ptolemy
(TOLL-em-ee) wrote an encyclopaedia of
astronomy detailing the motion of the moon,
the five known planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn), the sun and the stars all
revolving around the Earth. Ptolemy and other
astronomers of his time were very influential, and
their ideas went unquestioned for about 1400
years.
In 1543, Nicholas Copernicus (ko-PER-nickus) published a book containing the idea that the
Earth was not the centre of the universe. Using
very detailed observations gathered over 40 years,
he inferred that the planets revolve around a
central sun. Even though his inference was not
new, it proved to be a bombshell because it was
contrary to the traditional belief that the Earth is
the centre of the universe.
(only half the

sphere shown)
stars
Mars
Earth
Jupiter
Saturn
Sun
Venus
Mercury
Fig 2
Moon
The Babylonians thought that the Earth was

at the centre of a huge sphere, with the stars
set like jewels on its inner surface.
Fig 3
In 350 BC most people believed that the

Earth was flat. But the Greek mathematician
Aristotle inferred that the Earth was a sphere
after observing its circular shadow on the
Moon during an eclipse.
Activity
For this activity you will need a pencil, a large
sheet of stiff paper or cardboard, a compass
and some Blu-tack.
a Place the paper on some flat, level
ground. Use the compass to find north
and position a long side of the paper to
face north.
Mark north in the corner of the paper.
b Put a piece of Blu-tack on the blunt end
of the pencil, and place the pencil about
5 cm in from the north edge of the paper,
as shown in the photo.
Another breakthrough in astronomy occurred

in 1609 when Johannes Kepler published his
First Law of Planetary Motion. This supported
Copernicus inference and suggested that the
planetary paths are ellipses rather than circles.
These paths are called orbits. His inference was
based on incredibly accurate planetary
observations collected over 30 years by his
teacher, Tycho Brahe (pronounced Bray).
Invention of the telescope

In 1610 Galileo built a telescope using lenses,
and observed the surface of the Moon for the first
time. He saw mountains, craters and large flat
plains. He also observed the planets Mars, Venus
and Jupiter, and discovered that they were round
and disc-like, unlike stars, which were just points
of light in the sky.
When observing Jupiter, Galileo also noticed
four moons revolving around the planet. He used
these observations to support the inference that
the Sun was at the centre of the solar system.
N
c Place an at the end of the shadow,
and write the time next to it.
d Do this every half an hour for as long as
you can. (If you only have a lesson, mark
the shadow every 5 minutes.)
e Join up the s on the paper and show in
which direction the shadow moved.
What shape is the line joining the
s?
How does the movement of the
shadow relate to the rotation of the
Earth?
Predict how the line would change
throughout the year.
Fig 5
Some of Galileos observations of the moons

of Jupiter. The date is on the left and the
moons that were visible on each night are
marked beside Jupiter (the circle).
153
1 54
ScienceWorld8forNSW
After Galileos small telescope, larger and
more powerful telescopes were built to scan the
night sky. In 1781 William Herschel discovered
the planet Uranus using a very large telescope. In
the early 1800s astronomers observed unusual
changes in Uranus movements and inferred
that they were caused by an unknown planet.
After many years of careful observation, the new
planets position in the sky was predicted by
English and French astronomers. Then in 1846
the new planet was discovered by the German
astronomer, Johann Galle. It was called Neptune.
The American astronomer Percival Lowell had
predicted the presence of a ninth planet in 1905.
However, it was difficult to observe with a
telescope because it was so far away from Earth.
Eventually Plutos existence was confirmed when
it was observed in 1930 using newly invented
photographic methods. Pluto was officially
declared a planet in 1999 by the International
Astronomical Union, but in 2006 the Union
reclassified it as a dwarf planet.
Fig 6
William Herschels telescope used in the

discovery of Uranus in 1781.
Fig 7
The arrangement of the planets and Pluto in the solar system. The planets revolve around the Sun in orbits
that are roughly in the same plane. However Plutos orbit is tilted and crosses the orbit of Neptune. Because
of this, Pluto was closer to the sun than Neptune between the years 1979 and 1999.
Pluto
Saturn
Uranus
Jupiter
Sun
Mercury
Neptune
Venus
Earth
Mars
Asteroid belt
The diagram is not to scale.
Skillbuilder
The history of motion pictures
Timelines
A timeline is a visual way of representing
the sequence of historical events, and can be
drawn horizontally or vertically. Notice in the
diagram below the vertical timelines can start
at the top or the bottom.
The line has intervals marked on it to
indicate the units of time. It is like the scale
used on the axis of a graph. The timeline on the
right shows the events in the history of motion
pictures (movies).
Look at the three timelines below. What is
the time interval for each?
Digital projectors replace film

projectors in cinemas
2000
Digital surround sound used in
cinemas
1980
First IMAX cinema
1960
Where would you mark 1985, 7 pm and

925 BC?
1940
Cinerama movies made using

three projectors, a wide curving
screen and stereo sound
Colour movies first made
1980
1990
10 am
800 BC
12 noon
2 pm
850 BC
4 pm
6 pm
8 pm
900 BC
1900
First public screening of a motion

picture (Waves on the shore)
950 BC
1890
10 pm
12 midnight
First talking motion picture

1920
1000 BC
2000
Drawing timelines
Your task is to draw a timeline for the events
that led to the discovery of all nine planets in
the solar system. To do this you need to read
through the information on pages 152154
carefully.
1 Draw a vertical line down the long side of a
large piece of paper. The arrow on the line
can point up or down.
2 Your timeline will go from 2000 BC to
AD 2100. Work out a suitable scale for the
timeline and draw it. (Hint: To save time,
mark every 500 years on the timeline.)
Thomas Edison shows a

15 second film in New York
3 Read through the information in the text and

in the captions underneath the photos and
drawings. From this information, select each
event and the date on which it occurred.
Summarise the event into a sentence.
4 On the right-hand side of the timeline, write
the event that occurred, draw a box around
it, then rule a line from the event to the
year in which it occurred. (Use the motion
pictures timeline above as a guide.)
5 Discuss the timeline with your group. You
may be asked to present it to the class.
155
1 56
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
How does the ancient Egyptian model

for the universe differ from that of the
Babylonians?
Ptolemys ideas about the structure of the

solar system are based on an incorrect
inference about the movement of the Sun,
Moon and planets. What is this inference?
In the late 1600s people began to accept

a new idea about the arrangement of the
solar system. What was this new idea?
What is an orbit? What general shape is it?

What is so unusual about the orbit of Pluto?
Which planets cannot be seen with the

naked eye? When was each one discovered?
The word planet comes from the Greek

word meaning wanderer? Suggest why
this is a good term to describe these bodies
in space.
Suggest why it took so long to discover

Pluto.
Suppose you were observing the stars in

the Southern Cross one clear night. You
recorded the position of the stars and the
time. Two hours
8 pm
later you observed
the Southern Cross
again and recorded
its position.
Make an
inference to
account for the
difference in the
observations.
10 pm
challenge
1 Look at Fig 5 on page 153. This is Galileos
record of his observations of the moons around
Jupiter.
a On the night of the 10th he observed four
moons, but on other nights he observed
three and sometimes two.
Make an inference to account for the
differences in these observations.
b Over how many nights did Galileo make
observations? What assumptions did you
make to answer this question?
2 Galileo observed four moons orbiting
Jupiter. In 1908 astronomers recorded seeing
the eighth moon. Today, astronomers have
seen 63 moons, some of which are only
20 km in diameter.
From 1610, it took 300 years to find four
more moons, and from that date only 90 years
to find another 57.
a Suggest why this occurred.
b Do you think that astronomers have actually
seen the smaller moons of Jupiter? Give
reasons for your answer.
3 Below is a 14th century woodcut of Ptolemys
map of the universe. The names are written in
Latin.
a What is at the centre of the universe?
b The first seven circles represent the objects
in the solar system. What are the English
names for these seven objects? Name them
in order from closest to furthest.
c What do you think is represented by the
outer three circles?

Look back at the diagram of the solar system on
page 154 showing the planets orbiting a central
sun. We know at present that there are eight
planets in our solar system:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
The planets are usually divided into two groups:
the inner planets and the outer planets.
Inner planets
These are sometimes called the rocky planets and
include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They
are the ones closest to the Sun, they have rocky
surfaces and are all relatively small.
Outer planets
The outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune, are much bigger than the inner planets,
and make up 99 per cent of the total mass of all
the planets. They are often called the giant planets
or the gas planets. They all have rings around
them and a large number of moons. They consist
mainly of the gases hydrogen and helium. Below
their surface these gases are in liquid form, and at
the centre is a rocky core.
Fig 12
Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar

system, and is closest to the sun. Like our
Moon, much of its surface is covered by
impact craters.
You can use the following memory jingle (or

mnemonic) to help you remember the order of the
planets.
My Very Educated Mother Just Served
Us Nachos
The two groups of planets are separated by
hundreds of thousands of tiny chunks of metallic
rock called asteroids. They orbit the sun between
Mars and Jupiter in what is called the asteroid
belt. There are so many asteroids in this belt that
there is always a danger of collision for passing
spacecraft.
Most planets have a layer of gas, called an
atmosphere, covering them. The inner planets
have a relatively thin atmosphere, while the gas
planets have a much thicker atmosphere. Earths
atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen
and smaller amounts of carbon dioxide and water
vapour. Jupiters thick atmosphere, on the other
hand, consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.
The gases in the atmosphere are held close
to a planet by its gravity. On a large planet like
Jupiter, where the gravity is 2.6 times greater than
on Earth, the lightest gases (hydrogen and helium)
are held in the atmosphere. On Earth, however,
these gases escape into space. Mercury is so small
and hot that it has no atmosphere at all.
157
1 58
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Theinnerplanets
The Earths two neighbours, Venus and Mars,
have been the most observed and studied of all the
planets in the solar system. In the next 20 years
many spacecraft will land on Mars surface and
gather information for a possible human landing.
Venus, on the other hand, has a very thick, acidic
atmosphere and may be unsuitable for a human
landing.
Fig 15
Fig 13
The Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and

Opportunity landed on Mars in 2004 and have
sent thousands of high-quality images back
to Earth.
Fig 16
Fig 14
The thick clouds of

Venus atmospher
e can
be seen swirling ar
ound the planet.
enor
on Mars is an
Olympus Mons
across.
volcano 600 km
mous
The Tick volcano on Venus is 66 km

across
and has radiating ridges on the side
s. The rim
at the bottom seems to have been brok
en by
a dark lava flow.
Theouterplanets
Each of the four outer gas planets has a feature
that makes it different from the other planets.
Jupiter is the giant planet and is over twice as
heavy as all the other planets put together. Saturn
has distinctive rings around it. Uranus is a pale
green-blue colour and has faint rings. Its axis
of rotation is nearly at right angles to the other
planets, which means that the planet is lying on
its side. Neptune is also a green colour, but its
most striking feature is its Great Dark Spot.
Fig 17
Fig 18
d Spot
Jupiters Great Re
a distance
m
photographed fro
one of
,
Io
.
of 21 million km
n be seen
ca
,
Jupiters moons
top right.
Fig 19
A composite vi
ew of
Saturn and six
of its
moons. The ph
otos were
taken by the Vo
yager 2
spacecraft in 19
80.
An artists impression
of Uranus with its faint
rings from one of its
moons (Miranda) in the
foreground.
159
1 60
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Whatisaplanet?
The discovery of Pluto
After the 1846 discovery of Neptune,
astronomers were expecting to find another
planet beyond Neptune. However, even after 60
years of searching, no new planet was found. The
unknown planet was called Planet O, and was
actually photographed in 1919 but not noticed
because it was smaller than astronomers had
expected.
In February 1930, the American astronomer
Clyde Tombaugh identified a new planet in
photographs taken a month earlier. The new
planet was called Pluto after the Roman god of
the dead and ruler of the underworld.
Why Pluto isnt a planet

Astronomers discovered two very odd things
about Plutos orbit. Firstly, all the other planets
orbit the sun in approximately the same plane.
Plutos orbit, however, is inclined at 17 to that
plane. Secondly, Plutos orbit is much more
elliptical than the orbits of the other planets, and
actually overlaps Neptunes orbit.
But is Pluto a planet? Pluto is 6 times smaller
than Earth and also smaller than our moon.
Plutos moon Charon, discovered in 1978, is
larger in proportion to its planet than any other
in our solar system.
Fig 20
Photos taken on 23 January 1930 (top) and

29 January 1930 show how Pluto had moved
relative to the stars.
Pluto was always thought to be a planet

until the mid 1990s when hundreds of Plutolike objects were discovered in a region beyond
Neptune known as the Kuiper Belt (see the next
page). Many of these objects are greater than
100 km in diameter. So, in August 2006
astronomers decided to reclassify Pluto as a
dwarf planet.
The day our solar

system
got bigger
In early January 2005,
Mike Brown from the
Californian Institute of
Technology was analysin
g
photographs of objects
in the far reaches of th
e solar
system when he found
a planet-like object. Fu
rther
analysis showed that th
is planet is larger than
Pluto
and is about 97 times
further from the Sun th
an
Earth.
This Kuiper belt objec
t is called Eris, the large
st of the
dwarf planets. It has an
odd elliptical orbit like
Plutos
but its exact size is unkn
own at present. It is ve
ry bright,
but its greyish surface
colour may reflect more
light than
Plutos reddish surface
.
In September 2005, ot
her astronomers discove
red a
moon around Eris.
An artists impression of Eris with our Sun in the

distance
The Kuiper Belt

In the early 1990s astronomers began discovering
many objects in space beyond Neptune. These
objects were found in a band orbiting the sun.
The band was named the Kuiper Belt after
the Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper
(pronounced KY-per). He had suggested in the
1950s that comets and asteroid-like matter existed
beyond Neptune.
Kuipers hypothesis
Using the results of astronomical investigations,
Kuiper hypothesised that when the planets were
forming, strong gravitational forces swept up
all the matter and formed the planets as we
know them. In the region beyond Neptune, the
gravitational forces were weaker and there should
be lots of smaller bodies including comets.
Missions in space
The very first spacecraft, an artificial satellite
called Sputnik 1, was launched by the then USSR
in 1957. Since then spacecraft have landed on our
Moon, and the planets Venus and Mars. They
have also flown close to and photographed all the
planets and their moons in the solar system.
In the late 1990s, using terrestrial and space

telescopes, astronomers found many Kuiper Belt
Objects. These observations supported Kuipers
hypothesis.
Questions
1 Explain in your own words why astronomers
thought there might be many objects beyond
Neptune.
2 Do you think Pluto should be called a dwarf
planet rather than the ninth planet? Give
reasons for your opinion.
3 Suggest why Gerard Kuiper did not actually
observe any Kuiper Belt Objects.
< WEB watch >

links to the website below.
The Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud
You can also search the internet under Kuiper
Belt.
The first major missions into space were two

Voyager missions launched in 1977. They sent
back an incredible amount of new information
on Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Prior to
these missions it was thought that Jupiter had 13
moons; now more than 60 have been observed.
Uranus was thought to have five moons but
Voyager 2 discovered another 10. The spacecraft
also discovered rings around Uranus similar to,
but much fainter than, those around Saturn. The
cameras on board Voyager were able to send
close-up images of Uranus moon, Miranda,
showing deep canyons. These cameras were so
good that they could photograph a newspaper
headline about one kilometre away!
Fig 21
The Voyager 2 spacecraft was

launched in 1977. In 1979 it
travelled past Jupiter, then past
Saturn in 1981. Now 30 years
later, it is passing the outer edge
of the solar system and into the
empty space beyond.
161
1 62
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Getting information on space
Our knowledge about the solar system
constantly changes as space missions reveal new
information about planets and their moons. A
very good source of up-to-date information is the
internet. Newspapers, magazines and journals are
another source.
To do the activities on the following two pages
you will need current information about the
planets and their moons, as well as about past,
current and future space missions. The websites
listed in the box below are just some of the many
that are available, and many of these websites
also have links to other sites.
You can find other websites using a search
engine. For example, if you type in Jupiters
moons, a number of sites will be listed, of which
some may be suitable.
When you write a report, make sure you list
the websites you use. In this way, other people
can check the accuracy of your information.

NASA Solar System Exploration
Current information on the planets as well as
news, missions, science and technology reports.
NASA Human Spaceflight
Gives up-to-date information and news about the
space shuttle, the International Space Station and
other space missions.
Mars News
Information on past, current and future space
missions to Mars.
The Nine Planets
A multimedia tour of the solar system. Good
information on the planets and space missions.
Science@NASA Headline News
Excellent site for current news on space science
and astronomy.
Helpful hints on units
Some of the technical information you

will find
on the websites below contains units that
may
be unfamiliar to you. Websites from the
USA
often use miles and miles per hour (mp
h).
The conversions are listed below.
1 mile = 1.6 km
1 mph = 1.6 km/h
Some temperatures are given in the
Fahrenheit (F) scale. To convert degrees
Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, subtrac
t 32 then
multiply by 0.56. That is:
C = (F 32) x 0.56
Astronomers often use the Kelvin scal
e to
measure temperatures. To convert Kelv
in to
degrees Celsius subtract 273.
C = K 273
< WEB watch >

Voyager
Information on the Voyager missions and images
of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune and their
moons. Has an excellent Planetary Tour animated
movie.
Windows to the Universe
Information on the planets, space missions, and
myths about the planets and the universe. Has
links to other sites.
Welcome to the planets
Profiles on the planets and a link to the planetary
photojournal.
Solar system exploration
Has answers to questions on the planets, comets,
asteroids and space missions.
Activity
In this activity you will work in a small group
of three or four people to complete the tasks
below.
You will need to use the library (including
the internet) to find information on the solar
system.
Task 1
Prepare a planetary facts sheet. The facts
sheet should list the planets, their average
distance from the sun, their diameter, the
number of moons, the surface temperature,
the composition of the atmosphere and any
other interesting information.
Remember to list the names of the books,
magazines, articles or websites you used to
find your information.
Prepare a rough draft first, discuss it with
your group, modify it where necessary, then
prepare your final copy.
Use a computer database such as Excel
to make your facts sheet.
Task 3
Compare the length of a day and the length
of a year for each planet in the solar system.
Record the information in a table.
What pattern can you see in the lengths
of the years of the planets as you move away
from the Sun?
Task 4
Gravity is the force of attraction between two
bodies. It is this force which keeps you on the
Earth, and it is the force that keeps planets
and their moons in orbit.
The table below gives the mass of each
planet and the gravity on the planets
surface, compared with Earth.
Planets
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Mass
Gravity
(Compared with Earth = 1)
0.06
0.8
1
0.1
318
95
14.6
17.0
0.4
0.9
1
0.4
2.5
1.1
0.9
1.1
Task 2
Use the data to plot the following graphs.
Draw a bar graph to show the planets in
order on the horizontal axis and the
diameter of the planets on the vertical axis.
Write a generalisation about the mass of

the planet and the gravity on its surface.
Draw a line graph to link the diameter of

the planets (horizontal axis) and the number
of moons around each planet (vertical axis).
As the gravity decreases so does your

weight. On which planets would your weight
be less than on Earth?
Use the graphs to answer the following

questions.
Write a generalisation linking the
diameters of the planets with their distances
from the Sun.
Write a generalisation linking the diameter
of the planet with the number of moons.
Task 5
Find out about the origin of the names of
the planets.
Choose any five planetary moons and find
out about the origins of their names. You may
also like to research the myths and legends
of the solar system from different groups or
cultures around the world.
163
1 64
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Activity
Other objects in our solar system
The interplanetary travel agency
You are a travel agent with Interworld Travel
who specialise in taking people to Mercury,
Venus and Mars, and on flybys of Jupiter and
Saturn.
The travel
agent was right.
It IS worth a
million bucks!
Asteroids
In 1989 the spacecraft Galileo was launched to
study the atmosphere of Jupiter and its moons.
One year later it entered the Asteroid Belt and
came close to the asteroid Gaspra.
Gaspra is a small asteroid about 19 km long.
It is composed of rock and metal typical of most
of the many other thousands of asteroids that
are found orbiting the sun in a wide belt between
Jupiter and Mars. About 100 000 asteroids are
large enough to be seen from Earth. The largest
is Ceres, which is 800 km in diameter, and is
classified as a dwarf planet.
Write an itinerary for tourists who wish to

travel to these planets. Use the guidelines
below to do this.
Use library research to find out
approximately how long it would take to reach
each of the planets. (Your Space SuperBus
travels at 200 000 km/h.)
Write a brochure about the surface
conditions of the planets. For those planets
on which the tourists are to land, give
information about the special equipment they
need to wear or take with them.
In your itinerary, write about some of
the planetary features you think that the
tourists would find interesting. You may
think that some of the moons are also worth
mentioning.
Write a list of safety points (similar to a
current airline safety list) which you think all
passengers should know before they land on
planets or moons.
Fig 23
The 19 km long asteroid Gaspra photographed

in 1991 by the spacecraft Galileo from a distance
of 16 000 km.
Astronomers once thought that the asteroids

may have formed from the collision of planets
which shattered into small pieces. However, when
added together, the mass of the asteroids is less
than half the size of our moon. A more widely
accepted idea is that they are debris left over after
the formation of the planets billions of years ago.
< WEB watch >

Search the internet under Gaspra. You will find
many interesting Gaspra websites. Try searching
asteroid to find out about other asteroids.
Meteorites
The craters on many of the planets and moons
in the solar system are caused by collisions with
meteorites. These pieces of rock or iron vary in
size from millimetres to thousands of kilometres
in diameter. In space these objects are called
meteoroids and in a planets atmosphere they are
called meteors. If they strike a planet they are
called meteorites.
The atmosphere around a planet protects it
from meteorite strikes. The Earth and Venus have
fairly thick atmospheres and very few craters.
Mercury, with an extremely thin atmosphere, has
thousands of craters on its surface.
Comets
gases and is reflected, giving the comet a glowing

tail sometimes millions of kilometres long. This
tail always points away from the sun.
Sometimes comets collide with planets. In
1994 Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashed into
Jupiter. The core of this comet shattered into 20
fragments following a close approach of Jupiter in
1992. As each fragment hit the planet, it exploded
in the atmosphere releasing an enormous amount
of energy.
< WEB watch >

Search the internet under Comet ShoemakerLevy. You will find a number of websites with
information, images and movies.
Other members of our solar system which we

occasionally see in the sky are comets. These
objects orbit the Sun in long, narrow elliptical
orbits. Many have orbits which go beyond Pluto,
but some have very small orbits. The most famous
is Halleys comet which orbits the Sun every 76
years, but the Great Comet of 1864 will not come
back for another 2.8 million years!
The core of a comet is made of rock and dust
stuck together with ice and frozen gases such as
ammonia and methane. The core is usually quite
smallabout 10 km in diameterbut when it
approaches the Sun, the frozen gases warm up
and evaporate. The light from the Sun hits the
Fig 24
Fig 25
This photo shows the giant fireball that

erupted when a fragment from Comet
Shoemaker-Levy 9 hit Jupiter in 1994.
Halleys comet was photographed for the first

time in 1910. It was last seen in 1986 and will
be back in 2062. It was seen by Julius Caesar
in 87 BC, Genghis Khan in 1222 and William
Shakespeare in 1607.
165
1 66
ScienceWorld8forNSW
First look inside a comet

Wilhelm Tempel, a German astronomer, observed
a small comet in 1867 and again in 1873 and
1879. This comet was named Comet Tempel 1 in
his honour.
Comet Tempel 1 is a periodic comet which
orbits the sun every 5.5 years. This made the
comet a good target for the Deep Impact
mission, whose aim was to probe beneath the
surface of the comet.
Liftoff
The Delta II rocket carrying the spacecraft was
launched in January 2005. The spacecraft was the
size of a small car. It was a combination of a flyby
spacecraft, which was to stay close to the comet,
and a smaller impactor spacecraft, which was to
crash into the comet.
Impact
In July 2005 the spacecraft approached Comet
Tempel 1. The impactor was released into its
path and relayed images of the comets nucleus
to Earth until just seconds before impact.
Meanwhile, the high-precision tracking telescopes
on the flyby spacecraft took many high resolution
photos of the impact.
The impact had little effect on the comets
orbital path around the Sun, even though the
370 kg impactor created a house-sized crater.
Comet Tempel 1 profile

Your task is to prepare a profile on Comet Tempel
1 which you can present to your teacher, another
group or the whole class.
Use a selection of websites to prepare a
computer report on an aspect of Comet Tempel 1.
You can write about its discovery, the structure
of the comet, its place in the solar system, the
Deep Impact mission and/or the Deep Impact
technology.
Remember to include the website addresses in
your report.
Fig 26
The impactor being released from the flyby

spacecraft (top), the impactor just before
impact (middle) and Comet Temple 1 after
impact (bottom).
< WEB watch >

Search the internet under Comet Tempel. You will
find many websites with information, images and
animations.
Check!
d
Use the information about the planets which
you gathered for the activities on pages 163
and 164 to answer questions 1 to 9.
1
The planets can be divided into two main

groups: the inner planets and the outer
planets. Place the eight planets into these
two groups.
In 1976 a spacecraft landed on my

surface, took soil samples and sent
close-up television images back to Earth.
I am named after the Roman god
of the sea because of my sea-green
colour caused by the methane in my
atmosphere.
10 The photo below shows a plains region

on Venus. Apart from a few volcanoes,
there are no major craters on the surface.
Suggest why Venus has fewer craters than
Mercury or Mars.
Which is the smallest planet and which is

the largest planet in the solar system?
Decide which of the following statements

are true and which are false. Correct the
false ones to make them true.
a Saturn is between Jupiter and Neptune.
b Venus is larger than Mercury but
smaller than Uranus.
c Mars takes about twice as long as Earth
to orbit the Sun.
d Some of the moons of Jupiter are larger
than the dwarf planet Pluto.
e The atmosphere of Venus contains
hydrogen, methane and ammonia.
Which planet has the largest number of

moons, and which have no moons at all?
On which planets have spacecraft landed?

Why would it be difficult to land a
spacecraft on Jupiter?
Suppose you are 13 years old on Earth.

How old would you be in Jovian (Jupiter)
years? How old would you be in Mercurian
years?
11 The gravity on Mars is about two-fifths

that on Earth, while Jupiters gravity is 2.5
times greater. How could the gravity affect
humans and spacecraft?
Suggest why Pluto is called a dwarf planet.
Most planets rotate from west to east,

but one of our near neighbours rotates
the other way. Which planet is it? In which
direction would the Sun rise on this planet?
Which planet am I?
a I am very hot. People think I am
mysterious because of the clouds that
cover my surface.
b I am lying on my side with my south
pole pointing towards the Sun.
c I have a very large number of moons
and small particles of rock and dust that
form thousands of spectacular rings.
12 Sir William Halley (16561742) used

mathematics and his observations through
telescopes to calculate the orbits of 24
comets, one of which is named after him.
Use the data in the text and in the caption
of Fig 25 on page 165 to find out whether
Halley observed this comet in his lifetime.
Was it Halleys comet that King Harold saw
just before the Battle of Hastings in 1066?
(Why did the English think comets were
bad luck and the French think they were
good luck?)
167
1 68
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
1 The photo below shows a number of meteorite
craters. Four of these are labelled A, B, C and D.
B
A
b Astronomers think that both moons were

asteroids that came close to Mars and were
captured by Mars gravity. What evidence
may have led to this inference?
3 The table below shows information about 17 of
the currently known moons of Jupiter.
a Can you identify the four groups of Jovian
moons? Write a description for each of the
four groups of moons.
b Is there a relationship between the size of the
moon and the date of discovery? Write a
generalisation for this.
c Compare the sizes of the largest moons of
Jupiter with the three smallest planets in the
solar system.
Some of the moons of Jupiter
a Which crater was caused by the largest

meteorite?
b Infer which is the oldest crater. Give reasons
for your inference.
2 The two moons of MarsDeimos and Phobos
both have an irregular shape and are composed
of a rocky material which is quite different from
the material on the surface of Mars.
Both moons are quite small. Deimos has
a diameter of 12 km, while Phobos (below) is
23 km across.
a What is the origin of the names Deimos and
Phobos? Suggest why the moons were given
these names.
Moon
Discoverer
Diameter Distance from

(km)
Jupiter (km)
Metis
Voyager, 1979
49
127 600
Adrastea
Voyager, 1979
35
134 000
Amalthea
Barnard, 1892
166
181 300
Thebe
Voyager, 1979
75
222 000
Io
Galileo, 1610
3632
421 600
Europa
Galileo, 1610
3126
670 900
Ganymede
Galileo, 1610
5276
1.1 million
Callisto
Galileo, 1610
4820
1.9 million
Leda
Kowal, 1974
11.1 million
Himalia
Perrine, 1904
170
11.5 million
Lysithea
Nicholson, 1938
19
11.7 million
Elara
Perrine, 1905
80
11.7 million
Ananke
Nicholson, 1951
17
20.7 million
Carme
Nicholson, 1938
24
22.4 million
Pasiphae
Melotta, 1908
27
23.3 million
Sinope
Melotta, 1914
21
23.7 million
Callirrhoe
Spacewatch, 1999
24 million
< WEB watch >

Go to www.scienceworld.net.au and follow
the links to the website below.
Jupiter: Moons
Contains information about Jupiters known
moons and links to other websites.

The few thousand stars which you can see with
your eyes belong to our galaxy called the Milky
Way. It contains more than 100 000 million
stars, but it is just one of millions of galaxies in
the universe. A galaxy is a collection of stars and
dust held together by huge gravitational forces.
Galaxies are separated from each other by vast
regions of space.
Until the turn of the 20th century, the Milky
Way was thought to be the whole universe. A
giant spiral called Andromeda, which can be
observed with a small telescope, was thought
to be in the Milky Way. However, in 1923 the
American astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that
Andromeda was in fact another galaxy about
2.2 million light-years away, well outside our
own galaxy. Hubbles discovery encouraged other
astronomers to search for galaxies and now more
than 100 million have been identified!
Fig 31
This spiral galaxy is similar in shape to our

Milky Way galaxy and the Andromeda spiral.
Over half the galaxies in the known universe
are spirals.
Star distances
Sun, is
The distance to our closest star, the
ut 3 months
abo
e
150 000 000 km. (It would tak
a current
to reach the sun if you travelled in
is
spacecraft.) The next closest star
270 000 times
or
41 000 000 000 000 km away,
the distance to the sun.
rmous, and
The distances to the stars are eno
sure in
the numbers are far too large to mea
e called the
kilometres. Instead, a unit of distanc
ance light travels
light-year is used. This is the dist
in one year.
metres per
Light travels at about 300 000 000
t travels
ligh
r
8
yea
second (3 x 10 m/s), so in one
x 1012 km.
about 9 500 000 000 000 km or 9.5
look back
When you look at stars you actually
the
in
star
in time. The light from the closest
years ago. In
Southern Cross left that star 220
as it used to
other words, you are seeing the star
be in the 1780s!
Galaxies can be classified into three main
typesspiral, elliptical and irregular. There are
three galaxies that we can see easily from Earth
the Andromeda spiral and two irregular galaxies
called the Large and Small Clouds of Magellan
near the Southern Cross.
Fig 32
Elliptical galaxies are egg-shaped with a

bright central core of densely packed stars.
Only the stars in the outer regions of the
galaxy can be distinguished from others.
169
1 70
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Direction of rotation of
the Milky Way Galaxy.
Our Sun is 32 000

light-years from
the centre of the
galaxy.
Sun
Fig 33
Irregular galaxies have no definite shape

and appear as fuzzy clouds. They are the
least common and make up only three per
cent of all known galaxies.
Sun
In 110 million
years time the Sun
and our solar system
will have moved
through one
half-turn.
< WEB watch >

The Anglo-Australian Observatory
Good images and information about stars and
galaxies.
Search galaxies or Andromeda galaxy in your
internet search engine. You will find a number of
websites with information, images and movies.
Diameter = 110 million light-years
Fig 34
The Milky Way rotates slowly about its

centre. This view of the Milky Way was
produced from data gathered by a satellite
orbiting the Earth.
The Milky Way galaxy

The Milky Way galaxy is a flat spiral shape and
the milky band appearance is due to the fact that
you are looking through the central part of the
spiral which contains the most stars. The areas to
the side of the band have very few stars.
The Milky Way has a diameter of about
110 000 light-years, which is smaller than our
neighbouring spiral, Andromeda. Our Sun lies on
one of the arms of the spiral, about 32 000 lightyears from the centre. The spiral rotates about its
centre in space like a Catherine wheel firework.
Sun
Fig 35
A side view of our Milky Way galaxy as seen

from space. Notice that most of the stars in
the galaxy are concentrated in the centre.
The life of stars
In the summer of the year 1054, Chinese
astronomers recorded seeing a bright star
appear in the sky. It was so bright that it
could be seen during the day. What these
astronomers had recorded was a supernova
a spectacular explosion which ended the life
of a giant, hot star.
The birth of a star

Astronomers believe that stars are born in
clouds of gas (mainly hydrogen) and dust that
occur throughout the universe.
Sometimes a gas cloud collapses on
itself, becoming hotter and denser as the
gravitational force increases. This is the stage
in the life of a star known as a protostar.
Eventually the gas becomes hot enough to
start nuclear reactions and the star begins to glow.
Middle age
When a star about the size of our Sun forms, it
initially glows very brightly. After about
10 million years, the star settles down to a long
stable middle-life period of about 10 billion years.
Our sun is now at midlife and has another
5 billion years to go before it runs out of fuel.
Fig 37
The birth and death of a star similar in size

to our Sun. Our Sun is in the middle of a stable
period in its life and will last for another
5 billion years.
Fig 36
The Crab Nebula is a huge expanding cloud

of gas that resulted from a supernova
recorded by Chinese astronomers in 1054.
Old age and death

When all the hydrogen fuel is used up, the outer
layers of the star expand and cool, and the star
forms a red giant. After this, the gases in the
outer regions drift into space and the remaining
gases collapse into a very small, very dense object
known as a white dwarf. Eventually the white
dwarf cools down and fades away leaving a mass
of gases in space.
protostars
form
Our Sun is at this

stage in its life.
gaseous cloud
white
dwarf
white
dwarf
gradually
dies
red giant
171
1 72
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Nebulas
Stars many times the size of the Sun have a much

shorter but spectacular life. These stars live for
only about one million years.
The mass in large stars creates enormous
gravitational forces in the core of the star. The
nuclear reactions use fuel very rapidly, creating
very hot bright stars which appear a bluish-white
in the night sky. When the fuel runs out, there is a
tremendous outburst of energy which we see as a
supernova.
Much of the stars matter is blown into space,
leaving a mass of expanding cloud which is called
a nebula (NEB-you-la). When such an explosion
takes place the brightness of the star increases a
billion times. The brightness lasts for a few days
then fades over a number of years, but usually the
star remains bright enough to be seen with the
naked eye for a few months.
Fig 39
Fig 40
The Ring Nebula is the sort

of nebula that our Sun will
probably produce in about
5 billion years time. The red
colour is due to the large
amounts of hydrogen gas in
the clouds.
This type of nebula is ma

de
up of clouds of very high
temperature gases.
Fig 38
In 1987 David Malin, an Australian astronomer,

photographed the star arrowed on the left which
exploded to form the supernova on the right.
Fig 41
This is the
Horsehead Nebula.
It is a dark nebula
and is made of
clouds of dust
which block the
light from the stars
behind it.
Activity
Up to the end of the 20th century the furthest
humans had travelled in space was to the
moon, a short 110 hours by rocket! Is it
possible to travel further into space?
Work in a small group and discuss the
following questions. You will need to refer
to the table and you may need to use
information in the websites listed below.
Using present technology, which
destination could be the furthest a human
might reach?
Suggest why humans would want to
visit other planets in our solar system. Is it
practical for humans to visit the gas planets?
Destination
from Earth
Could a planetary system exist around

Alpha Centauri, our nearest star?
Why would a planetary system be
difficult for astronomers to detect?
If aliens do exist, which planet or star
system do you think they would come from?
Is it possible for one of todays space-craft
to travel to our closest galaxy, Andromeda?
How could it be made possible? (Creative
ideas needed here!)
Develop an argument for (or against)
spending millions of dollars on space
research and travel. Could the money be
better spent on getting rid of poverty?
Using current spacecraft

(40 000 km/h)
At light speed
(300 000 km/s)
Venus
1.4 months
2.3 minutes
Mars
2.6 months
4.4 minutes
Jupiter
22 months
35 minutes
Uranus
7.8 years
2.5 hours
16.4 years
5.5 hours
113 600 years
4.3 years
176 million years
6 500 years
Pluto
Alpha Centauri
Crab Nebula
Andromeda
10
6 x 10 years

Space Travel Guide
Detailed information about types of rocket
propulsion, space shuttle and future space
travel.
SpaceWander
Animated journey from Earth to other galaxies.
2.2 million years
< WEB watch >

Space Exploration (Wikipedia)
Information on the history of space travel,
future developments and criticisms of space
exploration.
Human Space Flight (NASA)
Information about missions, space stations,
astronaut training and space shuttle.
173
1 74
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Describe the shape of the Milky Way

galaxy. Which other galaxy has the same
shape?
Which type of galaxy is the most
common in the universe? Which is
the least common?
Explain the difference between a galaxy and

the universe so that a 7-year-old child could
understand the terms.
The bright star Canopus, which can be seen

due south during autumn, is 98 light-years
from our solar system.
a How far away is Canopus in kilometres?
b During which Earth year did the light
you see from Canopus actually leave the
star?
challenge
1 Astronomers think that some protostars, which
have very small masses, do not form stars.
Suggest a reason for this.
2 The Hubble Space Telescope was placed in
orbit around the Earth in 1990. Suggest why this
telescope has detected objects in space that
were previously unknown.
3 Data collected using the Hubble Space
Telescope suggests that the Crab Nebula is
about 6500 light-years from Earth. Use the
information on page 171 to work out when, in
Earth years, the actual supernova took place.
4 a The Sun is 1.5 108 km from Earth. How
long does the light from the Sun take to reach
the Earth?
b Pluto is about 5.9 109 km from the Earth.
Why dont we use light-years to measure the
distance to Pluto?
5 a What is the connection between a supernova
and a nebula?
b Suppose you are an astronomer and you are
asked to predict whether a particular star will
form a supernova or a red giant. What answer
would you give?
A cosmic year is the period of time it

takes for the Milky Way to complete one
revolution. How many Earth years are there
in a cosmic year?
There is a vast amount of interstellar dust

and gas (mainly hydrogen) in galaxies.
a What do you think the word interstellar
means?
b Astronomers believe that the interstellar
dust and gas is the birthplace of stars.
Describe the life cycle of a star about the
size of our Sun.
From our observations on Earth, the Sun

appears to move across the sky from east
to west. However, how would you observe
the movement of the Sun and the planets
from a neighbouring galaxy? (A diagram
will help.)
6 Groups of stars are called

constellations. Astronomers
call the brightest star in
a constellation the alphastar, the next brightest the
beta-star, then the gammastar, then the delta-star
and so on. The four main
stars of the Southern Cross
all appear to be the same
distance away from Earth.
However, the table below
shows that they are not.
Star
gamma
delta
beta
alpha
Distance from Earth

(in light-years)
alpha-star
370
beta-star
490
gamma-star
220
delta-star
570
a Which star is closest to Earth?

b If the beta-star and gamma-star were the
same distance from Earth, would the betastar still look the brighter? Give reasons
for your answer.
c Does the information in the table tell you
which star is the largest?

core
1 Ancient astronomers incorrectly inferred that the _____ was the
galaxies
centre of the _____. This inference was replaced by the idea

of a central ____ with the planets revolving around it.
planets
2 Spacecraft have considerably increased our knowledge about

the eight _____ in the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
3 Asteroids, comets and dwarf planets like Pluto are also parts of
our solar system. Asteroids are made from _____, while comets
have a small frozen _____ and have a large tail when they
approach the sun.
earth
rock and metal

solar system
spiral
stars
sun
supernova
4 _____ are groups of millions of stars held together by gravitational

forces. They have three basic shapes: _____, elliptical and irregular.
5 _____ form in clouds of dust and gas. Some stars glow for billions of
REVIEW
years, but larger stars have much shorter lives and end their lives in
a _____.
1 Until the early 1600s, most people believed

that:
A the sun was the centre of the solar system.
B all the planets revolved around Jupiter.
C all the planets revolved around the Earth.
D the solar system contained eight planets.
2 Which of the following is in the correct order?
A MercuryMarsVenusJupiter
B MercuryVenusEarthMars
C MarsVenusJupiterSaturn
D VenusEarthJupiterSaturn
3 a Into which two main groups can the planets
in our solar system be classified? Describe
the features of each group.
b Why is Pluto not considered to be one of the
outer planets?
4 A light-year is:
A the distance light travels in one year.
B the distance from the Sun to the nearest star
in our galaxy.
C the distance the Earth travels in one year.
D the distance from the Milky Way galaxy to
the nearest galaxy.
5 The Earth has very few meteorite craters
compared with Mercury and Mars. Which of
the following inferences best explains this?
A These planets are smaller than the Earth.
B These planets attract meteorites from
space.
C These planets are in the paths of meteorites.
D These planets have little or no atmosphere to
protect them from meteorites.
175
ScienceWorld8forNSW
6 Spacecraft have landed on Venus and Mars.
Why would it be difficult for spacecraft in
the future to land on Jupiter or Saturn, but
relatively easy to land on Mercury?
7 The table below shows the distance of each
of the planets from the Sun and the speed at
which they travel through space as they orbit
the Sun (orbital speed).
Planet
Distance
from the Sun
(million km)
Orbital speed
(km/s)
58
108
150
228
778
1249
2871
4504
48
35
30
24
13
10
7
5
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
a Write a generalisation about the orbital

speed of the planets and their distance from
the Sun.
b Compared with Venus, Jupiter takes:
A the same time to orbit the Sun
B a longer time to orbit the Sun
C less time to orbit the Sun
Give a reason for your answer.
150C
170C
8 The object in the photo below is found deep

in space and was photographed by a space
telescope. The object is called:
A an asteroid
B a nebula
C a comet
D a spiral galaxy
9 The object in the photo above resulted from a

supernova of a star. Explain why this is unlikely
to happen to our Sun.
10 The diagram below is a cross-section of the
planet Jupiter showing its inferred composition.
a Write a description of the composition of
Jupiter. Which element do you think is the
most abundant?
b How thick do astronomers believe Jupiters
solid rocky core is?
c Which is the thickest layer? How thick is it?
d Make a generalisation about the
temperature changes from the core to
the outer edge of the planet.
10 000C
19 000C
mainly
hydrogen
gas
atmosphere
atmosphere
REVIEW
1 76
liquid
hydrogen
24 000C
liquid
metallic
hydrogen
water
ammonia
ice
rock
6400 km
13 300 km
30 000 km
(drawing not to scale)
71 000 km
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
Learning focus: Distinguishing between

scientific, economic and legal argument
Colonising Mars
Imagine it is the year 2030. The
Earths population continues to
grow and there have been major
climate changes due to global
warming. You have been invited
to be part of an international
Mars group to investigate the
possibility of establishing a
colony on the planet Mars.
Form a group of about
six, and appoint people to the
following roles:
Leaderto get things
started and complete the
task on time
Recorderto
write down
what the group has found

out and decided
Presenterto
present the
groups findings to the class.

You may want to take turns at
these roles, and of course all
members of the group should
participate in all discussion and research.
Your task is to consider all aspects of
establishing a colony on Marsincluding
the scientific, economic and legal aspects.
You are then to present your findings and
recommendations to the class. To structure your
investigation you should answer the following
questions. You could search on the internet under
terraforming Mars. Discuss with your teacher
how much time you will need to complete this
task.
1 Is Mars the most suitable planet for
colonisation? Why?
2 What does it mean to terraform Mars?
3 The average temperature on Mars is 60C.
Is it scientifically possible to warm up the
whole planet? How?
4 Can humans breathe the atmosphere of Mars?
Could it be made breathable? How?
5
6
7
10
Are there minerals on Mars that could be

used to construct the colony?
Is there any life on Mars? Could food for the
colony be grown there? How?
Is it economical to develop a Mars colony?
Could one country afford to do it on its
own, or would it need to be an international
effort?
What legal aspects are there in colonising
Mars? Who owns the planet? Who owns the
minerals?
Even if it is scientifically and economically
possible to terraform Mars, should we do it?
Is it ethically OK?
What does your group recommend? Should
we colonise Mars now, wait until a later
time, or not colonise it? Explain your
recommendations fully.
177
8
Buildingblocks
ofmatter
Planning page
Getting started

page 180
Activity page 183

Investigate 16
Flame tests

page 182
Activity page 188
Investigate 17
Making a compound
Investigate 18
Breaking a compound
Assessment task 8
Minor elements

page 191
TRB
Animation
Water reaction
Main ideas
Chapter 8 crossword
Review
Learning focus:
Observations depend on
the understanding of the
observer
Chapter 8 test

Inside the atom
TRB
Chapter8 Buildingblocksofmatter
179
l learn abou
r you wil
In this chapte
LearningFocus
observations depend on the understanding of the observer (page 198)
elements (Section 8.2)

compounds and reactions (Sections 8.2 and 8.3)
Skills
choosing equipment or resources and performing first-hand investigations (Investigate 16

and 17)
gathering first-hand information (Investigate 16)
processing informationidentifying patterns in data (Activity page 183)
presenting informationusing symbols (pages 182183 and 187)
Meet Super-Sci. She can make herself smaller

and smaller until she is not much bigger than the
tiny invisible particles in all matter. These are
called atoms and molecules.
Super-Sci travels through the air where she
sees nitrogen and oxygen molecules. These are
double atoms, made of two atoms stuck together.
They are whizzing past at about 1800 km/h, all
moving in different directions. Occasionally
they collide with each other.
When Super-Sci dives into the harbour, she
finds herself surrounded by water molecules.
Each molecule consists of three atoms. The
molecules are much closer together than they are
in the air. They often touch each other and are

constantly moving past one another, continually
changing their positions.
Finally Super-Sci tries to push her way into
the steel in the bridge, but the ball-like iron
atoms are so close together she cant crawl
through. The iron atoms stay in their places, but
they are constantly vibrating. Super-Sci counts
the atoms and calculates that about eight million
of them placed side by side would fit across the
head of a pin!
Imagine you are a TV news or current affairs
presenter. Prepare a news item on
Super-Scis fantastic voyage.
iron atoms
AIR
water molecules
oxygen molecule
WATER
nitrogen molecule
1 80
ScienceWorld8forNSW
hydrogen
atoms

In Chapter 3 you learnt about the tiny particles
that make up all matter. For example, if you could
break a piece of gold into smaller and smaller bits
you would eventually end up with a single atom
of gold.
Atoms are the basic building blocks of all
matterboth living and non-living. They are
incredibly small. To give you some idea of their
size, there would be 10 000 000 000 000 000 atoms
in the dot at the end of this sentence. This means
that there are about 2500 times more atoms in the
dot than there are people in the world!
Atoms are not usually found on their own.
Two or more atoms joined together is called a
molecule. For example, an oxygen molecule
consists of two oxygen atoms held together by a
chemical bond.
oxygen
atoms
Fig 2
An oxygen molecule is made up of two

oxygen atoms bonded together.
oxygen
atom
Fig 3
A water molecule is made up of an oxygen

atom combined with two hydrogen atoms, one
on each side, a bit like Mickey Mouses ears.
A water molecule is made up of two hydrogen

atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. This means
water contains two different types of atoms.
Molecules vary in size from tiny hydrogen
molecules up to the huge protein molecules
in your body. Each of these protein molecules
contains about half a million atoms. Only in
recent years have scientists been able to use
special microscopes to see atoms and molecules.
Fig 4
In this photo taken using a scanning

tunnelling microscope, each little mountain
is a molecule.
Science
in action
John Dalton (17661844)
John Dalton was born in 1766 and spent his childhood
in a small English town. He soon became interested
in mathematics and science, and when he was 12 he
started a school of his own. This school seems to have
been quite a success, despite the difficulty he had
keeping the other children in order, especially those
who were older than he was. Dalton continued teaching
and lecturing throughout his life. He never married, and
he said this was because his head was too full
of triangles, chemical processes, and electrical
experiments to think much of marriage.
Dalton was a Quaker, and Quaker men and
women had to dress in dark clothes. He was
also colour-blind. The story is told that he
once bought his mother a pair of bright scarlet
stockings. He thought they were bluish-drab
and Quakerish, and was very upset when
his mother said she could not wear them
because they were too bright. She had to call
in a neighbour to convince her son that the
stockings were bright scarlet and not bluishdrab.
Dalton made over 200 000 recorded weather
observations during his life. However, his
greatest achievement was his atomic theory. He
did a series of experiments and hypothesised
that the atoms of any one element are
identical to each other but different from
those of all other elements. He also suggested
that chemical reactions take place through
rearrangements of atoms.
Dalton imagined his atoms to be like pool
balls, and he devised symbols for the different
atoms. Some of his ideas later proved to be
incorrect. For example, he inferred that a water
molecule is made up of one oxygen atom and
one hydrogen atom, instead of two hydrogen
atoms. However, the atomic theory used today
is basically the same as the theory Dalton
proposed 200 years ago.
Questions
1 Which nationality was John Dalton?
2 What did he do for a living?
3 In your own words, explain why Dalton never
married.
4 What was Daltons atomic theory?
5 How did he explain chemical reactions?
6 Suggest why Quakers wore drab clothing.
7 How does a hypothesis like Daltons become a
theory?
8 Is Daltons atomic theory the same as the particle
theory you learnt about on page 62? Explain.
ogen
Hydr
c
in
z Z
Sulf
Nitrogen
ur
181
1 82
ScienceWorld8forNSW

Elements
If you could look inside a piece of iron like
Super-Sci did on page 179, you would find that
it is made of millions and millions of tiny iron
atomsall the same. Similarly, a piece of copper
is made of copper atoms only. But the piece of
copper is different from the iron, because the
copper atoms are different from iron atoms. Pure
substances like iron and copper, whose atoms are
all the same, are called elements.
The photo below shows children building with
Lego blocks. Thousands of different models can
be built from a small number of different types of
blocks. In a similar way, everything in the world
around us is made from just over one hundred
different elements.
The first elements discovered were the metals
gold, tin, copper and iron. Over the years more
and more elements were discovered. In total, 90
elements have been found in the Earths rocks,
soil, air and water. Another 20 or so elements,
Fig 6
From just a few different Lego blocks you can

build many different models.
which do not occur naturally, have been made by

nuclear scientists, and more will almost certainly
be made in the future. The radioactive substance
plutonium is one of these synthetic elements.
Some elements, like gold and silver, are very rare.
Other elements are very common. For example,
oxygen makes up about half of the mass of the
Earths crust.
Some common elements are listed in the
table opposite. They can be classified into two
main groupsmetals and non-metals. (Metals
conduct electricity, and most non-metals do not.)
The elements can also be classified according to
whether they are solids, liquids or gases at room
temperature (20C).
Each element is represented by a symbol. This
is a shorthand way of writing the name of the
element. Sometimes the symbol is the first letter
of the English name of the element: for example,
carbon C. However, some elements have the same
first letter: for example, carbon and calcium.
In these cases a second letter is used: calcium
Ca. Note that the first letter is a capital, but the
second letter is not. In some cases the symbol
comes from a Greek or Latin name. For example,
the symbol for gold is Au. This comes from the
Latin word aurum, which means shining dawn.
Some elements are named after famous people or
places: for example, einsteinium and francium.
er... it seems Miss
Jenkins actually asked
us to bring in an
example of an
ELEMENT....
Activity
Use the table below to answer these
questions.
1 Write down the symbols for the following
elements:
calcium
iron
nitrogen
carbon
lead
oxygen
hydrogen
magnesium
sodium
2 Which elements have the following
symbols?
Al
Au
Br
Cl
Cu
Hg
K
P
S
Zn
3 Which one of the elements in the table
has the highest melting point?
4 Which is the most recently discovered
element in the table? When was it
discovered?
Element
aluminium
argon
bromine
calcium
carbon
chlorine
copper
gold
hydrogen
iodine
iron
lead
magnesium
mercury
nitrogen
oxygen
phosphorus
plutonium
silver
sodium
sulfur
zinc
Symbol
Al
Ar
Br
Ca
C
Cl
Cu
Au
H
I
Fe
Pb
Mg
Hg
N
O
P
Pu
Ag
Na
S
Zn
5 Which of the elements are solids, which

are liquids, and which are gases?
solids:
melting point and boiling point

above 20C (room temperature)
liquids:
melting point below 20C, but

boiling point above 20C
melting point and boiling

point below 20C
Put your answers in a table.
gases:
6 Are metals usually solids, liquids or gases

at room temperature?
7 Which is the lightest gas?
Metal or
Melting
Boiling
0
non-metal point ( C) point (0C)
metal
non-metal
non-metal
metal
non-metal
non-metal
metal
metal
non-metal
non-metal
metal
metal
metal
metal
non-metal
non-metal
non-metal
metal
metal
metal
non-metal
metal
660
189
7
850
3500
101
1080
1060
259
114
1540
327
650
39
210
219
44
640
961
98
119
419
2060
188
58
1440
4200
35
2500
2700
253
183
3000
1744
1110
357
196
183
280
3230
2200
890
444
910
Density
(g/cm3)
2.7
0.0017
3.1
1.6
2.2
0.003
9.0
19.3
0.00008
4.9
7.9
11.3
1.7
13.6
0.00117
0.00132
1.8
19.8
10.5
0.97
2.1
7.1
Date of
discovery
1825
1894
1826
1808
ancient
1774
ancient
ancient
1766
1811
ancient
ancient
1808
ancient
1772
1774
1669
1940
ancient
1807
ancient
1700
183
1 84
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Science
in action
Marie Curie (18671934)
Marie Curie was born in Poland in 1867. At school she
was always top of her class, and she went to university
in Paris. Marie and her husband Pierre, who was also
a scientist, became interested in pitchblende, an ore of
uranium that was radioactive. It gave off a strange new
radiation, including the newly discovered X-rays. They
found that it was even more radioactive than pure
uranium. So what else could be in the ore that gave out
radiation? Marie thought she was on the track of a new
element.
Marie bought a tonne of pitchblende and had it
dumped outside the shed where she worked in Paris.
She and her husband ground the heap of ore to a
powder, 20 kilograms at a time. They dissolved each
lot of powder in acid, and evaporated the solution to
form crystals. After four years of backbreaking work,
Marie and Pierre had a tiny pile of white crystals a little
bigger than the head of a pin. These crystals contained
a new element called radium. In the dark it glowed with
a bluish light.
Whenever Marie worked with radioactive radium,
her hands became covered with sores, burns and
blisters. This led to the discovery that radium can be
used to kill diseased cells in cancer tumours. Even
though the gram of radium she had extracted was
worth millions of dollars, she gave it to her university.
During World War I, Marie organised mobile X-ray
vans so that pieces of shells in wounded soldiers could
be found and removed.
In 1934 Marie Curie died of leukaemia, a disease
probably caused by the radioactive materials she
had worked with. She was the first woman to
receive a Nobel Prizeone in physics and one in
chemistry. During her life she had discovered two new
elementsradium and polonium. In 1946 American
scientists discovered another radioactive element. It
was called curium in honour of Marie and Pierre Curie.
Questions
1 When and where was Marie Curie born?
2 What was radium used for?
Fig 8
Marie Curie in her laboratory
3 What was the name of the ore from which she

obtained radium?
4 Suggest why Marie named one of the elements she
discovered polonium.
5 Which new element was named in honour of Marie
and Pierre Curie after their deaths?
6 Suggest how Marie could have protected herself from
radiation.
< WEB watch >

Research Marie Curie on the internet. Here are
two sites to get you started:
Marie Curie and the science of radioactivity
Her life in detail, well-illustrated
Marie Sklodowska Curie
Her life presented as a series of simulated news
articles that might have been written during her life
Investigate
16 FLAME TESTS
Aim
Different metals produce different colours in a
flame. The aim of this investigation is to identify
various metallic elements using flame tests.
Materials
Bunsenburner
smallatomiserbottlescontaining0.5Msolutions
ofthefollowingorothersolublemetalsalts:
bariumchloride
potassiumchloride
calcium chloride
sodium chloride
copper sulfate
strontium chloride
unknownmetalsolution(Step4)
vaporises.(Youmayneedtorepeatthisifyou
didnotseethecolourclearly.)
3 Repeat the procedure with the atomisers of the
other solutions.
Record the flame colours for the different
metalsinyourdatatable.
4 Nowthatyouknowthecoloureachmetal
producesinalame,yourteacherwillgiveyou
anunknownmetalsalt.Testitandinferwhich
metal it contains.
Wear safety
glasses.

Drawupasuitabledatatabletorecord
your results.
Whatsafetyprecautionswillbe
necessary?
Method
1 Lighttheburnerandadjustittothebluelame.
2 Holdtheirstatomiserbottlejustbelowthetop
oftheburner,about20cmawayfromthelame.
Spraythemistsothatitgoesupintothelame
and observethelashofcolourasthesolution
Particles in elements
carbon atom
Metals, such as gold, are composed of collections

of single atoms. In non-metals the atoms are
bonded together. For example, diamond consists
of carbon atoms, each linked to four other carbon
atoms, as shown in Fig 10.
Some gaseous elements contain separate
molecules. For example, the molecules hydrogen
(H2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2) and chlorine
(Cl2) each contain a pair of atoms. The gas ozone
(O3), which protects us from UV radiation from
the sun, has a molecule containing three atoms of
oxygen.
Fig 10
Part of a crystal of diamond
185
1 86
ScienceWorld8
Fireworks
The Chinese were probably the first to use
fireworks when they discovered how to make
the black powder we call gunpowder about
AD 850. They wrapped the black powder in
bamboo or paper tubes to make crude missiles
and flares that could be used to frighten away
potential invaders. This was the beginning of
pyrotechnics, which means the art of making
fireworks.
The Italians were probably the first to
experiment with coloured fireworks in the early
1700s. The white colours of fireworks are due to
the metals aluminium and magnesium burning at
about 3000C. The gold colours are due to iron
and charcoal at a lower temperature. The other
colours are produced by adding small amounts
of other metals. For example, barium gives
you a green colour, copper gives you blue and
strontium gives you red.
A fireworks shell is a cardboard sphere filled
with hundreds of little black balls called stars,
which contain the colour-producing elements.
The stars are surrounded by the bursting charge.
Multiple-burst shells are designed with several
separate compartments. At the bottom of the
main fuse
cylinder
time-delay
fuse
cardboard
shell
stars
bursting
charge
side fuse
black powder
lift charge
Fig 11
The design of a fireworks shell
shell is a compartment that contains the black

powder lift charge.
To set off the firework, pyrotechnicians place
the shell in a plastic cylinder and light the main
fuse. This in turn lights the main fuse that ignites
the lift charge at the bottom. This propels the
shell high into the sky, where the time-delay fuse
ignites the bursting charges to propel the stars
out of the shell.
Andrew and Christian Howard are
brothers. They are directors of Howard and
Sons Pyrotechnics, who light up our skies
with spectacular fireworks displays. Andrews
interest in fireworks was sparked at the age of
seven, when his father took over the business
from his grandfather. When asked how he got
started, Andrew said There are TAFE courses
that specialise in high explosives, but not in
fireworks. There are no textbooks covering our
trade, so basically we learn from the dos and
donts. We abide by some fairly strict safety
regulations, particularly to ensure no spectators
or staff are injured. Christian has arranged the
special effects in movies such as The Matrix and
live shows such as Metallica and Pink Floyd.
< WEB watch >

For great fireworks photos, go to
links to Howard and Sons Pyrotechnics.
Compounds
If you look at Fig 3 on page 180 you will see
that water molecules contain two different kinds
of atomshydrogen and oxygen. Similarly,
molecules of the poisonous gas carbon monoxide
contain one carbon atom combined with one
oxygen atom. And molecules of carbon dioxide
(which plants use in photosynthesis) contain one
carbon atom combined with two oxygen atoms.
Substances that are made of two or more different
kinds of atoms are called compounds.
A chemical formula is a shorthand way of
showing which elements are in a compound. It
also tells you how many atoms of each element
are present in one molecule of the compound. For
example, water has the formula H2O. This tells
you that each molecule of water contains two
atoms of hydrogen (symbol H) and one atom of
oxygen (symbol O). In other words, the hydrogen
and oxygen are in the ratio 2:1. To read the
formula aloud you say H two O.
Sodium chloride (common salt) has the

formula NaCl. To read such a formula you say
the letters in order: N-a-C-l. Sodium chloride is
a solid compound and has the structure shown
below, with sodium and chloride particles packed
together tightly. There are no separate molecules,
but the formula tells you that there are equal
numbers of sodium and chlorine atoms.
Iron oxide (rust) has the formula Fe2O3 (F-etwo-O-three). It has a similar structure to sodium
chloride, but there are two particles of iron for
every three particles of oxygen. (The iron and
oxygen are in the ratio 2:3.)
symbol for
hydrogen
symbol for
oxygen
WATER
Each molecule contains two atoms
of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
vinegar
water
salt
187
1 88
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Activity
Molecular models
Because atoms and molecules are too small,
we use models to represent them. There are
two main types of molecular models. In both
types the atoms are represented by coloured
balls of different sizes. Different colours
represent different atoms.
In ball-and-stick models (see Fig 10 on
page 185) the balls are joined by sticks to
form molecules. There are no such sticks
connecting atomsthey merely represent
the bonds between the atoms. When you use
these models you will notice that the bonds
between atoms are at definite angles.
The other type of model is the space-filling
type (Fig 3 on page 180), where the atoms fit
together at the correct angles.
Make models to represent these molecules:
ammonia (NH3)
hydrogen (H2)
methane (CH4)
oxygen (O2)
carbon dioxide (CO2)
water (H2O)
Hey, you should be doing

your science project - not
playing about making models.
Draw a diagram of each molecule,

labelling the different atoms.
Examine the models to see how many
bonds each type of atom can form. Record
your results in a table.
Living and non-living

All things, whether living or non-living, are made
up of elements and compounds of these elements.
Common non-living things like salt and sugar are
usually compounds. For example salt (sodium
chloride) is a compound of sodium and chlorine.
Cane sugar is a compound of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. Many substances, such as petrol, are
a mixture of a number of different compounds.
Living things contain a large number of
different compounds, some very simple (eg water),
and others very complex (eg proteins, fats and
carbohydrates). These compounds are made up of
about twenty essential elements, as shown in the
diagram on the right.
About 65% of your body mass is water
(hydrogen and oxygen). The proteins, fats and
carbohydrates all contain carbon. Hence the high
proportion of oxygen, carbon and hydrogen in
your body.
Fig 16
O
C
H
N
Ca
P
O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
oxygen 65%
O O
carbon 18%
O O
C C
hydrogen 10%
C C
nitrogen 3%
C C
calcium 2%
C
H
phosphorus 1%
H
other elements 1%
H
N
Ca
The building blocks of the human

body (percentage by mass)
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
C
C
C
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
N
P
O
O O
O O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
N
Ca
The basis of life is a
compound called DNA, which
determines what you are like.
It contains only the elements
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorus.
However, DNA is very
complex, and the various
atoms can be combined in
millions of different ways.
The result is that there are
millions of different types
of DNA. What makes you
different from everybody else is
the way in which the atoms in the
DNA in your body are put together.
All matter can be divided into
living and non-living things. Cells are
the building blocks for living things.
But cells and all non-living things are made
of elements and compounds, which in turn
are made of atoms and molecules. The salt
in your body is the same as the salt on the
kitchen table. And the calcium carbonate
in an eggshell and in your bones is the
same as the calcium carbonate in limestone.
Just what gives a living thing life is not
well understood. In the nineteenth century
scientists said that living things contained
a mysterious vital force. However, it is
now known that living things contain very
complex compounds. Somehow life is
associated with these complex compounds.
Scientists have been able to work out
the structures of living substances. In fact,
they have even been able to make quite
complex substances in the
laboratory. One such
substance is insulin one of
the smallest proteins. Some day
scientists may be able to create
life itself!
Fig 17
A model of a small section of

the complex DNA molecule:
oxygenred
carbonblack
hydrogenwhite
nitrogenblue
phosphoruspurple
189
1 90
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Ask someone to check your spelling of these

words:
carbon dioxide
hydrogen
compound
molecule
element
sodium chloride
formula
symbol
What is the difference between

a an atom and a molecule?
b an atom and an element?
Which of the following are elements:
aluminium, carbon monoxide, copper,
iron oxide, kerosene, mercury, phosphorus,
sand, sugar, water?
Which element is present in all of the
following compounds?
SO2
challenge
H2S
H2SO4
CuSO4
Suppose you represent the atoms in three

different elements by , and . How
many different molecules could you form
by linking these atoms together:
a two at a time?
b three at a time?
Select an element and use library resources to

find out what you can about it. Here are some
things you might look up:
1 Name of discoverer, date of discovery,
how the element was named.
2 Properties and uses of the element.
links to these websites:
Web Elements
Select an element for a range of information
including photos, cartoons and audio
descriptions.
1 UseFig16onpage188todrawabargraph
and a pie chart of the elements in the human
body.
2 Whyaretheresomanymorecompoundsthan
elements?
3 Drawupatablewithtwocolumnsheaded
Elements and Compounds. Put each of the
followingintothecorrectcolumn:
Al
SiO2
CO2
Cu
N2
NH3
H2SO4
O3
4 Writetheformulaforeachofthefollowing
molecules:
a nitrogen dioxide contains one nitrogen
atom and two oxygen atoms
b propanecontainsthreecarbonatomsand
eight hydrogen atoms
c glucosecontainssixcarbonatoms,twelve
hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms.
5 A tiny crystal of magnesium chloride contains
2billionmagnesiumatomsand4billionchlorine
atoms.Whatistheformulaforthecompound?
< WEB watch >

CHEM4KIDS
Simple information on the first 36 elements, with
puzzles and help with pronouncing their names.
The Visual Elements Periodic Table
Very colourful and interactive
Its elemental
Below the table you can click on a number of
online games based on the elements.
The Periodic Table of Comic Books
Click on an element to see a list of comic book
pages involving that element.

Over the years scientists have experimented with
substancesmixing them, heating them and
passing electricity through them. For example, a
chemical reaction occurs when sugar is heated.
It splits into two simpler substanceswater and
carbon (which is black). Scientists discovered that
carbon and other elements cannot be split into
anything simpler by chemical reactions. They
cannot be split because they contain only one sort
of atom.
Using chemical reactions, scientists are also
able to make many new compounds. For example,
when carbon is heated it reacts with the oxygen in
the air to form the compound carbon dioxide.
As you learnt in Chapter 1, most substances
are not pure, but are mixtures of two or more

different substances (elements or compounds)
which are not chemically combined. Air is a good
example of a mixture. It contains many different
elements and compounds, whose proportions are
not always the same.
all substances
mixtures
pure substances
compounds
elements
In Investigate 17 you can use a chemical

reaction to make a compound. Then in Investigate
18 you can break a compound down into its
elements.
Investigate
17 MAKING A COMPOUND
Aim
Tomakeacompoundfromtheelementsironand
sulfur.

Read through the experiment and note the
placeswheresafetyprecautionswillbe
necessary.
Discuss the experiment with your teacher.
Onlyonegroupatatimecanusethefume
cupboard,andyourteachermaypreferto
demonstrate all or part of the experiment.
PART A
Te s ti ng ir on & s ulfur
Method
1 Place a small amount of iron powder in a test
tube.Useamagnetasshowntotestwhether
you can pull the iron powder up the side of the
testtube.Ifyoucan,thentheironpowderis
magnetic.
Test some sulfur in the same way.
Materials
powderedsulfur
ironpowder
dilutehydrochloric acid(1M)
spatula
barmagnet
smalltesttube
Bunsenburner
tripodandheatproofmat
magnet
Corrosive
aluminiumfoil
crucible
pipeclaytriangle
iron powder
191
1 92
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2 Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to

someironpowderinatesttube.
Wear safety
glasses.
Observewhathappens.
Do the same with the sulfur.
3 Puttwospatulasofsulfurinanothertesttube,
thentwospatulasofironpowder.Mixthemwell
byshakingthetesttube.
Testthemixturewiththemagnet.Whatdo
you notice?
iron powder + sulfur

crucible
aluminium
foil
pipeclay
triangle
Discussion
1 Did the properties of the iron and sulfur change
when you mixed them?
2 Wasthereachemicalreactionwhenyoumixed
them?
3 Have the iron and sulfur formed a mixture or a
compound? Explain your answer.
PART B
Makin g iron s ul f ide

Method
1 Linethecruciblewithsomealuminium
foil and pour in the mixture of iron and sulfur.
(Thealuminiumfoildoesntreactitsimply
stopsthehotmixturestickingtothecrucible.)
4 Add some dilute hydrochloric acid to a small

pieceofthesubstanceinthecrucible.(This
shouldalsobedoneinafumecupboardasthe
rottenegggasgivenoffispoisonous.)
Recordyourobservations.
Caution: The fumes from burning sulfur are

poisonous. It is essential to use a fume cupboard
so that you dont breathe in any of the fumes.
2 Putthecrucibleinapipeclaytriangleona
tripod,asshown.HeatitwithaBunsenburner.
Assoonasthemixturebeginstoglow,turnoff
theburner.
3 Whenthecruciblehascooledexaminethenew
substancethathasformed.
Describethepropertiesofthenew
substance.
Isthesubstancemagnetic?
Can you separate the iron and sulfur?
Isthisthesamegasthatwasformedwhen
you added hydrochloric acid to iron powder?
How could you tell?
Discussion
1 Did the properties of the iron and sulfur change
when you heated the mixture? Explain.
2 Wasthereachemicalreaction?Howdoyou
know?
3 Whatwasneededtomakethereactionoccur?
4 Have the iron and sulfur formed a mixture or a
compound? Explain your answer.
5 The compound you have made is called iron
sulfide.Whataretheelementsinit?
Investigate
18 BREAKING A COMPOUND
Aim
Toindoutwhatsubstancesareproducedwhen
waterisdecomposed(splitup)bypassing
electricity through it.
3 Connectthevoltametertoapowerpackseton
6 volts DC. Turn it on.
4 Allowthecurrenttolowforabout15minutes,
andobservethegasesthatcollectinthetubes.
Corrosive
Compare the volumes of the gases in the

twotubes.
Materials
dilutesulfuric acid(1M)
voltameter(vol-TAM-e-ter)
2pyrextesttubes
woodensplint,egpaddle-popstick
distilledwater
powerpack
5 Invertadrytesttubeoverthetubewiththe
most gas in it. Then open the tap and collect
the gas.
taper
Lightataper,tiltthetesttubeupwards,andput
theburningtapernearitsmouth.
A pop indicates the gas is hydrogen.
Read through the investigation. A voltameter

is an expensive piece of equipment and
theschoolprobablyhasonlyone.Soyour
teacherwillprobablysetuptheequipment
for you.
Method
1 Setupavoltameteras
shown.
Wear safety
glasses.
water
Afterthepop,lookforwaterdroplets
insidethetube.Inferwheretheycamefrom.
tap
voltameter
6 Collectatesttubefullofgasfromtheother
voltametertube.Lightthewoodensplint,then
blowitoutsothatithasaglowingtip.Putthe
glowingsplintintothetesttube.Ifitburstsinto
flame this indicates the gas is oxygen.
power pack
Discussion
1 Whatwerethetwogasesproducedwhen
electricity was passed through water?
2 Openthetapsatthetopandaddwater
containing a few millilitres of dilute sulfuric acid
tothemiddletube.(Theacidmakesthewater
conductelectricitymoreeasily.)Whentheside
tubesarefull,closethetaps.
2 Copyandcompletethissentence.Waterisa
compound of the elements ______ and ______.
3 Whenhydrogenburnsitcombineswiththe
oxygenintheair.Inferwhatsubstanceis
formed.(SeeStep5above.)
4 The volume of hydrogen produced was twice
thevolumeofoxygen.Suggestareasonfor
this.
193
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Chemical equations
When you mixed iron and sulfur and heated the
mixture, a chemical reaction occurred. The iron
and sulfur were the reactantsthe substances you
started with. The iron sulfide was the product of
the reaction. The equation for the reaction is:
iron (Fe)
sulfur (S)
iron sulfide (FeS)
The reactants and products in a reaction

can be solids, liquids or gases. For example,
in Investigate 18 liquid water decomposed to
produce hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
water (H2O) hydrogen (H2) + oxygen (O2)
During this reaction, molecules of water break

apart and form molecules of hydrogen and oxygen.
Water molecules always contain two atoms

of hydrogen bonded to every atom of oxygen.
So when water decomposes, two molecules
of hydrogen are formed for every molecule of
oxygen, as Fig 22 shows. This is why the volume
of hydrogen gas produced in Investigate 18 was
exactly twice the volume of oxygen gas produced.
Similarly, when a compound is made, exact
quantities of the different elements react.
The atoms in some molecules are more tightly
bonded together than in other molecules. As a
result, when molecules are rearranged during
a chemical reaction, energy may be needed or
energy may be released. The reaction between
iron and sulfur needed heat to make it go, and
the decomposition of water needed electricity.
On the other hand, burning produces heat, and
the reactions that occur inside batteries produce
electricity.
To see how this works, open
the Water reaction animation
on the CD.
1 94
Fig 22
Check!
1
State whether each of the following

statements is true or false. Rewrite those
that are false.
a New substances are produced in a
chemical reaction.
b The rusting of iron is a chemical
reaction.
c Hydrogen is another name for water.
d Hydrogen sulfide contains two
elementshydrogen and sulfur.
e In a mixture, the parts can be separated
only by a chemical reaction.
f Compounds cannot be broken down
into simpler substances.
g The same elements can combine to
form many different compounds.
H
H
The compound water decomposes to form

the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Classify the following substances as

elements, compounds or mixtures.
air
protein
copper
pure water
hydrogen
rust
iron oxide
soft drink
mercury
sulfur dioxide
Sodium is a soft silvery metal that reacts

violently with water, and chlorine is a
poisonous green gas. Sodium chloride
(common salt) contains these two elements,
but is safe to eat. How can you explain this?
Pure substance X is a green powder. When

heated, it gives off a gas and changes to a
black powder. Is substance X an element or
a compound? Give reasons.
challenge
1 DiagramsAtoDbelowrepresenttheparticlesin
differentsubstances.Whichrepresents:
a an element?
b a compound?
c a mixture of elements?
d a mixture of compounds?
andantiseptics,andinrocketfuel.Ifwater
andhydrogenperoxidearebothmadeup
ofhydrogenandoxygen,whyaretheyso
different?Writeanexplanation.
5 Thediagrambelowillustrateshowammonia
gas is made from nitrogen and hydrogen
gases.
ELEMENTS
hydrogen
nitrogen
MIXTURE
2 a Whatsubstancedoyoupredictwillbe
formed when hydrogen and oxygen react
together? Explain your prediction.
b Writeawordequationforthereaction.
3 Tamaraheatedawhitepowder,andtwodifferent
gasesweregivenoff.Onewasapoisonous
browngascallednitrogendioxide,andtheother
wasoxygen.Aredsubstancewasleftbehindin
thetesttube.
a Isthewhitepowderanelementora
compound?
b WhichelementscanTamarabesureare
in the white powder?
c WhenTamaracontinuedtoheatthered
substance,shewasleftwithasilvery
liquidcalledmercury.Moreoxygenwas
alsoproduced.Whatarealltheelements
in the white powder?
4 Hydrogen peroxide is a compound of
hydrogenandoxygen.However,itisquite
differentfromwater,andisusedinbleaches
COMPOUND
a Whatistheratioofnitrogenatomsto
hydrogen atoms in the ammonia
molecule?
b Inwhatratiodothenitrogenandhydrogen
react?Isthisthesameratioasinthe
ammonia product?
c Whatisthetotalnumberofatomsinthe
product?Isthisthesameasthetotalnumber
of atoms in the reactants?
d Copy the diagram and draw the molecules in
the boxlabelledMIxTURe.
e Writeawordequationforthereaction.
195
ScienceWorld8forNSW
1 96

1 ______ are the basic building blocks of all ______, both living
and non-living.
2 Pure substances can be either ______ or compounds. Most

substances are ______ of two or more pure substances.
3 A ______ is two or more atoms joined together by chemical
atoms
bonds
chemical
reactions
compound
elements
formula
matter
______.
4 An element is a ______ made of atoms of only one type. It cannot

be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical reactions.
mixtures
molecule
5 There are over 100 different elements, each with its own ______.
pure
substance
6 A ______ is a pure substance made up of two or more different
symbol
elements combined together.
7 The chemical ______ for a compound tells you what elements it

contains. It also tells you the ratio of the atoms of these elements.
8 ______ can be used to make compounds from elements, and to break

down compounds into elements.
REVIEW
1 Which one of the following can you normally

see without a microscope?
A cells
B elements
C molecules
D atoms
2 Copper, iron and chlorine are all:
A compounds
B mixtures
C elements
D metals
3 How many naturally occurring substances are

there that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions?
A ninety
B hundreds
C many thousands
D not known
4 Which one of the following is a compound?
A sodium
B chlorine
C sugar
D hydrogen
5 Nitrogen dioxide is a compound which

contains nitrogen and oxygen in the ratio of
one atom of nitrogen to two atoms of oxygen.
Its formula would be:
A NO
C NO2
B N2O
D N2O2
6 If and represent two different atoms,
which one of the following would best
represent:
a an element?
b a compound
c a mixture
7 The formula for ammonia is NH3. How many

atoms are there in a molecule of ammonia?
8 Nicholas knows that compounds containing
sodium (a metal) produce a golden-yellow
colour in a flame. He also knows that
compounds containing iodine produce a purple
gas when heated with concentrated sulfuric
acid. He tests four chemicals and records his
results.
Substance
Yellow flame
Purple gas
1
2
3
4
a Which of these chemicals contain the

element sodium?
b Which contain the element iodine?
c Which is likely to be the compound sodium
iodide?
9 Jake pours some acid onto the element zinc.

Hydrogen gas is formed and a colourless
solution is left. He tests the colourless
solution and finds that it contains only two
different elementszinc and chlorine. On the
basis of these tests Jake can conclude that the
acid contains:
A hydrogen only
B hydrogen and chlorine only
C chlorine only
D zinc and chlorine only
10 Write several complete sentences to explain the
differences between an atom, a compound, an
element and a molecule.
11 Stephanie passes an electric current through
water in a voltameter, as in Investigate 18. She
finds that the water slowly disappears and she
is left with two gaseshydrogen and oxygen.
She then mixes the two gases and puts a match
to them. An explosion occurs and water is
formed again.
Knowing the structure of a water molecule,
how can you explain Stephanies results?
hydrogen
atoms
oxygen
atom
12 A scientist has two different compounds.

She knows that the molecules in one can be
represented by
and the molecules in the
other can be represented by
. However
she does not know which is which. How could
she use chemical reactions to find out?
197
REVIEW
1 98
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Learning focus: Observations depend on
the understanding of the observer
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
Inside the atom

John Dalton (page 181) thought atoms were like
tiny invisible pool balls. However, in 1897 an
Englishman called JJ Thomson discovered tiny
negatively charged particles much much smaller
than atoms. These new particles were called
electrons, and Thomson suggested a new model
for the atom. It was like a round plum pudding
of uniformly spread positive charge, with tiny
negatively charged electrons scattered through
it like raisins (or like the bits of chocolate in a
chocolate-chip cookie).
Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealander working
in England, wanted to find out more about what
is inside atoms. Obviously he couldnt see inside
atoms, so he used the tiny alpha particles emitted
by the newly discovered radioactive element,
radium. These particles were so small and moved
so quickly that they passed through thin slices
of matterlike X-rays through your body.
Rutherford and two other scientists used a very
thin piece of gold foil and around it they placed a
special circular sheet that glowed when hit by an
alpha particle. They found that most of the alpha
particles fired at the foil passed straight through
or were deflected only slightly. However about 1
in 20 000 was deflected by more than 90.
From Rutherfords understanding of atoms,
these observations didnt make any sense. He said
that, It was quite the most incredible event that
has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost
as if you fired a 15 inch shell (40 cm in diameter)
at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and
hit you. According to Thomsons plum pudding
model you wouldnt expect the spread out positive
charge or the tiny electrons to cause the large fastmoving alpha particles to bounce straight back.
In 1911, after studying and thinking about the
problem for a year or two, Rutherford proposed
a new model in which the positive charge in the
atom is concentrated in a small central core or
nucleus. This nucleus would have a big enough
positive charge to repel the positively charged
alpha particles. Most of the particles, however,
did not bounce back because they went through

the empty space inside the gold atoms.
As a result of Rutherfords careful experiments
we now know that the atoms that make up
planets, people, plastics and everything else are
mostly empty space!
In a group discuss how Rutherfords
experiment illustrates that observations
depend on the understanding of the observer.
electrons
spread out
positive charge
What Thomsons plum pudding model predicted
electrons
large positive charge
What Rutherfords new model predicted
Activity
1 Clamp a hula hoop vertically on a retort stand
and use string to suspend a table-tennis ball in
the middle of it. The hoop represents an atom
and the ball represents its nucleus.
2 From several metres away, use a drinking
straw to fire rice grains at the table-tennis ball.
Count how many grains go straight through
the atom and how many hit the nucleus.
3 Is this a good model for Rutherfords gold foil
experiment? Explain.
Foodforlife
Planning page
Getting started
Activity page 202
Heating a liquid in a test
tube

page 201
Investigate 19
Testing foods
Experiment
Enzyme action
9.2 Digesting food

page 209
Animation
Enzyme action
Investigate 20
Model intestines
Assessment task 9
An energy budget
TRB
Activity page 215

Investigate 21
The blood system
9.3 Using food

page 215
Animation
The heart
Activities page 220
Main ideas
Chapter 9 crossword
Review
Learning focus: Choices
need to be made when
considering whether to use
scientific advances
Chapter 9 test

GM foods Podcast
TRB
2 00
ScienceWorld8forNSW
t
l learn abou
r you wil
In this chapte
LearningFocus
choices need to be made when considering whether to use scientific advances (page 225)
multicellular organismsrespiration, photosynthesis and plant structures

humansdigestion, circulation and excretion
Skills
planning first-hand investigations and choosing equipment (Try this page 210, Experiment
page 211 and Investigate 20)
performing first-hand investigations and gathering first-hand information (Skillbuilder page
204, Investigate 1921 and Activities pages 215 & 220)
processing informationusing mathematics (Activity page 202)
thinking criticallyusing a model (Investigate 20)
working individually or in teams (Experiment page 211 and Investigate 21)
Work in a small group to discuss the following

tasks.
You have just prepared a ham, tomato and
cheese omelette. You are pleased with it
because the eggs came from your own
hens which forage in a large paddock,
and you grew the tomatoes in your garden.
Draw a food web to show the source of
the foods that made your omelette.
How much do you know about your body?
Draw an outline of a body on a piece of
A4 paper. Mark on the paper the positions
of the following parts of the body: heart,
liver, stomach, kidneys, oesophagus,
salivary glands, intestines, anus, lungs
and brain. Then briefly list the functions
of each part.
Chapter9 Foodforlife
Energy
Food is needed to supply the energy
for many body functions such as
muscle movement and keeping a
constant body temperature.
You need food for three reasons:

for energy
for growth and repair
to keep your body healthy and
functioning correctly
Keeping healthy
Food is needed to keep the
cells and organs in your body
functioning correctly.
Growth
Food is needed to supply the raw
materials for cell growth and the
replacement of old cells.
The energy in food

When a nut or piece of spaghetti burns,
the chemical energy stored in the food
is converted to heat energy. A similar
process occurs in your body, but the
energy is not released in one chemical
reaction. Instead, the food is broken
down in a number of steps in chemical
reactions in the cells of your body.
This process of obtaining energy from
food in your body is called cellular
respiration, or simply, respiration.
The chemical energy in the food
molecules is converted to chemical
energy in other molecules or
transformed into other forms of energy.
Some of this energy is used in sending
nerve messages along nerves, and to
supply energy for muscle activity.
In all these energy transformations
the inal energy product is heat,
which is eventually given off to your
surroundings.
chemical energy
in food
chemical energy
in body
stored
chemical
energy
in cells
electrical
energy
in nerve
messages
kinetic
energy in
movement
heat
heat
201
2 02
ScienceWorld8forNSW
The energy in food is measured in kilojoules
(kJ). A kilojoule is quite a small amount of energy.
It takes about 80 kJ of heat energy to boil a cup
of water. The amounts of energy in some common
foods are shown below.
can of soft drink

600 kJ
slice of toast
with honey
560 kJ
hamburger
1450 kJ
apple
250 kJ
bowl of cereal
with milk
750 kJ
Activity
How much energy do you use?
The amount of energy you use each day
depends on three factors: how much you are
growing, how active you are and how much
you weigh.
The table shows the approximate amounts
of energy used per hour by a 60 kg person
doing various activities.
List the activities that you did yesterday
and the amount of time you spent doing
each of them. Then, using the table as a
guide, work out yesterdays energy usage
over 24 hours. (Assume that you are 60 kg.)
Calculate how much energy you would
use on a very active day. Do the same for a
very inactive day. On which day should you
eat more? Why?
Work out how much energy you would
use if you stayed in bed all day? Suggest
how this energy is used. Would you use more
energy standing up? Why?
Activity
aerobics
cycling, slow
cycling, fast
dancing
doing homework
housework
jogging
lying still
playing ball games
running fast
sitting in class
sleeping
standing
using computer
walking, slow
walking, fast
watching TV
Energy used
(kJ per hour)
7 000
700
1 500
1 000
500
600
2 500
300
2 800
10 000
500
250
400
350
600
2 000
350
Foodtypes
There are various substances in the food you eat.

But the one thing that all food contains is water.
For example, potatoes contain 77% water, lettuce
93% and eggs 75%, while peanuts contain only
5% water. The dry matter in foods is made of
four main food types:
carbohydrates (sugars, starch and cellulose)
proteins
fats
vitamins and minerals.
Carbohydrates
(sugars, starch and cellulose)
Sugars and starch are used for energy. Sugars are
found in fruits, honey and sweets. Starch is found
in rice, potatoes, bread and pasta.
Cellulose is also called ibre and is found
mostly in fruit, vegetables and cereals. It helps
keep the food moving in your gut.
Proteins
Proteins provide the materials for the growth and
repair of cells. They cannot be stored in the body,
so some protein must be eaten regularly. Meat,
ish, chicken, nuts, cereals, eggs and cheese are
high in protein.
Fats
Fats are high in energy, producing about 2.5
times more energy per gram than carbohydrates.
Fats are stored by your body as an energy reserve
and also to insulate your body from heat loss.
Animal fats (eg butter) are usually solid at room
temperature, while vegetable fats are usually oils
(eg olive oil).
Vitamins and minerals

These are found in very small quantities in foods,
but are as important as the other food types. They
are used in various cell reactions in the body.
Vitamins are found in all fresh fruit, vegetables,
beans, nuts and meats.
CHIPS
CHIPS
203
2 04
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Skillbuilder
4 Light a burner and turn the collar so that the

flame is just off the yellow flame and turning
blue.
Heating a liquid in a test tube
5 Turn the gas down at the tap to give a small
In Investigate 19 you might do a chemical
flame.
test for glucose. In this test you use a
6 Hold the test tube with a test tube holder
Bunsen burner to heat a liquid in a test tube.
and heat the liquid gently. Remember to
This sounds simple, but it is a very difficult
point the mouth of the test tube away from
laboratory skill.
you and other people.
For this Skillbuilder your teacher will give
7 Move the test tube to and fro while you are
you the following equipment:
heating.Dontheatthetubetoostrongly,
testtube(inatesttuberack)
otherwise the liquid will quickly boil and
Wear safety
testtubeholder
splash out of the tube.
glasses.
glucosesolutionindropperbottle
Record the colour change.
Benedictssolutionindropperbottle
Bunsenburner
matches
Method
1 Wear safety glasses.
2 Add 2 dropperfuls of
glucose solution to a
test tube. Then add
the same amount of
Benedictssolution.
3 Use the technique
shown in the diagram
to mix the two liquids.
Move the test tube to

and fro while heating.
Investigate
19 TESTING FOODS
Aim
To test various foods for glucose, starch, protein
and fat.
Materials
glucosesolution(10%glucosesolution)
starchsuspension(20gstarch/L)
proteinsolution(10%gelatinesolution)
butterordripping
BenedictssolutionorClinistix
iodinesolution(5gI2in100mL10%KI)
coppersulfatesolution(0.1M)and
sodium hydroxide(2M)solution
Corrosive
orUristix
brownpaper
spottingtile
testtubeholder
4testtubes,astopperandarack
burnerandheatproofmat(or
aboilingwaterbathfortheclass)
smallpiecesoffoods,egcooked
rice,fruit,bread,chicken,eggwhite

Readeachofthe4foodtypetestsin
PartAverycarefully.
Usingdiagramsandlabelsonly,describe
whatyouhavetodoineachofthefour
tests.
SAFE USE OF CHEMICALS

1 Protein testing solution
The sodium hydroxide solution is very
drop any
corrosive. Take care not to splash or
tely with
edia
on your skin. If you do, wash it imm
r safety
water and tell your teacher. Always wea
glasses.
ing glucose with Benedicts solution
Test
2
aining
If you are going to heat a test tube cont
must
Benedicts solution with a burner, you
page.
first do the Skillbuilder on the previous
ng
boili
a
up
set
Alternatively, your teacher may
water bath for the test tubes.
PART A
Te s ts fo r fo o d t yp es
Testing for glucose
Testing for starch

Use a spotting tile for this test.
1 Add5dropsofstarchsuspensiontoaspoton
thetile.Add5dropsofwatertoanotherspot.
2 Thenadd2dropsofiodinesolutiontothe
starchandtothewater.
3 Ablueblackcolour
indicates starch
is present.
starch
suspension
water
iodine
Testing for protein

DipaUristixstripintotheproteinsolutionand
watchforacolourchange,ordothechemical
testasfollows:
1 Add a dropperful of protein solution to a test
tube,andadropperfulofwatertoasecondtest
tube.
2 Addadropperfulofsodiumhydroxidesolution
(takecare)toeachtesttube.
DipaClinistixstripintotheglucosesolutionand
watchforacolourchange,ordothechemical
testasfollows:
1 Add2dropperfulsofglucosesolutiontoatest
tubeand2dropperfulsofwatertoanothertest
tube(thisisthecontrol tube).
3 Thenadd2dropperfulsofcoppersulfate
solutiontoeachtube.
2 Thenadd2dropperfulsofBenedictssolution
toeachtesttube.Shakeeachtubetomix.
Rubsomebutteronapiece
ofbrownpaper.Then
hold the paper up
to the light.
Fat leaves
a see-through
markonthe
paper.
3 Useatesttubeholdertoheateachtesttube
verycarefullyoverasmalllameuntilitboils.
Remembertoconstantlymovethetesttubeto
andfrowhileheatingit.
Ifyourteacherhassetupaboilingwaterbath
fortheclass,placethetesttubesinthewater
bath.
4 Aredprecipitatewillformifglucoseispresent.
4 Thebluesolutionwillturnpinkifproteinis
present.
Testing for fat
205
2 06
ScienceWorld8forNSW
PART B
Te st i ng fo o ds
Method
1 WashandcleanthefourtesttubesfromPartA.
2 Selectapieceoffoodandmashitup.Keepa
little of it for the fat test, and add the rest to a
cleantesttubecontainingabout5mLofwarm
water.
3 Todissolveasmuch
of the food as
possible,youneed
to add a stopper to
thetesttubeand
shakevigorously.
Shake to dissolve
the food.
4 Pourequalamountsofthemixtureintothree
cleantesttubes.
5 Testforglucose,starchandproteinasyoudid
in Part A. Test the solid piece of food for fat.
Recordyourresults.
6 Selectanotherfoodandrepeattheabovesteps.
Discussion
1 Withoutlookingatyourbook,brielydescribe
howyoutestedforglucose,starch,proteinand
fat.
2 Thewatertestthatyouusedforeachfoodtype
in Part A is called an experimental control. What
wasthepurposeofthis?
3 Whatfoodtypeswerefoundinthefoodsyou
testedinPartB?
science bits
Foods
You are what you eat!

If you need food for energy, why cant you just eat
fatty food, which is high in energy? The answer is
that your body needs many different nutrients in
foods to supply a variety of needs in addition to
its energy needs.
If you have a balanced diet, you are supplying
your bodys needs by eating foods in the correct
proportions. The table on the right shows an
example of a balanced diet with the recommended
amounts of foods to be eaten each day.
Whats wrong with processed foods?

Processed foods are ones that are manufactured
and they include biscuits, pies, chips and most fast
foods. The table includes few processed foods;
bread and cereals are the only ones. Processed
foods often contain a high proportion of fats and
very little protein. Always check the packaging
for information about the fat and sugar content.
Lean meat/chicken/fish/eggs
Dairy foods
Wholegrain bread/crispbread
High-fibre cereal
Fresh fruit
Vegetables
Fats and oil (added to food)
Daily amount
12 serves
2 serves
23 serves
1 serve
2 serves
12 cupfuls
3 teaspoons
Questions
Work in a small group to discuss the following
questions.
1 Use the table to plan your food intake for a
day.
2 What foods have you eaten in the last few
days that are not included in the table? Would
you consider these foods to be high in fat or
sugar?
3 Suggest how your plan from question 1 would
change if you were an athlete in training.
Where does food come from?
Look back at your Getting Started notes. Notice
in the food webs you constructed, green plants are
at the beginning of each of them. This is because
green plants make their own food by the process
of photosynthesis, and supply food to all the other
organisms in the food web.
The chlorophyll in green plants absorbs the
energy in sunlight, which is then used to build up
larger molecules such as carbohdrates, fats and
proteins. The energy chain below shows the steps
in the process.
Sunlight
provides
energy
Chlorophyll traps the

energy in sunlight.
Energy is used to make

carbohydrates from CO2
and H2O.
The foods plants make

Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen atoms. These are made from
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Fats also contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. But the atoms are arranged
in different ways from those in the molecules
of carbohydrates.
Proteins contain nitrogen as well as
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Plants
absorb nitrogen from the soil in the form of
compounds called nitrates, which are soluble
in water. These nitrates are absorbed by
the roots and are transported to those cells
which are photo synthesising. Here they are
made into proteins.
Cells use the energy in

carbohydrates to supply
energy for growth etc.
Many other elements, such as phosphorus,

calcium, potassium, sulfur and magnesium, are
also absorbed by the plants roots. For example,
magnesium is needed in quite large quantities
since it is part of the chlorophyll molecule. Other
elements, such as boron, are needed in very small
amounts. Fertile soil contains an abundance of the
elements needed for plant growth. These elements
are called soil nutrients.
In natural environments, animal wastes and
dead organisms are decomposed by bacteria and
fungi in the soil. The resulting nutrients dissolve
in water and increase the fertility of the soil.
These processes form a nutrient cycle. On the
other hand, where farmers harvest plant crops
before they die and decay, there is much less
nutrient recycling. For this reason, fertilisers have
to be added to the soil.
207
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Draw a table with 3 columns and label the

columns CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, FATS.
In each column list at least 4 foods that
would contain a high proportion of the food
type. For example, eggs would go in the
protein column.
Bronwyn and Leong sit down together to

eat lunch. Bronwyn eats a roast chicken leg
and two chocolate biscuits. Leong eats an
apple, a banana, and some sultanas.
a Whose lunch contains more protein?
b Whose lunch contains more fibre?
c What does nutritious mean? Who is
eating the more nutritious lunch?
Plant A in the diagram below was grown in

fertile soil. Plant B, on the right, was grown
in soil poor in nitrates. Suggest why the
plants are different.
For each of the words below, write a

sentence to show that you understand its
meaning.
respiration
nutrients
proteins
carbohydrates
Some of the sentences below are incorrect.

Choose the incorrect ones and rewrite them
to make them correct.
a Vitamins and minerals are needed in
large amounts by your body.
b Vitamins and minerals are found in fresh
fruit and vegetables, nuts and meats.
c Proteins are used to supply your body
with energy. They can be stored by the
body.
d Plants absorb all of the raw materials for
growth and energy from the soil.
e Cellulose is called fibre and helps keep
the food moving in your gut.
f Dead organisms and wastes decompose
and are a source of soil nutrients.
Write a paragraph to explain to someone a
couple of years younger than you why we
need food.
challenge
1 TanLongweighs60kilograms.Sheworksas
acomputeroperatorfrom8amto4pm.Toget
toandfromwork,shewalksfor30minutesto
gettothetrain,hasa30-minutetrainride,then
walksforanother15minutes.Shedoesaerobics
foranhouronthewayhomefromwork,does
houseworkforanhour,eatsdinnerandwatches
TVbetween7.15pmand8.30pm,readsuntil
10,thensleepstill6am.Shesitsandhas
breakfastuntil6.45am.
Usethisinformationandthetableinthe
activityonpage202toestimatetheamountof
energyTanLonguseseachday.
2 Drawanenergychaintoshowwhathappens
totheenergyinsunlightthatisabsorbedby
aplantleafandeventuallystoredaschemical
energyinananimalsbody.
plant A
plant B
3 Thegraphbelowshowstherateof
photosynthesisoccurringinaleafover
24hours.Intermsofenergy,explaintheshape
of the graph.
Rate of
photosynthesis
2 08
midnight
6 am
noon
6 pm
Time of day
midnight
9.2 Digesting food

When you take a bite out of a hamburger,
you chew the mouthful of food a few times,
then swallow it. That is the last you see of the
hamburger. How is the hamburger digested? The
diagram of the digestive system or gut, will help
answer this question.
The job of the digestive system is to break
down the food you eat into smaller
molecules, which are then able
to pass from the small intestine
into your blood. Digestion is both the physical

breakdown of large lumps of food into smaller
ones, and the chemical breakdown of food. The
chemical breakdown occurs with the help of
substances called enzymes (EN-zimes), which
are made in special cells in your body. These
substances speed up chemical reactions,
which break down large insoluble food
molecules into small soluble ones.
MOUTH
Digestion begins here.
Food is chewed and broken
into smaller pieces. Starch
is chemically digested by
an enzyme in saliva.
OESOPHAGUS
(uh-SOF-a-gus)
Food is pushed down
this tube by muscular
contractions in the
oesophagus wall.
LIVER
Stores and
distributes food.
LARGE INTESTINE
Water and some minerals
are removed and pass
into the blood here. The
remaining insoluble food
becomes waste and passes
out through the anus.
ANUS
STOMACH
This large muscular bag
churns and mixes the food.
Proteins begin to be
digested. Hydrochloric acid
released from the stomach
wall kills bacteria. Food can
be stored here for about 4
hours.
SMALL INTESTINE
Proteins and
carbohydrates are
finally digested into
smaller molecules.
Fats are also digested.
The soluble food
passes out of the small
intestine and into the
blood.
209
2 10
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Digestive enzymes and food
Enzymes that break down carbohydrates into
sugars such as glucose are called amylases (AMill-AY-zes). Amylases are made in the salivary
glands in the mouth and in other glands in the
digestive system. The diagram on the right shows
how amylase helps break down starch to glucose.
Enzymes called proteases (PRO-tee-AY-zes)
break down proteins into amino acids. These
molecules are essential for your body to build
structures such as cell membranes. Proteases are
made in glands in the stomach and the small
intestine.
The enzymes that break down fats (lipids) are
called lipases (LIE-pazes). Fats are broken down
to fatty acids.
To see how enzymes work, open the
Enzyme action animation on the CD.
Enzymes in detergents
Some washing detergents contain enzymes. They
are added to the detergent to remove stains made
by proteins such as blood and eggs, and stains
from other biological sources.
single
glucose
molecule
Starch is a large molecule made

up of about 300 glucose
molecules joined together.
2
Amylase in saliva
helps break the
links joining the
glucose molecules.
Separate glucose
molecules are
produced.
Proteins are very large molecules, and many

are insoluble in water. They are made up of many
smaller units called amino acids. All amino acids
are soluble in water.
The enzymes in detergents work by attacking
the protein in the stain and breaking it down into
smaller, soluble amino acids. The stain gradually
fades as the smaller particles are removed from
the fabric by the agitation of the washing machine
and dissolved in the washing water.
Design a test to show the effectiveness of enzymecontaining detergents on pieces of cloth stained by
fresh meat, egg, grass or other plants.
To make it a fair test, you will have to control a
number of variables. Check the instructions on the
packets of detergents and discuss your design
with your teacher. (See Chapter 2 for designing fair
tests.)
Experiment
ENZYME ACTION
Theenzymeamylase(foundinsaliva)breaks
downstarchintoglucose.Thisreactionoccurs
inthemouthandinthesmallintestine.Canthe
reactionbedemonstratedinthelaboratory?

Yourtaskistoworkinasmallgrouptodesign
atesttoshowthatamylaseactsonstarchto
produce glucose.

1 ReadtheinformationintheHintsandtipsbox.
Thenworkinyourgrouptodesigntests.
2 Makealistoftheequipmentyouwillneed.
3 Discusshowyouaregoingtorecordyour
observations.
4 Discussyourdraftdesignwithyourteacher.
Whenyouandyourteacherarehappywithit,
get started.
Writing your report

1 Writeafullreportofyourexperiment,using
theheadings:Title,Aim,Materials,Method,
Results,DiscussionandConclusion.
thattriestoexplainyourobservations.
3 Youmightliketotakeadigitalphotoofyour
set-upandincludeitinyourreport.
Hints and tips

1 Youwillneedthefollowingchem
icalsfor
yourexperiment.
starchsuspension(20gstarc
h/L)
iodinesolution
glucosesolution(10%)
Benedictssolutionorglucoset
est
strips(Clinistix)
amylasesolution(yourteache
rwill
preparethisfromamylasepowde
r)
Checkwithyourteacherifyouthink
you
needotherchemicals.
2 Theactionofamylaseoccurs
inthebody
atabout35C.Youwillneedtos
ityour
testtubesinacontainerofwater
atabout
thistemperaturetogetreliablere
sults.
3 Youmustincludecontroltubesi
nyour
tests.Rememberyouhavetocomp
are
thecoloursofyourtestswiththec
ontrol
tubes.
4 Usealongdroppertotakeou
tsamples
ofliquidsinthetesttubesandtest
them
onaspottingtileorinsmalltesttub
esas
showninthephoto.
211
2 12
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Food for cells
When it reaches the small intestine, the food
is like thick, creamy soup. The soluble food is
made up of small molecules that are able to pass
through the small intestine wall. From here they
pass into the blood in the many blood vessels that

surround the small intestine. This dissolved food
travels to the liver and is then distributed to cells
in all parts of the body. Here the soluble food
particles leave the blood and pass through the cell
membrane into the cytoplasm of the cell.
from stomach
cells
small
intestine
blood vessel
The blood
flows through
the liver and
heart.
Soluble food
materials pass
through the
intestine wall
and into the
blood.
Wastes pass out through anus.
Fig 16
The inside of the small intestine has many tiny

projections called villi (VIL-ee) to increase its
surface area. This allows more food to come in
contact with the intestinal wall.
x100
Food
materials
pass from
the blood
vessels into
the cells.
In the cells, glucose reacts with oxygen,

which is also carried by the blood. This reaction
produces the energy needed for the many cellular
processes.
glucose + oxygen
carbon
+ water +
dioxide
ENERGY
The energy produced during cellular

respiration is used for many body processes and
for the growth and repair of cells. For example,
the small molecules from the digested protein
molecules are joined together to make new
proteins, which are used to make membranes,
organelles and other cell structures. Enzymes are
required for these reactions.
enzymes
protein building blocks

(amino acids)
new proteins
Investigate
20 MODEL INTESTINES
Aim
Toinvestigatethesortofmoleculesthatcanpass
throughmembranes.
Materials
3lengthsofcellophanetubing(15cm)
three250mLbeakers
Wear safety
glasses.
3twist-ties
3droppers
smallfunnel
spottingtileortesttubes
3rubberbands
glucosesolution(10%)
starchsuspension(20gstarch/L)
proteinsolution(10%gelatinesolution)
iodinesolution
BenedictssolutionorClinistix
Corrosive
coppersulfatesolution(0.1M)and
sodium hydroxide(2M)solutionorUristix
Method
1 Pourabout150mLofdistilledwaterintooneof
thebeakers.
2 Holdapieceofcellophanetubingunderwater
untilitissoft.Tieaknotinoneend.
4 Placethetubinginabeakerandlabelit
Glucose.Securetheopenendofthetubing
witharubberbandontheoutsideofthe
beaker.
5 RepeatSteps1to4forthesecondpieceof
tubing,butthistimeusestarchinsteadof
glucose.
6 Forthethirdpieceoftubinguseproteinsolution.
rubber
band
PROTEIN
GLUCOSE
STARCH
7 Leavethebeakersforatleast15minutes
(betterifleftovernight).
Transferadropofthewatersurroundingthe
tubingintheirstbeakertoaspottingtileor
testtube.Testitforglucose(seepage205).
Testthewaterinthesecondbeakerforstarch
andthethirdoneforprotein(seepage205).
Recordyourresultsinadatatable.
Discussion
1 Whatdoyourresultssuggestaboutthesizes
ofthemoleculesthatcanpassthroughthe
cellophanetubing?
3 Rubyouringers
backandforthon
funnel
the other end until
thetubingopens.
Useasmallfunnelto
three-quartersillthe
tubingwithglucose
solution. Then rinse
glucose
the outside of the
solution
tubingwithwater.
2 Ifthecellophanetubingbehavesinthesame
wayasyoursmallintestinewall,whatcanyou
inferaboutthepassageofsubstancesacross
thesmallintestinewall?
3 Usethisinvestigationtoexplainwhyfoodhas
tobedigestedbeforeitisusedbyyourbody.
Doessalt(sodiumchloride)passacross
membranes?Designatesttoinvestigatethis.
213
2 14
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
g
h

a The speed of breakdown of foods into
smaller particles is increased by ______.
b Digested food passes through the
______ ______ wall and into the blood.
c The oesophagus joins the ______ to the
______.
d In the large intestine ______ and
______ are removed and absorbed by
the blood.
What is cellular respiration? In your

description, list the substances that are used
and produced. Then write a word equation.
Look at the simple diagram of a human gut

on the right. In which numbered part:
a does protein digestion first occur?
b is most of the digested food absorbed
by the blood?
c do wastes and insoluble material pass
out of the body?
d does food enter from the mouth?
e is acid released to kill bacteria?
f are fats digested?
2
1
3
4
5
4
The inside of the small intestine is not

smooth but is folded and contains many
tiny projections. What is the reason for this?
How does the function of the stomach differ

from that of the small intestine?
Describe two functions of the mouth in

digestion.
challenge
1 Inanexperimentonstarchandsaliva,the
equipmentbelowwassetup.
glass
tubing
2
3
4
warm
water
amylase (saliva) +
starch solution
Adropwasremovedfromthetesttubeusing
theglasstubingandplacedonaspottingtile.
Iodinewasaddedtothisdrop.Thisprocedure
wasrepeatedevery10minutesforonehour.
a Whatresultswouldyouexpect?
is food stored for short periods?

are water and some minerals removed?
(Youmayhavetousesomenumbers
morethanonce.)
5
6
b Whatwasthepurposeofsamplingat
10-minuteintervals?
Supposeyouwereahamsandwich.Writea
fantasystoryofwhatwouldhappentoyouifyou
wereeatenanddigestedbyahuman.
Whenapieceofbreadisplacedonyour
tongue,nothingcanbetasted.Afterashort
while,asweettastecanbedetected.Inferthe
reason for this.
Supposeyouwantedtotesttheeffectof
temperatureontheactivityoftheamylase
enzymeinsaliva.Describehowyouwoulddo
this.
Somecellsinyourbody,egmusclecells,use
moredigestedfoodmaterialsthanothers.
Explainwhythisisso.
Thereisanincreaseintheamountofmaterials
carriedawayfrommusclecellsduringexercise.
Suggestwhatmaterialstheseare,andexplain
the reason for the increase.
Activity
9.3 Using food
In large multicellular organisms food has to
be transported to all cells. These cells may
be quite a distance from the places where the
food was made or digested. For example, in
a large eucalypt tree, the food that is made
in the leaves may be as far as 30 metres from
the cells in the roots. In a blue whale, the
food digested in its intestine may have to be
transported 20 metres to its brain cells.
How do plants transport food? The photo
of a leaf below shows the veins. These are
the structures which transport materials
around the plant.
Fig 23
A leaf showing the veins. The small photo,

taken using an electron microscope,
shows how the veins are made up of many
microscopic tubes called conducting vessels.
In this activity you will observe the conducting

vessels in the stem of a plant.
You will need a soft stem with a few leaves
(celery works well), a beaker, food colouring,
a single-edge razor blade (or scalpel) and a
microscope and slide.
1 Half fill the beaker with water and add
some food colouring.
2 Cut the end off the plant stem and
immediately place the stem in the beaker
of coloured water. Leave it there for a few
hours or overnight.
3 Take the stem out of the water and hold it
up to the light.
Can you see the colouring in the stem?
4 Use the razor blade to carefully cut a
very thin cross-section of the stem. (This
may take a bit of practice.)
5 Set up a microscope and view the crosssections.
Draw a sketch of your stem crosssection.
215
2 16
ScienceWorld8forNSW
The conducting vessels you saw in the activity
on the previous page were water-conducting
vessels. Food-conducting vessels transport
materials such as glucose and proteins.
Food is made
in the leaves.
Food moves
through foodconducting
vessels.
Transport in humans
Blood carries food and oxygen to all cells in your
body and carries wastes away from them. Blood
looks like a red liquid, but it is actually a
suspension of red blood cells in a pale yellow
liquid called plasma. Plasma is mainly water, but
also contains dissolved food (mainly glucose),
waste products, and minerals. The red blood cells
carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells to be used
in cellular respiration.
Water moves
through waterconducting
vessels.
plasma
water in soil
potatoes
(starch storage)
The glucose that is made in photosynthesis

is stored in the form of insoluble starch in the
leaves. In some plants, such as carrots, sweet
potatoes and turnips, a large amount of starch is
stored in the main root, which swells as it stores
the starch. Potatoes, yams and ginger store food
in special underground stems called tubers.
Fig 26
Carrots store food in the form of starch.
settled
blood
cells
Fig 27
Blood is a suspension of blood cells in

plasma. When left, the blood cells settle out
leaving the pale yellow plasma.
After the food has been digested in the small

intestine and absorbed into the blood, it is carried
to the liver. This is the largest organ in your body
and functions as a warehouse and sorting-out or
distribution centre for foods.
When a meal is eaten and digested, a large
quantity of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids is
carried to the liver. Some of the glucose molecules
are joined together with the help of enzymes to
form a large molecule called glycogen, which can
be stored in the liver.
Some fats can be stored in the liver, but most
are stored in special fat cells in tissue under the
skin and around essential organs such as the heart
and kidneys.
The heart and blood vessels
Your heart is a muscular organ that keeps
pumping blood to your body about 70 times a
minute for the whole of your life.
The blood vessels that carry blood away from
the heart are called arteries. Veins carry blood
back to the heart. Arteries and veins have the
same layers of elastic and muscular tissue, but the
layers in the arteries are much thicker (see Fig 28).
As the heart contracts, blood is forced through the
arteries. The heartbeat can be felt as a pulse near
your wrist and in your neck.
The large arteries and veins form many
branches throughout the body. The narrowest
arteries and veins branch into microscopic vessels
called capillaries, which are very thin, usually
only one cell thick. Food, oxygen and water pass
through the capillaries to the cells, and wastes
pass back as shown in the diagram below right.
ARTERY
muscle
VEIN
Fig 28
Arteries have thick muscular and elastic

walls and carry blood away from the heart.
Veins have thinner walls and take blood back
towards the heart.
blood
from the
heart
To see how blood flows through the heart

and lungs, open The heart animation on
the CD.
small
artery
cells
vein
blood supply
to the brain
capillaries
artery
blood supply
to the lungs
lung
heart
Food and
oxygen pass
to cells.
Wastes from
cells pass
into blood.
small
vein
Large arteries take

blood to the legs.
blood back to
the heart
217
2 18
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
21 THE BLOOD SYSTEM

Aim
PART B
Toinvestigateyourpulseandobservetheblood
capillariesinaishstail.
Materials
awatchwithasecondhand,ordigitalwatch
smallaquariumish,egguppy
microscopeandmicroscopeslide
cottonwool
aquariumorpondwater

ReadthroughPartAanddecidewhois
goingtodowhatsortofexercise.Designa
datatablefortheresults.
Makealistofalltheprecautionsyouwill
taketomakesuretheishinPartBisnot
harmedinanyway.
Ca pillari es
Yourteacherwilldothispartoftheinvestigation
asaclassdemonstration.
You can view the capillaries on a computer or TV
monitor via a video camera fitted to a microscope.
1 Soaksomecottonwoolinpondwater,squeeze
outmostofthewaterandlayitonamicroscope
slide.
2 Carefullylaytheishonthecottonwooland
placesomemorewetcottonwoolontopofthe
ish.Thiswillholdtheishinplaceandstopit
fromdryingout.
3 Makesurethetailisstickingoutofthecotton
wool,asshown.
wet cotton wool
PART A
fish
M e asur i n g puls e
1 Useyourindexingertoindyourpartnerspulse
inthearteryintheirwrist.
Recordthenumberofbeatsperminuteand
call this the resting pulse rate.
2 Haveyourpartner
exercise(egby
standing and sitting
rapidly)for2minutes.
Immediatelyafterthe
exercise,taketheirnew
pulse rate.
I thought this was a

science class - not a
physical education class!
Recordyourresults.
3 Recordhowlongit
takesforthepulserate
to return to the resting
rate.
You might like to use a datalogger to measure
and record your pulse rates using a pressure
probe.
4 Lookatthetailthroughlowpowerona
microscope.Thenswitchtohigherpowerto
observethecapillariesandbloodcells.
Useadiagramtorecordyourobservations.
Note: Take care of the fish and return it to

the aquarium immediately after use.
Discussion
1 Howdoesyourheart(pulse)respondtoa
changeinactivityinyourbody?
2 Suggestwhythereisachangeinthepulserate
withexercise.Includetheneedsofthebody
cellsinyourexplanation.
3 Whyisitnecessaryforyourheartto
continuebeatingwhenyouareasleep?
4 Doesaishhaveapulse?Suggestreasonsfor
youranswer.
Getting rid of wastes
Your body is like a factory. It takes in raw
materials (food, water and air) and produces new
products (cells and parts of cells). It uses energy in
these processes and it also produces wastes. The
wastes are gases, liquids and solids.
Gaseous wastescarbon dioxide

The most important cell reaction in your body
is respiration, which produces carbon dioxide
and water. Much of the water is reused by the
body, but carbon dioxide is not used and has to
be removed through your lungs. The two lungs
are part of your respiratory system, and are large
pink-coloured organs found inside the chest
cavity. The lungs appear solid but are soft and
sponge-like. The pink colour is due to the many
blood capillaries in the lung tissue.
through the trachea and into smaller air tubes

called bronchi (BRONK-ee), which end in minute
air sacs called alveoli (AL-vee-OH-lee). The
total surface area of the alveoli in the lungs is
enormousabout 80 m2, or about half the size of
a tennis court.
The oxygen in the air breathed in passes
through the thin walls of the alveoli and into the
blood in the capillaries. From here the blood is
pumped to cells throughout the body. The blood
coming into the lungs from the body contains a
lot of carbon dioxide. This passes from the blood
into the alveoli and is breathed out.
nasal
cavity
throat
trachea
ribs
Fig 33
alveoli
air tubes
(bronchi)
diaphragm
Fig 32
Oxygen from the air passes into the blood in

the lungs, and waste carbon dioxide passes
from the blood and is breathed out.
Air enters the lungs from the nose or mouth

and then the trachea (track-EE-a) or windpipe.
The air is moved in and out of the lungs by the
movements of the muscles around the ribs and
the large muscular diaphragm. The air moves
A microscope view of lung tissue showing

many thin-walled alveoli
Liquid wastesurine
Most of the wastes produced by cell reactions
are soluble in water and are therefore able to be
transported away by the blood. Many of these
waste products are taken to the liver for
processing.
The liver is a very important organ in the
body. It not only stores and distributes digested
food, but it also breaks down many substances
including amino acids and harmful substances
such as alcohol.
Urea is one of the substances produced by the
liver when it breaks down amino acids. Urea is
soluble and so is carried in the blood from the
liver to the kidneys where it is then removed.
219
2 20
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Activities
Blood is supplied to each of the two kidneys by
a large artery called the renal artery (renal means
of the kidney). About one litre of blood passes
through the kidneys each minute. This blood is
iltered, and the wastes and some water pass out
of the kidney to the bladder. The liquid waste is
called urine.
The removal of wastes from the body is called
excretion (ex-KREE-shun). The kidneys and
liver are part of the excretory system. Sweat on
your skin also removes salts and other soluble
substances. But the skin is not considered part of
the excretory system because the main purpose of
sweat is to lower your body temperature.
Solid wastesfaeces
The solid wastes are called faeces (FEE-seas)
and consist of leftover material from the food
you eat (mainly ibre), as well as bacteria (about
30% of the mass), water and other products of
cell reactions. The faeces pass out of your body
through the anus. The brown colour of faeces
is due to substances produced in the liver when
blood is broken down.
large artery
from heart
large vein
to heart
renal vein
kidney
renal artery
Fig 34
Part A Looking at lungs

Your teacher will show you a pair of sheeps
lungs attached to the trachea.
Observe the colour and texture of the
lungs and the trachea.
Infer the function of the bands of cartilage
in the trachea.
Observe what happens when the lungs
are inflated with air.
Part B Looking at kidneys
You will need a sheeps kidney, a single-edge
razor blade (or scalpel), scissors and gloves.
1 Peel off the fat around the kidney and
look for the blood
pelvis
cortex
vessels attached
to the concave
renal
vein
side of the
kidney.
2 Use the razor
blade to cut the
kidney in half.
renal
The outer dark red
artery
region is called
the cortex and is
where the wastes
are filtered. The lightto bladder
coloured inner region is
the pelvis and is where the urine collects.
Infer the function of the fat around the
kidney.
Urine flows
down this
tube to
the bladder.
Use a library to find out the names of

the various parts of the kidney, and how the
kidney filters the blood.
bladder
Your teacher may supply you with a

microscope. If so, cut a very thin piece of
tissue from the lung and from the kidney and
look at them under the microscope.
Kidneys are the main organs of excretion

the removal of wastes which are dissolved in
water.
Note: Your teacher will tell you how to

clean up and prepare the remains of the
lungs and kidneys for disposal.
Check!
1
Some of the sentences below are false.

Select the ones that are false and rewrite
them to make them correct.
a Blood consists of blood cells suspended
in plasma.
b Lung tissue has very few blood vessels.
c During exercise the amount of blood
flowing to the body cells decreases.
d Arteries have the same structure but
much thicker walls than veins.
e Urine is produced by the liver and is
collected in the bladder.
What is urine? Where is it made and what

happens to it in the body?
Bonnie had a pot plant that she kept in a

sunny place on a veranda. She noticed that
the plant had started to wilt.
a What conditions made the plant wilt?
b How could Bonnie save the plant?
The diagram below shows simplified blood

vessels.
a Match veins, arteries and capillaries to
A, B, and C on the diagram. Explain your
choices.
b In which direction does the blood flow?
How do you know?
Match the statements with the numbers on

the diagram of the plant below.
a This transports food and water to all
cells in the plant.
b Water and nutrients are absorbed here
c Food and oxygen are made here.
d This is where starch is stored.
C
8
What is the advantage to a plant such as a

potato plant of storing food?
Why does the air you breathe out contain

less oxygen and more carbon dioxide than
the air you breathe in?
10
Suggest why your pulse rate increases

when you see signs that you are in danger.
Delta 3 to base. (khhhk) Just

noticed interesting phenomenon.
(khhhk) Pulse rate seems to
have increased. (khhhk) Over.
4
3
What is a pulse? Why does the pulse rate

vary? What actions do you have to take to
lower your pulse rate?
Suppose you analysed the blood in an

arteryinyourarm.Youthendidthesame
to the blood in a nearby vein. Which
substances would you find more of in the
artery than in the vein?
Which substances would you find more of
in the vein than in the artery?
11
During exercise your heart rate increases.

Suggest why your breathing rate also
increases during exercise.
221
2 22
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
1 Whenatreeisringbarked,agrooveabout
2cmdeepiscutallthewayaroundthetrunk.
Useyourknowledgeoftheplanttransport
systemtosuggestwhyaringbarkedtree
eventuallydies.
2 Yourbodycontainsabout5litresofblood.
a Ifthekidneysilteronelitreofbloodinone
minute,howmuchbloodisilteredinaday?
b Howmanytimesisthe5litresofbloodiltered
inaday?
c Youproduceabout1500mLofurineeach
day.Expresstheamountofurine
produced as a percentage of the total
amountofbloodilteredinaday.
3 Yourheartpumpsabout70mLofbloodwith
eachbeat.Estimatethevolumeofblooditwould
pumpin24hours.Whatassumptionshaveyou
madeinyourcalculations?
4 Theveinsinyourbodyhavevalvesthatallow
bloodtolowinonedirectiononly.
a Whatwastheaimoftheexperiment?
b Whatequipmentwasneededforthis
experiment?
c Forhowlongdidtheexperimentrun?
d Describetheresultsoftheexperiment.
6 Inafollow-upexperimentfortheonein
Challenge5aplantwasplacedinameasuring
cylinderofwater.Thetopwassealedbyacork.
Thedropinthelevelofwaterinthemeasuring
cylinderwasrecordedevery30minutes.
Asimilarplantwassetupbutthistimeafanwas
directed at the leaves of the plant. The graph
showstheresultsoftheexperiment.
cork
measuring
cylinder
fan
valve
vein
plant A
plant B
a Inwhichdirectionwouldthebloodlowinthe
diagramabove?Howdoyouknow?
b Suggestwhyarteriesdonothavevalves.
5 Aplantexperimentwassetupasshowninthe
diagrambelow.
bright light
drops of water
inside bag
plastic
bag
moist
soil
a Whatwasthepurposeofthecorkinthe
measuringcylinder?
b Whatvariableswerecontrolled?
c Couldthenumberofleavesoneachplant
affecttheresults?How?
d Writeaconclusionforthisexperiment.
twist-tie
11 am
2 pm

blood
1 All organisms need food for _____, for _____ and to keep their
carbon dioxide
bodies healthy and functioning correctly.
2 Foods contain four main food types: _____, proteins, _____, and
vitamins and minerals.
carbohydrates
chlorophyll
digestion
energy
3 Carbohydrates include _____ and are used for energy. Fats are
also an energy source, while proteins provide materials for the
growth and _____ of cells.
4 Plants contain _____ and are able to make carbohydrates in

photosynthesis.
fats
growth
kidneys
photosynthesis
repair
5 _____ is a process that breaks down large lumps of food into

soluble materials containing small molecules which can dissolve
in the blood.
sugars and
starch
transport
6 Plants _____ food, water and other materials in conducting vessels

in stems, roots and leaves. Food made by _____ is stored as starch.
7 In humans, food, oxygen, water and wastes are carried to and from
cells by the _____.
8 _____ is removed from the blood by the lungs, dissolved wastes are
filtered from the blood in the _____, and solid wastes pass out of the
body through the anus.
1 Which one of the following statements about

respiration in animals and plants is incorrect?
Respiration:
A releases energy in cells.
B requires oxygen.
C needs sunlight.
D uses up food.
2 Which one of the following statements about
photosynthesis is incorrect? Photosynthesis:
A uses up carbon dioxide and water, and gives
off oxygen.
B makes carbohydrates.
C takes place in cells containing chlorophyll.
D occurs 24 hours of the day.
3 Which of the following food types is used

mainly for the growth of cells?
A fats
B proteins
C vitamins and minerals
D carbohydrates
4 Brad was testing various foods in an
investigation. He added a few drops of a brown
liquid to pieces of rice, chicken, bread and
butter. He observed the rice and bread turn
a blue-black colour. What substance was he
testing for?
A sugar
C fat
B protein
D starch
223
2 24
ScienceWorld8forNSW
5 The following questions refer to the diagram
below.
The water in each of the beakers was tested for

glucose at the start of the experiment and then
after 30 minutes. The results are shown in the
table below.
Beaker 1
At the start
After 30 mins
no glucose
no glucose
Beaker 2
no glucose
glucose
a Where did the glucose come from?

b What was the aim of the experiment?
c Why was beaker 1 included in the
experiment?
d Which variables were controlled?
3
4
8 The diagram below shows a simple model of a

human heart.
blood from
body
a Where are most substances absorbed

into the blood?
b Where is food irst acted on by enzymes?
c Where is food stored for short periods of
time?
d Where are carbohydrates irst digested?
e Where are water and some minerals
absorbed into the blood?
6 Which organs are responsible for the removal
of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes from the
body.
7 An experiment was set up using cellophane
tubing.
starch solution
+ saliva
starch solution
blood from
lungs
vessel C
vessel A
chamber 1
chamber 3
chamber 2
chamber 4
blood to
lungs
vessel B
blood to
body
vessel D
a Which blood vessel, A or B, would have

the thicker walls? Explain your answer.
b Does the blood in chamber 1 contain more
or less oxygen than the blood in chamber 3?
Explain your answer.
c Write a paragraph describing the low of
blood through the four chambers and four
blood vessels of the heart.
water
Beaker 1
Beaker 2
Learning focus: Choices need to be made when
considering whether to use scientific advances
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
GM foods podcast
GM foods are genetically modified foods that
are appearing on supermarket shelves. They
are foods that contain genetically modiied
ingredients. Sometimes the whole of the food is
genetically modiied, for example soybeans and
corn. Other foods contain varying amounts of
GM ingredients. For example, 10% of a doughnut
may be GM soybean meal. It is your decision
do you buy GM foods or not?
Podcast
Get into a group of four and produce a podcast
for other Year 8 students to answer the following
questions about GM foods.
1 What do you think are the advantages and
disadvantages of GM foods?
2 Do you think we should use GM foods? Why
or why not?
3 Are there any risks in using GM foods? What
are they?
4 Why do you think people have such different
views about GM foods?
5 Do you think we can go too far with GM
foods? Where would you draw the line?
Two people in your group use the internet and
other resources to research GM foods. The third
person writes the script for the podcast and the
fourth is the technician, producer and director of
the podcast. Here are some hints on producing a
good podcast.
Write the script so that it has a clear structure
and direction, but you may want to want to
allow for some ad-libbing and input from
others in the group.

Make sure your information is as reliable
as possible. Dont rely on only one or two

sources.

Know when you have said enough and dont
repeat yourself.
Choose ideas and vocabulary suited to your
intended audience.
This fake crow was used in a demonstration against

GM crops.
Make sure the quality of the podcast is good,

with a good quality microphone, recording
software and a suitable place to record.
Speak clearly, audibly and at a reasonable
pace.

Make the podcast entertaining by being
enthusiastic and expressing your personality.
225
10
Electricity
Planning page
Getting started
Investigate 22
Electric charges
Investigate 23
Simple electric circuits
Investigate 24
Does it conduct?

page 228
Animation
Atoms

page 235
TRB
Assessment task 10
The history of electricity
Investigate 25
Series and parallel circuits
Experiment
Your invention

page 242
Main ideas
Chapter 10 crossword
Review
Chapter 10 test
Learning focus:
Developments in science
have led to the development
of new technologies

Conducting plastics
TRB
Chapter10 Electricity
r you wil
In this chapte
l learn abou
LearningFocus
developments in science have led to the development of new technologies (page 251)
electrostatic force (Section 10.1)

electrical energy
Skills
planning first-hand investigations and choosing equipment (Investigate 2225)

presenting informationelectrical symbols (page 242)
thinking criticallyusing models (pages 236 and 238)
problem-solving (Try this page 234)
the use of creativity and imagination, and working individually or in teams (Experiment
page 248)
How much do you know about electricity

and electric circuits?
Use this knowledge to explain how this
mousetrap works.
Why are two batteries needed?
Keep your answer in mind for the
Experiment Your invention on page 248.
electromagnet
metal
can
electric
bell
aluminium pie dish
1.5 V
battery
6V
battery
227
2 28
ScienceWorld8forNSW

In September 2005 Frank Clewer went for a job
interview in Warrnambool. However, staff in the
office heard loud crackling sounds and noticed the
carpet was burnt where Frank had been.
They called the fire brigade, and the building
was evacuated. The firemen checked Frank and
found that there was an electric charge of 30 000
volts on his synthetic jumper.
Electric charges can build up on objects that
are rubbed together, due to the friction between
them. This build-up of electric charges on objects
Good morning.
I was wondering
if you had any
vacancies in
the electrical
department.
is called static electricity, because the charges stay

on the object. They are stationary.
Investigate
22 ELECTRIC CHARGES
Aim
To make and investigate electric charges.

This investigation can be done only on dry
days. Also, make sure everything (including
your hands) is grease-free. Wash the equipment
in soapy water and dry it thoroughly. You may
need to warm some equipment in an oven.
Read through the four parts. Note that Part B
is a teacher demonstration.
PART A
Materials
2 balloons and string
Method
1 Blow up a balloon and tie it.
2 Rub the balloon on a jumper or woollen cloth.
Stand on a bench (be careful), hold the balloon
up to the ceiling, then let it go. What happens?
3 Charge a second balloon in the same way.
What happens when you hang the two charged
balloons close together?
PART B
If your school has a Van de Graaff generator,
your teacher may demonstrate how it is able to
generate a static electric charge on its dome. You
may even be able to make your hair stand on end.
PART C
Materials
pieceoffurorsilk
charged rod
plasticrod
tap
Method
Rub the plastic rod vigorously with fur or silk and
bring it near (but not touching) a trickle of water.
Describe what happens.
sink
trickle of
water
Predict what will happen if you do touch

the water with the rod. Give a reason for your
prediction. Now try it.
PART D
Materials
2perspexrods
2eboniterods
pieceofwoolorfur
pieceofsilk
watchglass
Blu-Tack
cookingoil
tile
Blu-Tack
ebonite rod
watch glass
drop of oil
tile
Method
1 Put a watch glass on top of a drop of
oil on a tile. Place a small amount of Blu-Tack
on either side of the watch glass, as shown.
2 Rub the ebonite rod (the black one) with wool
and place it on the Blu-Tack. Bring the wool
near one end of the rod. Try the other end
as well.
3 Take the ebonite rod off the watch glass. Rub
theperspexrod(theclearone)withsilk,place
it on the watch glass, and bring the silk near
one end.
4 Rub the ebonite rod with wool and place it on
the watch glass. Rub a second ebonite rod with
wool and bring it near one end of the rod on the
watch glass. Repeat the test, but this time use
twoperspexrodsrubbedwithsilk.
5 Repeat Step 4 but this time bring a charged
perspexroduptoachargedeboniterod,and
vice versa.
wool
Rod 1
Rod 2
Ebonite with wool

Perspex with silk
Ebonite with wool
Perspex with silk
Ebonite with wool

Perspex with silk
Perspex with silk
Ebonite with wool
What
happened
Record the results for Steps 4 and 5 in a

data table as shown above.
Discussion
1 Shannon tried to do the tests by placing the
rods on the desk top instead of on a watch
glass. She saw nothing happen. Suggest a
reason for this.
2 Do both the charged rods behave in the same
way?Explainyouranswer.
Conclusion
Writeageneralisationtoexplaintheresultsofyour
tests with charged rods.
229
2 30
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Attraction and repulsion
You have seen that rods rubbed with different
types of cloth can move one another by noncontact forces. But why do electric charges
sometimes attract and sometimes repel?
Lets hypothesise that an electric force is
something like a magnetic forceanother type of
non-contact force. With magnets, two like poles
repel each other, while two unlike poles attract.
So if two perspex rods rubbed with silk
repel each other, you might expect them to have
the same electric charge on them. Similarly,
two ebonite rods rubbed with wool repel each
other, so they should also have the same charge.
However, a perspex rod rubbed with silk and an
ebonite rod rubbed with wool attract each other,
so they should have opposite charges.
Remember that a magnet can attract some
unmagnetised metals, so you might also expect
that a charged rod can attract some uncharged
objects.
To sum up, there are three laws that describe
electric forces.
Science
in action
Benjamin Franklin
The great American scientist Benjamin Franklin was the
first person to explain successfully the charging of an
object by rubbing. He suggested that the two types of
charge could be called positive and negative.
He inferred that there was an electric fluid that
could be moved from one object to another. If this
electric fluid was added to an object then it gained a
positive charge. If electric fluid was removed then the
object developed a negative charge.
Franklins ideas were useful for explaining electric
charges, but other observations do not support his
inferences about an electric fluid. Scientists now use a
different explanation (see the next page).
Charged objects attract uncharged objects.

For example, a charged plastic rod will attract
small pieces of paper or a stream of water
(as in Investigate 22 Part C).
Like charges repel each other. It does not
matter whether they are both positive or both
negative.
< WEB watch >

force of repulsion
Unlike charges attract each other.
force of attraction
Benjamin Franklin is famous for flying a kite in

a thunderstorman extremely dangerous thing
to do. When lightning struck the kite, electricity
flowed down the string to a key. Luckily he
survived.
links to:
Benjamin Franklin: An Enlightened American

This website has Franklins illustrated life story,
information on his inventions, things he said,
interesting facts and humorous stories.
Inside atoms
Explaining electric charges
About 100 years ago scientists discovered that

there are even smaller particles inside atoms.
Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealander, inferred
that most of the atom is empty space. There is a
small central core or nucleus which is positively
charged. It contains protons which are positively
charged, and neutrons which are neutral (no
charge). Moving around the nucleus are electrons,
which are negatively charged. Normally there
are equal numbers of protons and electrons. This
means that the charges balance each other and the
whole atom is uncharged.
If some electrons are removed from an atom,
it becomes positively charged. If extra electrons
are added, the atom becomes negatively charged.
When the number of positively charged atoms in
an object just balances the number of negatively
charged atoms, the whole object is uncharged. But
if the numbers become unequal, then the object
has an electric charge.
What happens when you rub a perspex rod with

a silk cloth? The frictional forces of the rubbing
cause electrons to be removed from atoms on
the surface of the rod and to become attached
to atoms on the silk. This leaves the rod with
a positive charge and the silk ends up with a
negative charge.
A different type of cloth may give electrons to
the rod and make it negatively charged. This cloth
will, of course, then have a positive charge.
To learn more about atoms, open the

Atoms animation on the CD.
positive protons
(and neutrons)
in nucleus
. . . so the rod
has an excess
of positive
charges . . .
silk cloth
. . . and the cloth has

an excess of negative
charges.
perspex rod
Everyday static electricity

-
negative electrons
surrounding nucleus
Fig 8
Electrons move
this way . . .
A picture of an atom. It is neutral, with no

overall charge.
The tingle you get when you walk across a

synthetic carpet and then touch something
metallic is due to static electricity. The friction
between your shoes and the carpet causes your
body to become charged. When you touch a metal
object, the static electricity is discharged
(allowed to escape). As the electricity flows across
your skin, you feel a slight electric shock.
During World War I, pilots landing small
rubber-tyred aircraft often received a powerful
shock when they stepped onto the ground. Today
aircraft have special tyres that have metal in them.
This lets the static electricity pass harmlessly to
the ground when they land and prevents shocks
and electrical problems.
The rapid movement of drops of water in
thunderclouds can cause a separation of positive
and negative charges. The tops of the clouds
231
2 32
ScienceWorld8forNSW
normally become positive, and the bottoms
negative. If these charges become big enough,
electrons can jump from one part of the cloud
to another, causing a spark. The air is heated so
much it glows, producing lightning. The intense
heat also makes the air expand suddenly,
causing the loud noise of thunder. Lightning can
also spark to the ground, or to other clouds.
thunderclouds
What to do in a thundersto
rm
Each year in Australia lightning claims

up to 10 lives and
causes over 100 injuries. Many of these
injuries happen
when people use telephones during thun
derstorms.
If you are caught outdoors
in a
thunderstorm:
Seek shelter in a hard-top vehicle or

solid building.
If swimming or suring, leave the wa
ter immediately.
If in a boat, go ashore to shelter as so
on as possible.
Never shelter under trees.
Dont use a mobile phone.
Dont handle ishing rods, umbrellas or
golf clubs.
Stay away from metal poles, wire fence
s, sheet metal,
clothes lines etc.
Dont ride a horse or bike, or drive an
open vehicle.
If you are in a car, park away from tr
ees and power
lines. Close the windows and avoid touc
hing metal
parts of the car.
If caught in the open, crouch down wi
th your feet
together.
If you are indoors during
a thunderstorm:
Dont use the telephone.

Disconnect external aerials
and power leads to radios,
TVs and computers.
Draw all curtains and keep
clear of windows, electrical
appliances, pipes and other
metal ixtures.
Dont stand bare-footed on
concrete or tiled floors.
Avoid taking a bath or shower.
th in k
sa fe
be sa fe
Fig 10
Lightning can spark within a large cloud,

from a cloud to the ground, or from cloud to
cloud.
Fig 11
Lightning strikes the lightning conductor on

the Q1 tower on the Gold Coast.
Everyday static electricity

Operating theatres
cotton gowns
(not nylon)
In operating theatres the sudden movement of

blankets, clothes or equipment can produce
electrostatic sparks. (Electrostatic means relating
to static electricity.) These sparks are very
dangerous because of the large amount of oxygen
in the air and other flammable gases used to
anaesthetise the patient. Many precautions are
therefore taken to make sure static charges do not
build up anywhere.
patient is
earthed
trolley wheels
made from
antistatic rubber
conducting tiles on floor
equipment
earthed
by chains
shoes are antistatic

and conducting
image to be copied (face down)
CS IE
lamp
lens
SCIENCE
lens
cartridge
containing
toner powder
()
EN
CE
drum
SC
I
Photocopiers work by an electrostatic

process. The main part of the machine is
a rotating light-sensitive drum onto which
the image of the document is projected.
The positively charged paper attracts the
negatively charged toner from the drum,
forming an image. The paper then passes
between heated rollers that fuse (melt) the
toner onto the surface of the paper.
CN E
Photocopiers
printed image
heated rollers
Powder coating
When objects are powder-coated they are
charged so they will attract the powder.
This gives a much more even coating
than other methods of spraying, and the
powder reaches all parts of the objects
surface. However, great care has to be
taken to keep dust particles out of the
air, or they too will be attracted onto
the objects charged surface.
233
2 34
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Why do you sometimes notice a crackling

noise when you take off your clothes?
If a rod is rubbed with nylon cloth and the

rod becomes positively charged, what
charge will be on the nylon?
You may have been zapped as you touched

the door handle when getting out of a car.
Suggest how the car becomes electrically
charged.
What type of charge is on:

a an electron?
b the nucleus of an atom?
a
b
In your own words, describe what causes

lightning.
Some tall buildings and tall chimneys

have a lightning rod on top of them. What
purpose does it serve?
A piece of plastic held in your hand can be

electrified by rubbing it with a cloth, but it
is impossible to electrify a piece of metal in
the same way. Why?
A suspended, positively charged rod has a

second rod brought near to it. What is the
chargepositive, negative or no charge
on the second rod if it:
a repels the suspended rod?
b attracts the suspended rod (two
answers)?
11
1 Five different rods (A, B, C, D, E) were given

an electric charge by rubbing them with two
different cloths. The rods were then tested in
pairs to see whether they repelled or attracted.
A attracted C and C attracted E. A repelled D
and B repelled E. Predict what will happen if you
bring D and E together and B and C together.
2 The photo below shows a light plane being
refuelled. Suggest why there is a wire between
the fuel hose and the plane.
Give two examples where static

electricity is a nuisance.
Give two examples where it is useful.
10
challenge
Look at the labels on the cartoon of the

operating theatre on the previous page.
a The equipment and the patient are
earthed. What does this mean?
b What does the word conducting mean?
c What does antistatic mean?
Have you noticed that computer and TV
screens become dustier than the things
around them? Suggest a reason for this.
12 Explain how static electricity and

magnetism are similar. In your answer use
the terms non-contact force and force field.
t r y t his
1 You have been asked to solve the problem
of the two sides of a plastic bag sticking
together.
a Why do you think this problem occurs?
b Design an experiment to show how the
bags stick together.
c Suggest experiments you could try to
overcome the problem.
2 Which type of carpet is most likely to give
you an electric shock when you walk about
on it? Design and carry out an experiment to
find out.
3 In a very dark room, rub a spare fluorescent
tube with wool, fur or clear plastic wrap. Can
you see it glow?
4 Bring a charged rod near the smoke from a
burning mosquito coil. What happens?

Static electricity is electricity that is stationary. If,
somehow, this electricity can be made to move
you have current electricity or an electric current.

A torch battery provides the energy to drive the
current. When the battery is connected by wires to
a bulb, electrons flow to light up the bulb.
Investigate
23 SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Aim
PART B
To investigate different ways of connecting a

torch battery and bulb.
Us i ng a swit ch
Materials
PART A
Li ght i ng a b ulb
Materials
1.5volttorchbatterywithoutholder
torchbulb(2.5volt)withoutholder
2connectingwires

Read through Part A and describe to your
partner what you have to do. Your partner can
then describe Part B to you.
1.5volttorchbatterywithholder(orpowerpack)
torchbulb(2.5volt)withholder
3connectingwireswithalligatorclips
switch
Method
1 Use the holders and the three connecting wires
to connect the battery and bulb as shown.
1.5 volt
size D
Method
1 Use the battery and one connecting wire to
make the bulb light.
Draw a diagram of how you connected the
battery and bulb.
2 See if you can find at least one other way of
making the bulb light.
Draw diagrams of any ways that you
discover.
2 Make the bulb go on and off by touching the

alligator clips together.
3 Now connect the switch into the circuit as
shown. Switch the bulb on and off.
1.5 volt
size D
What special places must be touched on

the bulb for it to light?
What special places must be touched on
the battery?
3 Can you make the bulb light using two
connecting wires?
Draw diagrams of your set-ups.
Students could investigate electric circuits using
the computer program Crocodile clips.
Does it make any difference if you reverse

the connections to the battery?
235
2 36
ScienceWorld8forNSW
trons
2 The elec
h the
ro
flow th ug
wire and
connecting
lb.
into the bu
1 The
battery
pro
the en
ergy to vides
push
the ele
ct
from t rons away
he t
ermina
l.
What is a circuit?
In Investigate 23 you should have noticed these
things:
1 Both ends of the battery must be connected
to the bulb before it will light. These metal
connection points are called terminals. The
top of the battery is positive + and the bottom
is negative .
2 The bulb has to be connected in two special
places. The metal side of the bulb is one
terminal, and the bottom is the other. They
are both the same. There is no positive or
negative.
3 For the bulb to light, there has to be a closed
path (or circuit) joining the battery and the
bulb. This is called an electric circuit. When
there is a gap in the circuit, the light is off.
A switch lets you open and close the circuit.
An electric current can be compared to water
flowing through pipes. The battery is like a water
pumpit gives energy to the electrons just as the
pump forces the water through the pipes. (See Fig
19 on the right.)
A water meter measures how many litres of
water are flowing through a pipe each second. In
an electric circuit, the electric current or number
of electrons passing per second is measured using
an ammeter (AM-eat-er). An ammeter measures
electric current in amperes (abbreviation amps,
symbol A) or milliamps (1000 mA = 1 A).
Voltage is a bit like the pressure in the pipes.
It is a measure of how much energy can be given
to the moving electrons in a circuit. It is measured
h the
roug me
h
t
w
lb. So
ns flo
ectro de the bu o make
l
e
e
3 Th wire insi is used t
ow
thin r energy
hen fl
t
y
e
i
h
of the lb glow. T
ough
ry thr
u
e
b
t
t
e
a
b
th
to the
back terminal.
the +
fountain
pump
water in pipes
Fig 19
An electric current flowing from a battery

through a bulb can be compared to water
flowing in pipes.
in volts (V) using a voltmeter. A torch battery

has 1.5 volts. A 6 volt battery can push a larger
current around the same circuit.
If one of the connecting wires in the previous
experiment was replaced by a piece of string, the
light bulb obviously would not glow. String does
not let electricity through and is called an
insulator. A substance like wire that does let
electricity through is called a conductor.
Investigate
24 DOES IT CONDUCT?
Aim
Connect
objects
here.
To test various substances to see how well they

conduct electricity.
1.5 volt size D
Materials
1.5Vbatteryandholder(orpowerpack)
torchbulbandholder
ammeterormultimeter
4connectingwires
varietyofobjects,egpaperclip,plasticand
glass rods, nail, coin, carbon rod, copper rod,
matchstick, rubber band, aluminium foil, strip of
paper, piece of string
ammeter
Record whether the bulb glows.

Discuss the investigation with your teacher.
You may use a 6 volt battery or a power
packinsteadofthe1.5voltbattery.
Look at the ammeter. The red or + terminal
must be connected to the + terminal of the
battery.
Suggest why you use an ammeter in this
investigation.
Draw up a data table like the one shown.
Listatleast10objectsintheleft-hand
column. Write down what material each
object is made of.
Object
Material
paperclip
stirring rod
steel
glass
Does
bulb
grow?
Ammeter
reading (mA)
Method
1 Set up a circuit as shown. Ask your teacher to
check your circuit before you go on to Step 2.
2 Touch the two alligator clips together. Observe
what happens to the bulb.
Record the electric current reading on the
ammeter.
3 Connect one of the objects between the
alligator clips.
Record the ammeter reading. (This tells you

how much current passes through the object.)
4 Test each of the other objects.
Record the results in your data table.
5 Is your skin a conductor or an insulator? Does it
make any difference if your skin is wet or dry?
Discussion
1 Which materials are good conductors of
electricity? How do you know?
2 Which materials are poor conductors
(insulators)?
3 Use the ammeter readings to decide which one
of the materials is the best conductor.
4 Why is it that some materials did not cause
the bulb to glow, yet gave a reading on the
ammeter?
5 Is air a conductor or an insulator? How do you
know?
6 How could you test whether water is a
conductor or an insulator?
Conclusion
How are the materials that conduct electricity
similar? Write a generalisation about the types
of materials that conduct and do not conduct
electricity.
237
2 38
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Conductors and insulators
All metals are conductors, while most non-metals
are insulators.
Conductors
Insulators
carbon
plastic
salt water
glass
acids
cloth
silver
paper
copper
wood
gold
rubber
aluminium
air
Insulators are very important in the supply and

use of electricity. The poles that carry electricity
from power stations to cities need insulators to
stop electricity from escaping to the ground (Fig
23 on the next page). The handles of screwdrivers
and pliers are often coated with plastic insulation.
The casings of electric plugs, sockets and switches
are all made from plastic.
How can you explain the difference between

conductors and insulators? An electric current is
a flow of electrons. So a conductor is a material
through which electrons can flow.
A metal consists of an arrangement of positive
nuclei in a sea of electrons. These electrons are
not strongly attracted to any one nucleus. So,
when the metal is connected to a battery, the
electrons can move easily through the metal to
produce a current.
In an insulator the electrons are held tightly by
the positive charges. Because of this, the electrons
cannot move, and no electric current can flow
when the insulator is connected to a battery.
If you charge an insulator such as a plastic
rod by rubbing, the charge stays on the surface
of the insulator. But the insulator slowly loses
its charge to the air, especially in wet or humid
weather. The charge is also lost quickly if you
touch the insulator with your hand. This process
allows the charge to flow to the ground, and is
called earthing. You cannot charge a conductor by
rubbing. Any charge you produce flows through
the conductor to the ground immediately.
Conductor
Insulator
no
current
flows
current
flows
electrons held only loosely
by positive nuclei
electrons held tightly

by positive nuclei
Note: Good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat (see page 134).
heating
element
fan
ON
F
OF
Fig 24
Fig 23
The insulators on power lines are made of

glass or porcelain. The conducting wires are
made of aluminium and steel.
In electric power lines there is always loss of

energy due to the resistance of the metal in the
wires. For this reason, scientists are trying to
make cheap superconductors, which offer no
resistance to the flow of electricity. The use of
such materials would save billions of dollars.
Superconductors could also be used in the
maglev trains now being developed. These trains
float above the tracks supported by the noncontact forces between large electromagnets.
Fig 25
Resistance
When an electric current moves through a
conductor, there is always some electrical
resistance to the current. This is because of the
attraction of the electrons to the positive nuclei
of the atoms in the conductor. This attraction is
greater in some conductors than in others, giving
them a greater electrical resistance.
As the electrons are pushed through a
conductor they lose some of their energy as
heat. This waste heat can be a nuisance; for
example, computers get hot when used. However
the waste heat is sometimes useful. For example,
because nichrome wire has a fairly high resistance,
it is used to make the heating elements in many
electrical appliances used around the home. It is
usually coiled to take up less space. The filament
of a light bulb is made from very thin tungsten
wire. When a current is passed through it, the
wire becomes so hot that it gives off a brilliant
white light.
This hair drier contains a nichrome

wire heating element.
The chilled superconductor (bottom) is

acting like a magnet. It repels the magnet
(top), making it hover in the air above the
superconductor.
239
2 40
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1

a A path for electricity is called a ______.
b A ______ lets you open and close a
circuit.
c Moving electrons in a wire are called an
electric ______.
d An ______ is an instrument used to
measure electric current.
e The unit for electric current is the ______.
f ______ is a measure of the energy given
to the electrons in a circuit.
g Substances that do not allow an electric
current to flow through them are called
______.
h Metals are ______ because they allow an
electric current to pass through them.
i Opposition to the flow of current in a
circuit is called ______.
j If the resistance in a circuit is increased
the current ______.
Lisa connected a bulb to a battery. The wires

were connected properly, but the bulb
did not glow. What could be wrong (two
possibilities)?
Explain in your own words the difference

between an insulator and a conductor of
electricity.
Why are electrical connecting wires covered

with plastic?
This ammeter measures current in two

different ranges: 0 to 1 amp and 0 to
10 amp.
4
2
In which of these circuits will the bulb glow?

For the other circuits, explain why the bulb
wont glow.
b
9
A
B
Which battery can supply the most energy

to electrons in a circuit: 1.5 volt, 6 volt or
9 volt? Why?
1.0
10
What is the reading if the 010 amp

range (top) is used?
What is the reading if the 01 amp
range (bottom) is used?
Electric current
(amperes)
4H
HB
3B
0.03
0.10
0.70
10
pointer
Type of lead
Into what two forms of energy is electrical

energy changed in a light bulb?
.8
Ngoc tested how well different types

of pencil lead of the same length and
thickness conduct electricity. His results
are shown:
.6
.4
.2
Which type of lead has the greatest

resistance?
Pencil leads contain graphite, which
is a conductor. Which type of pencil
lead would you infer contains the most
graphite?
Why is it safer to wear shoes than to go

barefoot in an electrical storm?
challenge
1 Explainwhythebatteryinatorcheventually
goes flat.
2 When you push down the switch the torch
producesabeamoflight.Explainindetailhow
this happens.
switch
handle
4 A company produces an all-metal electric kettle,

but the government bans its sale. Suggest why it
was banned.
5 Explainwhytheelementinatoasterbecomes
red-hot, while the wires connecting the toaster to
the mains power supply remain cool.
6 One of the things that lie-detectors measure is
skin resistance. Lying is supposed to make you
sweat. How do you think this lie-detector works?
I never done nothin... honest!
reflector
plastic
case
6 volt
battery
+
glass
3 What do you think is the most likely cause of the

following?
a Your radio starts to get quieter and quieter.
Turning up the volume doesnt seem to help
much.
b Your torch is very bright but suddenly goes
out.
c Your CD player stops working, but when you
tap on the case it works again.
t r y t his
7 Why dont the materials that conduct current

electricity hold static electricity?
8 Usingwhatyouknowaboutresistance,explain
why a long wire has more resistance than
a short one, and why a thin wire has more
resistance than a thick one.
2 Make your own switch. Here are some designs.

Try out your switch in a circuit.
1 Find out whether tap-water will conduct an

electric current. Set up the circuit shown, using
a conductivity kit. You could also test rainwater,
distilled water and salt water.
uncoated
paperclip
thumbtack
springy steel
6V
clothes peg
conductivity
kit
thumbtacks
water
241
2 42
ScienceWorld8forNSW

Circuit diagrams
Look at the two circuits on the right. They look
different, but they are actually the same.
If you wanted to tell someone how to set up
this circuit, you might confuse them if you drew
these sketches. Also, drawing diagrams like these
takes time. So electricians have decided on a
simple way to draw electric circuits with a symbol
for each component (part). These symbols are
listed below.
The wires in a circuit are drawn straight and at
right angles. For example, the circuit on the right
can be drawn as shown. This is called a circuit
diagram.
OR
mbols
Electrical sy
circuit diagram
connecting wire
light bulb
Fig 33
You may see the older

symbol for a light bulb
drawn like this:
Series and parallel circuits
battery (The long thin stroke

is positive and the short fat
stroke is negative.)
power pack
(variable power supply)
or
How to draw a circuit diagram
The parts of a circuit can be arranged in two

different ways. Take, for example, two torch
bulbs. They can be connected one after the other
as shown in Fig 34 below. This is called a series
connection. Note that there is only one path for
the electric current to flow, and the current is the
same everywhere in the circuit. As you connect
more bulbs in series, the current decreases, and
the bulbs dont glow as brightly.
resistor
switch open
series circuit
switch closed
ammeter
Fig 34
A series circuit
master switch
Many electrical appliances use several batteries

connected in series. When you put in the
batteries, the positive terminal of one battery
must touch the negative terminal of the next.
For example, a 3 volt toy usually has two 1.5
volt batteries arranged in series as shown in the
cartoon.
parallel circuit
Click...whirrr...who?
What? Hmm... must have
dozed off for a bit.
Fig 36
A parallel circuit
Sometimes it is not easy to tell whether the

components of a circuit are connected in series or
in parallel. However, if you can trace the complete
circuit using one finger, then the components are
connected in series. Those parts of a circuit that
branch and where you have to use more than one
finger are connected in parallel. Note that a circuit
may contain a mixture of series and parallel
connections (Fig 37).
Two bulbs can also be connected side by side.
This is called a parallel connection. Look at
Fig 36. At A the electric current splits and follows
two different paths. The electrons flowing through
each bulb get the full push from the cellthey
dont share it as in a series circuit. As a result,
each bulb glows as brightly as if it was the only
bulb in the circuit. A master switch can be used to
turn off both bulbs together, or separate switches
can be used to turn each bulb off independently.
2
1
3
Fig 37
Bulbs 2 and 3 are in parallel, but they are in

series with bulb 1, the switch and the battery.
In Investigate 25 you can investigate series and

parallel circuits for yourself.
Investigate
25 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Aim
To investigate series and parallel circuits.
Materials
two1.5Vbatteriesandholders(orpowerpack)
3torchbulbsandholders
6connectingwires
ammeterormultimeter

Carefullyreadthroughtheinstructionsfor
the three parts on pages 244 and 245.
Towhichterminalofthebatterydoyou
connect the positive (+) terminal of the
ammeter?
243
2 44
ScienceWorld8forNSW
PART A
Li ght i ng a b ulb
Method
1 Connect up a circuit with a battery, a switch and
one bulb. Close the switch and observe the
brightness of the glow of the bulb.
2 Connect a second bulb
in series with the first
bulb, as shown below.
In which two-bulb circuit do the bulbs glow

more brightly? Suggest a reason for this.
What happens if you unscrew one of the
bulbs in the parallel circuit?
5 Add a third bulb in parallel with the other two.
What happens?
Discussion
1 What is the effect of increasing the number of
bulbs in series in a circuit?
2 If one bulb in a series circuit blows, the others
also go out. Why?
3 Describe the effect of adding more bulbs in
parallel in a circuit.
4 When one bulb in a parallel circuit fails, the
others continue to operate. Why?
5 Parallel circuits are used in the electrical wiring
of a house. Suggest reasons for this.
PART B
Does each bulb glow as brightly as the
singlebulbinStep1?
Unscrew one of the bulbs from its socket.
Record what happens.
3 Repeat Step 2 with three bulbs.
4 Connect up a second circuit with the two bulbs
in parallel, as shown below.
B att er y pr oble m
Research question: Can you make the bulb
glow more brightly by adding a second battery?
Experimenttoindoutwhetheryoushouldadd
the second battery in series or in parallel.
Write a brief report of your findings.
Notes for Part B

1 When connecting batteries in series, you
must connect the positive of one to the
negative of the other, as shown.
+
2 When connecting
batteries in parallel,
you must connect the
positive of one to the
positive of the other.
PART C
U si ng an am m et er
Research question: How can you use an
ammeter to find out whether the current is the
same in all parts of a series and parallel circuit?
Discuss the research question in a group and
designanexperiment.Checkitwithyourteacher
before you start.
Dont forget to connect the positive terminal of the
ammeter to the positive terminal of the battery or
power pack, as in the circuit on the right.
Write a report of what you find.
Check!
2
1
Copy and complete the sentences below by

selecting the correct words to describe the
circuit below.
a In this circuit the electricity has ______
(one / two) paths to follow.
b This circuit is ______ (open / closed).
c If bulb A went out while the switch was
closed, bulb B would (stay on / go out).
d If more bulbs were added to the circuit,
each bulb would glow ______ (more /
less) brightly.
e If the circuit had only one bulb, it would
glow ______ (more / less) brightly.
f The bulbs are connected in ______
(series / parallel).
Answer these questions about the circuit

below.
a How many paths can the electric current
follow?
b Does the current have to pass through
bulb A for bulb B to glow?
c If bulb B blew would bulb A continue to
glow?
d What would happen if you added a third
bulb in parallel?
A
B
245
2 46
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Write out a list of the equipment needed to

set up circuit A. Do the same for circuit B.
What voltages are being used in these two

electrical appliances?
Torch
1.5 VOLT
AA SIZE
Battery compartment of radio

top row
1.5 VOLT
D SIZE
Draw a circuit diagram that has:

a two batteries and a bulb in series
b one battery and two bulbs in series
c two batteries in parallel and a bulb in
series
d two batteries in parallel and two bulbs
in series
e a power pack and a string of eight
decorative bulbs in parallel
Draw a circuit using two batteries and two

bulbs that makes the bulbs glow most
brightly.
In the circuit diagram below, what happens

to each of the bulbs A, B and C when you:
a close switch 1?
b then close switch 2?
c then open switch 3?
Draw a circuit diagram for each of the

following.
bottom row
connecting wires
3
A
2
1
Give two reasons why lights in parallel are

better than lights in series.
challenge
1 Draw a circuit diagram with a battery, three
lights and three switches so that each switch
turns on only one light. Where would you place a
fourth switch that could switch all three lights on
and off (that is, a master switch)?
2 Consider the two circuits below. The resistor in
the circuit is a piece of nichrome wire like that
used in jug elements. If the nichrome wire has
a greater resistance than a light bulb, which of
the three identical bulbs (A, B or C) will have the
dimmestglow?Explainyouranswer.
247
4 How is adding an ammeter (very low resistance)

to a circuit different from adding a light bulb or
electric motor?
5 Suppose the latest portable CD player is wired
with superconducting material. Would the batteries
last a longer or a shorter time than in a normal CD
player?Explainyouranswer.
6 Below is the circuit diagram for a caravan.
6
5
3 The bulbs in this circuit are both dimly lit when

the switches are open. Predict what will happen
when:
a switch1isclosed(twothings)
b switch 2 is closed as well.
a Which switches do you need to close so that

only one light stays on?
b Whichlightsareonwhenswitches1,4and
6 only are closed?
c Are lights A and B in series or in parallel with
each other?
7 Howwouldyouconnectsix1.5volttorchcells
to give a voltage of:
a 9 volts?
b 6 volts?
c 4.5 volts?
Drawcircuitdiagrams.Youmustuseallsixcells.
(Hint:Two1.5voltcellsinparallelhaveatotal
voltageof1.5volts.)
8 Design a circuit with one battery, four switches
and a bulb so that the light comes on when any
one of the switches is closed. Draw a circuit
diagram. (This circuit could be used to light the
inside of a car with four doors. Opening a door
closes a switch.)
2 48
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Experiment
YOUR INVENTION
Aim
To use what you have learnt in this chapter to
invent a useful electrical device.
as well as your successes. Other students may

be able to suggest ways of improving your
design. (If your invention is good enough you
may be able to enter it in a science contest.)
Method
1 Studythetwoinventionsontheright.Explainto
Traffic lights
another student how one of them works. Your

partnerwillexplaintoyouhowtheotherone
works. You could also have another look at the
mousetrap on page 227.
2 Use your imagination to design your own

invention, or use the ideas below.
abatterytester
acircuitwhereyoucanswitchalightonin
one place and turn it off somewhere else
aburglaralarmwhereabellrings,alight
flashes or a trapdoor opens to catch the
burglar
a model house in which you can turn the

lights on and off independently
an alarm to warn you of strong wind
a device to warn you when a water tank is

about to overflow
an alarm clock using a candle
an electric maze
a way of dimming a light (Hint: A long wire

has more resistance than a short one.)
a pinball machine (Hint: A rolling metal ball

could be used to close a switch.)
3 Draw a sketch of your design before you start.

Try to draw a circuit diagram too.
red
amber
green
3-way
switch
Wiper glasses
electric
motor
wires to battery
and switch on belt
copper
wire
4 Make a list of the things you will need to make

your invention.
5 Check your design with your teacher, then go
ahead and make it. (You may be able to work
on your invention at home.)
6 Prepare a report of your invention for the rest of
the class. Make sure you report any problems,
cotton
ball
L-shaped
aluminium

ammeter
1 Objects can be given an electric ______ by rubbing. Gaining
charge
attract
electrons makes an object negatively charged, and losing

electrons makes it positively charged.
circuit
conductors
2 Like charges ______ each other, while unlike charges ______ each
electrons
other.
energy
3 Electric current will flow only if it has a continuous path or ______.
insulators
4 Electric current is a flow of ______. It is measured in amperes,
parallel
using an ______.
repel
voltage
5 Batteries supply the ______ to push electrons around a circuit.

______ is a measure of how much energy can be given to the
moving electrons in a circuit. It is measured in volts.
6 ______ offer little resistance to the flow of electricity. ______ offer a

great deal of resistance.
7 A series circuit has only one conducting path for electrons, whereas a
______ circuit has two or more alternative paths.
REVIEW
1 What happens to two charged rods held near

each other if they have:
a the same charge?
b opposite charges?
2 What charge is left on a material if it has been
rubbed and:
a loses electrons?
b gains electrons?
3 Which of the following are conductors and
which are insulators?
a copper
b plastic
c steel
d air
e wood
f salt water
4 Look at the diagrams below.

a Which is the correct way to put two
batteries in a torch?
b Are the batteries connected in series or in
parallel?
249
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2 50
REVIEW
5 Consider the circuits below.
Work with a partner. From the two circuits below,

select the one you are going to set up. Your
partner (or your teacher) will mark you on your
performance.
a What will the brightness of the bulbs in

circuit B be like compared with the bulb in
circuit A? Why?
b How bright will the bulbs in circuit C be
compared with the bulb in circuit A? Why?
c Without changing the number of bulbs,
how could you make the brightness of the
bulbs in circuit B the same as the bulb in
circuit A? Draw a diagram of the new
circuit.
6 Consider the circuit below.
First write down a list of the equipment that you will

need to set up the circuit. Then set up the equipment
correctly and promptly.
How to score
List of equipment:
A chose the equipment perfectly
B left out a small item, like a connecting wire
C left out a major item, such as a bulb or a battery
D was not sure of the equipment needed
Setting up the equipment:

A set up the circuit correctly and promptly
1
When switch 1 is closed and switch 2 is open:

A none of the bulbs lights up
B only bulb A lights up
C bulb A and bulb B light up
D all the bulbs light up
7 Explain why you sometimes get an electric

shock when you walk on a nylon carpet and
then touch something made of metal.
B set up the circuit correctly, but took quite a while to

do it
C set up the circuit promptly, but with a slight error in it
D set up the circuit slowly, but with a slight error in it
E was not sure how to set up the circuit.
Dismantle the circuit. Now swap roles, so that this time
you mark the performance of your partner setting up the
other circuit. (Dont forget to return all equipment.)
8 Design a circuit with a cell, a switch and a bulb,

so that the light goes off when the switch is
closed.
Learning focus: Developments in science have
led to the development of new technologies
FOCU
PRESCRIBED
S AREA
Conducting plastics
On page 238 you learnt that plastics are
insulatorsthey dont usually conduct electricity.
However, in the mid-1970s three scientists
discovered a plastic that was somewhere between
an insulator and a conductor.
A Japanese scientist, Hideki Shirakawa, was
trying to make a plastic called polyacetylene. By
accident he added 100 times as much catalyst as
he intended, and a shiny metallic-looking film
appeared on the inside of his reaction vessel.
At about the same time two other scientists,
Alan MacDiarmid and Alan Heeger, were
experimenting with metallic films at the University
of Pennsylvania in the United States. MacDiarmid
and Shirakawa met by chance during a coffeebreak at a seminar in Tokyo. When MacDiarmid
heard about Shirakawas accidental discovery he
invited him to work with him in his laboratory in
the US.
MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa did many
experiments and found that if they exposed the
polyacetylene to bromine vapour its electrical
conductivity increased by a factor of 10 million!
They immediately published their discovery of a
conducting plastic, and in 2000 they were jointly
awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
In 1990 another group of scientists in
England developed a conducting plastic which
gave off light when sandwiched between two
electrodes with electricity flowing between
them. Scientists say that it wont be long before
ultra-thin television screens using this new
plastic are available, as well as luminous traffic
and information signs. Perhaps light-emitting
wallpaper for our homes will also become a
reality.
Conducting plastics can also be used to make
solar cells in a continuous roll. These are cheaper
and more versatile than the present silicon-based
solar cells. The solar cell plastic can also be made
into fabric to make clothes which can convert
light into electricity to run devices such as iPods.
The electronic reader being used by the student on

the right is produced by Plastic Logic. It is the size of
a sheet of paper and about 1 cm thick. It can store
thousands of documents and save you carrying around
heavy books and notes.
Other applications of conducting plastics that

are availabe are:
rechargeable plastic batteries for use in
portable electronic equipment such as Apples
iPhone, and in hybrid electric cars
windows that you can darken during the day
by passing a small electric current through
them
antistatic material for use in offices and
operating theatres, where it is important to
avoid a build-up of static electricity (see page
233).
Questions
1 What is the important development in science
described on this page?
2 What new technologies have been developed
as a result of this development in science?
3 Which of these technologies do you think has
the most potential for the future? Explain your
answer.
251
11
Livingsystems
Planning page
Getting started
Activity page 254

Activities page 255
Investigate 26
Colour adaptations
Investigate 27
Physical factors in water
Investigate 28
Water loss in plants
11.1 Survival
page 254
Animation
Natural selection

page 262
Assessment task 11
Sampling the environment
TRB
Main ideas
Chapter 11 crossword
Review
Learning focus:
Why different groups
and cultures may have
different views in relation
to scientific issues
Chapter 11 test

Murray River crisis
TRB
Chapter11 Livingsystems
r you wil
In this chapte
l learn abou
LearningFocus
why different groups or cultures may have different views in relation to scientific issues
(pages 259 and 275)
ecosystems
Skills
gathering first-hand information (Activities page 255 and Investigate 26)

gathering information from secondary sources and processing it (pages 268 and 271272)
thinking criticallypredicting, using models and using cause and effect (Investigate 27
and 28)
working in teams and presenting information (Activity page 254, Investigate 26 and pages
271272)
The four photos on this page and the

previous page show a number of
different Australian environments.
For each photo think of some of the
living things that might live in the
environment.
Make a list of the characteristics that
the animals and plants would need
to be able to survive in each type of
environment.
253
2 54
ScienceWorld8forNSW
marinethemes.com/David Fleetham
11.1 Survival
In previous studies you learnt that an ecosystem
is the system of relationships between the living
things and their interactions with the non-living
things.
The survival of an organism in an ecosystem
depends on living as well as non-living factors.
For example, the survival of an organism not only
depends on its ability to get food and be protected
from predators, competitors and disease-causing
organisms, but also on the supply of water
and air, a suitable temperature and weather
conditions, and good soil.
The biological factors in an ecosystem
describe all the living things that interact with an
organismits food, predators, competitors and
disease organisms.
The non-living or physical factors include
temperature, light, humidity, the availability of
air and water, and soil fertility. These factors
are extremely important for the survival of
any organism. For example, microscopic algae
(plankton) are found only in the surface waters
of the ocean where there is sufficient light for
photosynthesis.
Activity
Work in a small group for this activity.
Look at the photo of the coral reef
community. Write a brief report on the survival
of an organism on the coral reef using the
following three points as your structure.
1 Choose an organism that lives on the
reef. Make a list of all the biological
factors that will influence its survival. Give
examples if possible.
2 Construct a food web for the organism.
3 Describe the non-living factors that may
affect the survival of your organism. Give
examples.
Check your report and rewrite it if
necessary, so that another group can read it.
Swap your report with another group. Read
their report and assess its good points and
poor points. Make some brief notes.
Give the report back to the group and
discuss your groups opinion of the report.
Adaptations
The survival of an organism also depends on
the characteristics of the organism itself. For
example, the organisms in the photos below live
in quite different habitats, and each organism has
characteristics that enable it to survive in its own
particular habitat.These characteristics are called
adaptations (ADD-ap-TAY-shuns).
Fig 3
Jabiru
Fig 4
For example, the jabiru in Fig 3 lives in

wetland areas of northern Australia. It has very
long legs to enable it to walk through the swampy
areas where it finds food. Its beak is long and
pointed so it can collect snails, worms and fish
from the water and mud. It also has large, strong
wings to help it escape from enemies.
Dolphin
Activities
A Look at the animals in Figs 3, 4 and 5 above. For
each animal, list all the physical and biological factors
that may affect its survival in its habitat. Suggest how
the animals adaptations help its survival.
B Your teacher will supply you with three or four
preserved animals (or photos of animals). Work in a
group for this part of the activity.
Use observations and your knowledge of the
animals to make inferences about how well their
characteristics help them survive.
For each animal record your observations about
its size, shape, colour and other characteristics that
you think are important in its survival.
Decide where each animal lives and describe its
habitat. Then infer how the characteristics
help it survive in its habitat.
Fig 5
Kookaburra
255
2 56
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Types of adaptations
The katydid (KAY-tee-did) in the photo above
is similar to grasshoppers. It eats the leaves and
shoots of plants. Birds and carnivorous insects
such as preying mantises feed on katydids.
A katydid has a number of adaptations that
ensure its survival. Its body is sideways flattened
and is leaf-green in colour. This helps to
camouflage it amongst plants. It also quivers,
making it appear like a leaf moving in the wind.

It has very keen eyesight and long, strong legs
that help it escape quickly when threatened by
predators. The katydid lays a very large number
of eggs in the soil.
For convenience, we can classify adaptations
into three groupsstructural, functional and
behavioural.
Structural adaptations refer to the shape and
size of the organism and how the various parts
of its body are put together; for example, the
katydids flattened body, its colour, and the shape
and size of its legs.
Functional adaptations refer to the working
of an organisms body; for example, the katydids
egg-laying ability and the way it can digest plant
leaves and shoots are functional adaptations.
Behavioural adaptations are to do with how
the organism behaves; for example, the quivering
of the katydid mimics the movement of leaves and
makes it hard to see in the bushes.
Investigate
26 COLOUR ADAPTATIONS
Aim
Method
To use a model to explain the effect of colour on

the survival of organisms in different habitats.
1 Measureouta3mx3mareaonyour
selectedsurface.Markthecornersofthe
squarewithpiecesofpaper,sticksorrocks.
Youcouldmarktheareawithstringifyouhave
some.
Materials
60colouredtoothpicks,plasticdisksorbeads
(20green,20redand20yellow)

Workingroupsofthree.Onememberwill
bethescatterer,theothertwowillbethe
predators.
CarefullyreadthroughtheMethodand
prepare data tables for Steps 3 and 4.
Youwillneedtodothisexperimentonat
leasttwodifferentsurfacesorhabitats;
forexample,grass,dirt,sand,concrete,
carpet or leaf litter.
3m
3m
2 Askthepredatorsnottolook,thenscatterthe
toothpicksrandomlyoverthemarkedarea.
3 Givethepredators15secondstoindasmany
toothpicksastheycan.
Countthenumbersofeachcolourof
toothpickfoundandrecordthedata.
4 CollectallthetoothpicksthenrepeatSteps1to3
using other surfaces.
Recordtheresultsinyourdatatable.
Discussion
1 For each colour calculate the survival rate as a
percentageoftheoriginal20.
% survival rate =
number remaining
x 100
20
2 Drawabargraphofthepercentagesurvival
rates for the three different colours.
3 Comparethesurvivalratesforthedifferent
surfaces.Suggestwhytheyaredifferent.
Natural selection
In the last Investigate you probably found that
of the three colours of toothpicks, the green ones
were the most difficult to find on grass, while the
yellow or red ones were easily seen and picked
up by the predators. As a result, the green
toothpicks had a higher survival rate on grass.
In any population of organisms there are
variations among the individuals. For example,
in a population of field mice, you might see
dark-coloured ones and light-coloured ones,
short ones and long ones, ones with larger ears
and ones with shorter ears.
In the toothpick model, there were colour
variations in the toothpick population. When
equal numbers were placed on grass, more of the
green coloured toothpicks survived than either of
the other colours. In this case, biological factors
(the predators) caused a change in the make-up
of the population. The green toothpicks had the
most favourable characteristics for a grass habitat
and are said to be selected.
4 Compareyoursurvivalrateswiththoseofother
groups.Yourteachermayorganiseaclass
discussion.
5 Supposethethreedifferentcolouredtoothpicks
werepartofalargetoothpickpopulation
inaparticularhabitat.Assumethesame
predatorswerepresent.Predictwhatmight
happentothetoothpickpopulationinthearea
overaperiodoftime.Givereasonsforyour
prediction.
6 Doyouthinkyourmodelwasagoodone?
Suggestwaysinwhichyoucouldimproveit.
7 Usingtheresultsofyourmodel,writea
generalisation about the effect of camouflage
(colour)onthesurvivaloforganismsina
particular habitat.
8 Youmayhaveheardofthetermselection or
natural selection.Useyourgeneralisationfrom
Question 7 to suggest a meaning for this term.
In a natural ecosystem, this selection of

favourable characteristics is called natural
selection. The organisms in a population
that have favourable characteristics survive
in a particular habitat, breed and pass their
characteristics on to their offspring.
Fig 9
In a population of field mice you often see

variations in colour, size and shape.
257
2 58
ScienceWorld8forNSW
What happens if the conditions change?
Suppose there is a drought and the grass in our
model dies, leaving bits of dead grass and
sand-coloured soil. The green toothpicks will now
be more easily seen by the predators than the
yellow ones. Under these conditions the yellow
toothpicks have a higher survival rate than the
a population of
organisms
biological
factors
green ones. The yellow toothpicks are better

adapted to this habitat, and after some time the
make-up of this population will be different from
the toothpick population on the green grass.
To see what happens to a population of
organisms when factors change, open the
Natural selection animation on the CD.
Organisms with
favourable
characteristics
survive.
Organisms breed and

pass favourable characteristics
to their offspring.
environmental
changes
physical
factors
Fig 10
How natural selection works.
science bits
Adapted to fire
During a hot, dry summer the chance of bushfires
anywhere throughout Australia is quite high.
Bushfires destroy houses and other property and
burn out hectares of bush. The fires also kill
animals which cannot escape from the flames.
However, fire is part of the Australian
environment and many native plants are firetolerant. Some even need fire for their survival.
For example, the seeds of some wattles need the
heat from fires to germinate, and the thick woody
Banksia fruit (shown in the photo) open and
release their seeds only when heated by fire.
Many eucalypts have very thick, fire-resistant
bark that protects the living cells inside the trunk
from damage. The old leaves that are destroyed by
the fire are quickly replaced by new shoots. In this
way the eucalypt recovers from the fire damage
while other types of plants are killed. Eucalypts

are adapted to fire and this helps in their survival.
One species of eucalypt called the candlebark
gum even spreads fires. Pieces of burning bark
break off the trunk and are carried by the wind to
start fires a long way away from the original trees.
TheRiverRedGum
ecosystem
For thousands of years large forests of
the River Red Gum have flourished along
the Murray River and other large rivers
that flow into it. However, over the last
200 years huge changes have occurred to
these forests.
The Murray River floodplain

The River Red Gums are well-adapted
for the floods that once occurred regularly
along the Murray. Under natural
conditions, the river flooded every 1.7
years for about two to three months, as the
snow melted in the Snowy Mountains.
The floodwaters carry fertile soil, and
branches and leaves from dead trees, which
are caught around the roots of the trees.
Over thousands of years, soil rich in
nutrients has built up the floodplain.
The River Red gum ecosystem

A River Red Gum forest can produce 250 million
seeds per hectare! Most seeds fall in spring and
early summer when the floods naturally recede,
and the seeds germinate in the warm moist soil
during summer.
The seeds create food for ants and other
insects as well as some birds. The flowers attract
nectar-eating birds, insects and possums. These
herbivorous animals attract echidnas, goshawks
and water rats.
Human impact
Farms established along the Murray river systems
required a dependable water supply for crops. To
regulate the water flow, over 100 dams and weirs
have been built along the rivers. As a result, the
following changes have occurred to the natual
cycle:
flooding now occurs only every 10 years
flooding lasts for several days only instead of
several months
the total volume of water has been reduced.
Questions
Use the information on this page and from the
websites below to complete the following.
1 Draw a food web for the organisms in the
River Red Gum ecosystem.
2 Describe how the River Red Gum is well
adapted for life on the floodplain.
3 What physical factors have changed since
agriculture was established on the Murray
River?
< WEB watch >

River Red Gum
Click on the Redgum Forests icon and download
the fact sheet, which contains information on the
Redgum Forests, water management and timber
production.
River Red Gum Forests
This website contains very good information
about the human impact on the River Red Gum
ecosystem.
259
2 60
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Check!
1
Classify the following statements according

to whether they refer to structural,
functional or behavioural characteristics.
a Frill-necked lizards raise the large spiny
layer of skin behind their head when
they are threatened.
b Sharks have a very streamlined shape.
c Sea turtles lay up to one hundred eggs
in the breeding season.
d When sea turtle eggs hatch, the young
turtles dig through the sand and head
directly for the water.
e Many plants that live on the rainforest
floor have very large leaves.
f Fungi release enzymes that are able to
break down the dead organism they are
growing on.
g The large front legs of a preying mantis
have spines on them.
Certain plants have prickles or thorns on

them.
a What is the advantage to the plant of
having these structures?
b Name three plants that have these
structures.
Look at the three types of birds feet in the

diagram below.
a Describe the habitat in which each bird
might live.
b How does the structure of its feet help
the survival of each bird in its habitat?
The diagram below shows four types of

birds beaks. Three of them belong to the
birds in Question 3. Can you match them?
Give reasons for your choice.
The sugar glider is a small possum-like

animal that lives in eucalypt forests. At night
it feeds on the nectar in the flowers in the
forest canopy. It has a thin layer of skin that
stretches from its front legs to its back legs.
Suggest a reason for the skin between

the sugar gliders legs.
Suppose the animal did not have the
skin between its legs. What problems
would the animal then have to face?
Suggest why the animal feeds at night.
Explain the process of natural selection in

your own words. Infer what might happen
in the long term to a population of a
particular type of animal whose individuals
looked, functioned and behaved identically.
challenge
1 Acertaintypeofmothcalledthepepperedmoth
hastwomainvariationsalightformandadark
form.
dark form
3 Thebodytemperatureofbirdsandmammalsis
fairlyconstantandchangesverylittleevenwhen
thesurroundingtemperaturechangesgreatly.
Otheranimalshavebodytemperaturesthat
changewiththesurroundingtemperature.
a Suggestwhyaconstantbodytemperature
might be an advantage for the survival of a
particular animal.
b Whichtypeofadaptationisaconstantbody
temperature?Explainyouranswer.
c Explainthefollowingobservations.
Snakes,frogsandinsectsarerarelyfound
inplaceswithsnowandice.
Snakesareveryslow-movingoncold
mornings.
FishcanexistintheArcticandAntarctic
regions.
4 Thediagrambelowshowsthedistributionof
threetypesofplants.Usetheinformationinthe
diagramtodecide,givingreasons,whetherthe
statements are true or false.
light form
Fig 16
The light and dark forms of the peppered

moth on a lichen-covered tree
Duringtheday,thelightformrestson
light-colouredtreesandrocks,whilethedark
formrestsincavitiesintreesandrocksand
in caves.
a Whatdoyouthinkwouldbethemain
predatorsofthepepperedmoth?
b Suggestwhythemothsrestduringtheday.
Whichtypeofadaptationisthis?
c Inanexperiment,studentscaughtand
countedthemothsinaparticularplace.Over
threenights,theycaught15light-coloured
mothsand46dark-colouredones.Writean
inference to explain their results.
2 Thedrainsinatownweresprayedfor
mosquitoesusingapesticidecalledBBB.
Aftertheirstspraying,mostofthemosquitoes
died.Thepesticidewasusedagainstthe
mosquitoesforthenextiveyears.However,the
numberofmosquitoeskilleddecreasedeach
year.Afterthetenthyearofspraying,veryfew
mosquitoeswerebeingkilledbyBBB.
a Suggestwhynotallthemosquitoesdied
aftertheirstsprayingwithBBB.
b Couldthisbecallednaturalselection?
Explainyouranswer.
ferns
swampy area
eucalyptus A
rich loamy soil
eucalyptus B
sandy soil
a Eucalyptustreesdieinwater-loggedsoil.
b Thedistributionoffernsdependsonlyonthe
typeofsoil.
c EucalyptusBisadaptedtodifferentsoil
types.
261
ScienceWorld8forNSW

Animals and plants that live in aquatic ecosystems
need characteristics different from those that live
on land. Lets look at the physical factors that
affect the survival of organisms that live in water
and on land.
Living in water
Of all the physical factors in the environment,
water is one of the most important for the
survival of organisms. Aquatic organisms are
not faced with having to find water, but there
are other physical factors which do affect their
survival. These factors include:
the amounts of dissolved gases in the water
water temperature
intensity of light
currents and waves
the buoyancy effect of water.
Light
The availability of light is very important for
plants and algae. These organisms use light to
make their food by photosynthesis. You might
think that light passes freely through water.
However, some light is absorbed by water, and in
deep water very little light is available.
Light penetration of water can also be reduced
by the amount of material dissolved or suspended
in it. For example, suspended materials such as
silt cause a cloudiness in water, and very few
plants can grow in water in this condition.
0
Organisms that photosynthesise
live near the surface.
50
Depth of water (m)
2 62
100
150
200
darknessno light
Dissolved gases and water temperature

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the two gases
essential for living things. Every living cell needs
oxygen for respiration. Carbon dioxide is needed
by organisms that photosynthesise.
How do aquatic organisms obtain oxygen and
carbon dioxide? Oxygen and carbon dioxide are
both soluble in water, and there are two main
ways in which these gases get into the water.
Firstly, the gases dissolve in the water where the
air touches it at the surface. Secondly, oxygen
is produced by aquatic plants and algae during
photosynthesis, and carbon dioxide is produced
during respiration by all organisms.
These gases, however, are not as readily
available to aquatic organisms as they are to
land organisms. The danger faced by aquatic
organisms is that the amount of dissolved
gas decreases with a rise in the temperature.
Therefore, small bodies of water such as ponds or
rock pools which tend to heat up quickly contain

smaller amounts of dissolved gases.
The solubility of oxygen in water at
various temperatures
Currents and waves
Organisms that live in fast-flowing
streams or on the rocky shore have to
avoid being washed away. Many use
mucus or a cement to attach to solid
objects like rocks. Some use claws or
hooks to hold on to rocks, branches or
the submerged roots of trees.
In the ocean, waves help to increase
the amount of dissolved gases in the
water. When waves crash over rocks the
water traps bubbles of air, thus allowing
more oxygen to dissolve in the water. In
creeks and rivers, waterfalls and rapids
churn up the water and allow more of
the gases in the air to dissolve.
barnacle
Fig 20
chiton
Rocky shore animals have adaptations for attaching to

rocks. Chitons are flattened, and use mucus and a strong
muscular foot, while barnacles use a limestone cement.
Buoyancy effect of water

Have you ever wondered why you feel almost
weightless when you go swimming? The reason is
the buoyancy effect of waterthe upwards force
experienced by objects placed in water.
If you suspend a large rock from a spring
balance and lower the rock into a bucket of water,
you will find the the water will make the rock
considerably lighter than it is in air.
Fig 21
Whales can be crushed by their own weight

when stranded on the beach.
Aquatic animals, particularly those that live in

the ocean, are adapted to the buoyancy effect of
water. The skeleton or exoskeleton that supports
the body of an animal in water would not support
its extra weight if it lived on land. This is why
some large animals such as whales can be crushed
by their own weight when stranded on the beach.
The buoyancy effect of water also supports
organisms such as jellyfish that dont have
skeletons. They can float around in the water but
their weight on land tends to flatten them.
263
2 64
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Investigate
27 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN WATER

Aim
Toinvestigatethephysicalfactorsthataffectlifein
aquaticecosystems.

Youcandothethreepartsofthis
investigationinanyorder.Foreachpart,
readthroughtheMethodandmakealist
ofthematerialsyouneed.Selectthe
materialsforeachpartinturnfromyour
equipmentstoreortrolley.
Foreachpart,makealistofthesafety
precautionsyouwillneedtotake.
Preparedatatableswhereappropriate.
Teacher note: Fill a few buckets with tap water

at least three days before use. This will be
enough water for the whole class.
Materials
aquariumorlargeglassjar(sharewithclass)
methylenebluesolution
oxygen-removingsolution(50g/Lsodium
dithionite/hydrosulfite,freshlyprepared)
Toxic
pieceofstring(about30cmlong)
smallroundballoon
springbalance(newtons)
stirringrod
thermometer
2smallplastictakeawaycontainers
250mLbeaker
250mLofine,drysand
400mLjarwithscrewlid(orsoftdrinkbottle)
heatlamp(optional)
PART A
Te m pe ra tur e
dry sand
water
2 Placebothcontainersinthesunorundera
heatlampfor20minutes.
Measure the temperature near the top of
thesandandthewaterandrecordyourdata.
Discussion
1 Whichshowedthegreatertemperature
changesandorwater?Whywoulditbebest
to use the average of the class results to
answerthis?
2 Whatdotheresultsmeanfororganismsthatlive
inwater,comparedwiththosethatliveonland?
3 Predictwhatwouldhappentothesandand
waterifthesurroundingscooleddown.Check
yourpredictionbyputtingthecontainersina
refrigeratorfor20minutes.
PART B
Dis s olved oxyg en

Method
1 Carefully,withoutstirringupthewater,dipa
beakerintoabucketofwaterthathasbeen
sittingforseveraldays.Takeoutalittlemore
than200mLofwater.
2 Pourtheexcesswaterdownthesinkuntilthe
meniscusisonthe200mLmark.
250
Method
200
1 Pourthesandintoonecontainer.Pouranequal
volumeofwater(atroomtemperature)intothe
other container.
150
Record the initial temperature of the sand

andthewater.
100
50
Make sure there is exactly
200 mL of water.
3 Addthreedropsofmethylenebluetothewater
andstirverygently.
3 Whyistheremoredissolvedoxygenin
mountainstreamsthaninponds?
4 Whyareaeratorsusedinaquariums?
PART C
Buoyan cy
Add 3 drops of
methylene blue.
Stir very gently.
Method
1 Fillaballoonwithwaterandtietheend.Laythe
balloon on the bench and observe its shape.
Drawtheshapeoftheballoon.
250
200
150
100
50
4 Whilestirring,addoxygen-removingsolution
a drop at a time untilthebluecolourjust
disappears.
2 Tieapieceofstringaroundtheneckofthe
balloonandsuspenditinthewaterinan
aquarium.
Howdoesits
shapechange?
Drawit.
Record the number of drops added. This is

ameasureoftheamountofdissolvedoxygenin
thewater.
5 WashoutthebeakerandrepeatSteps1and2.
Thistime,pourthewaterintoajar,screwthelid
onandshakevigorouslyfor10seconds.
3 Suspendarockorothermassfromaspring
balance.Findtheweightoftherockinairand
inwater.
Shake the
water
vigorously for
10 seconds.
6 Pourthewaterbackintothebeakerandrepeat
Steps 3 and 4.
Record the data in a table. Then calculate

thebuoyancyforceontherock.
Discussion
1 Account for the difference in the shape of the
ballooninandoutofwater.
2 Explainwhytheweightoftherockisdifferent
inandoutofwater.
Recordyourresults.
Discussion
1 Explainanydifferenceinthetworesults.
2 Whydidyouusewateroutofthebucketand
notfromthetap?
Is the buoyancy effect in salt water different

from what it is in fresh water?
Discuss this question in a group and design an
experimenttoanswerit.
265
2 66
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Living on land
Land organisms have plenty of air around them
but water is often scarce. For organisms to survive
on land they need:
lungs or other structures for obtaining oxygen
a strong supporting skeleton
methods of obtaining water and avoiding
excess water loss
ways to keep warm in cold weather and cool
in hot weather.
Obtaining oxygen
Most land animals use lungs to obtain oxygen
for respiration. Since the surface of the lungs
has to be kept moist, these organs are internal.
Oxygen first dissolves in the thin watery layer on
the inside surface of the lungs and then passes
through the lung wall and into the body. Without
this water, oxygen would not pass through the
lungs and the organism would suffocate.
Obtaining water and avoiding water loss

Organisms cannot live without water. Aquatic
organisms can easily obtain water, because they
live in it, but for land organisms water is the
factor that can determine their survival.
Most land animals need to drink water to
replace that lost in breathing and urinating and
by evaporation. However, some land animals do
not drink but obtain all their water from the food
they eat.
Land animals generally have a covering over
their bodies to stop water loss by evaporation. For
example, a reptiles skin is waterproof and very
little water can pass through it.
Fig 27
The dusty hopping mouse obtains all its water

from the food it eats.
Water loss in plants

Plants absorb water from the soil through their
roots. The water travels up the stem to the leaves,
where it is used in the process of photosynthesis.
The remaining water is lost from the leaves.
The leaves of plants have tiny openings on
their surfaces which allow gases to enter and
leave the leaf. These openings are called stomates
(STOW-mates). Look at the diagram on the right.
Water evaporates from the moist surfaces of
the cells inside the leaf and passes out of the leaf
through the stomates into the air. The stomates
are able to open and close, and in doing so can
control the loss of water vapour from the leaves.
About 85% of the plants water loss occurs
through the stomates.
The remainder of the plants water loss occurs
when water evaporates from the cells on the
surface of the leaf. This single layer of cells forms

the skin or epidermis on the top and bottom of
the leaf. Many plants have a waxy, waterproof
layer called the cuticle over the epidermis, which
also helps to prevent water loss.
epidermis
epidermis
cuticle (waxy layer over epidermis)
stomate
Investigate
28 WATER LOSS IN PLANTS

Aim
4 Repeat Step 3 for another leaf.
Toinvestigatewaterlossfromplants.
5 Observethepaperforabout15minutes.(While
youarewaiting,goontoPartB.)
Materials
5piecesofdriedcobaltchloridepaper
(2cmx2cm)inasmalljarwithalid
forceps
4piecesofclearpackagingtape
clearnailpolish
microscopeandslide

Carefullyreadthroughthemethodfor
PartA.Makeaverybriefsummaryof
whatyouhavetodo.
Discusswithyourgrouphowyouare
goingtoanswerthequestioninPartB.
6 After15minutes,comparethecolourofthe
paper on each side of the leaves.
Recordyourresults.
Discussion
1 Whyisitimportanttouseforcepsandnotyour
ingerstohandlethecobaltchloridepaper?
2 Onwhichleafsurfacedidthecobaltchloride
paperchangecolourirst?
3 Wouldyouexpectmorewaterlossonahotday
oronacoolerday?Why?
4 Whatresultswouldyouexpectifithadnot
rainedformanydays?
PART A
PART B
1 Useforcepstotakeapieceofbluecobalt
chloridepaperoutofthejar.(Donttouch
thepaperwithyouringers.)Replacethelid
immediately.Putadropofwateronthepaper.
Are there as many stomates on the top side of a

leaf as there are on the underside?
Usethenailpolishtechniquefromtheactivity
onpage87todesignatesttoanswerthe
question.YoucanusePVCwoodworkingglue
insteadofnailpolish,butyouhavetolettheglue
dryovernight.
Method
Recordyourobservations.
2 Takethejarofcobaltchloridepaper,forceps
andpackagingtapeoutsideandindabroadleafed plant in the sun.
3 Use the forceps to place a piece of cobalt
chloride paper on the top side of a leaf. Tape
thepaperinpositionasshownbelow.Dothe
same on the underside of the leaf.
cobalt chloride
paper
clear
packaging tape
Discussion
1 Onwhichleafsurfacedidyouindmore
stomatestoporunderside?Suggestareason
for this.
2 Awaterlilyplanthasstomatesonthetop
surfaceonly.Suggestareasonforthis.
267
2 68
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Desertecosystems
Deserts are very harsh for living things. The two
main factors that affect the survival of organisms
here are the lack of water and the extreme
temperatures. The daytime temperatures can
sometimes be as high as 45C, while the
night-time temperatures can fall well below 0C.
Most animals that live in desert ecosystems are

active at night (nocturnal) and sleep in burrows or
in caves during the day to avoid the heat. Many
animals, like the bilby, do not drink, but obtain
all their water from the food they eat.
Some reptiles can change their skin colour
to regulate their body temperature. A pale skin
reflects the heat, while a darker skin absorbs heat
on cool winter mornings.
Fig 32
Fig 31
In Central Australia, the average annual

rainfall is less than 200 mm, but often no rain
falls for years.
Desert plants have to control their water

loss very carefully. These plants have relatively
few stomates on their leaves, and in many types
of plants the stomates close during the hottest
part of the day. Most stomates are located on
the underside of the leaf, away from the direct
sunlight.
Most desert plants have small, narrow leaves
with a relatively thick waxy coating on them.
And many plants have hairs on the leaf surface
to reduce the sunlight hitting the leaf and thus
evaporating water. The leaves of eucalypts hang
vertically to avoid the direct heat of the sun.
The tough, impermeable skin of reptiles

greatly reduces water loss.
Questions
1 Describe the ways in which desert plants are
adapted for life in the desert ecosystem.
2 Bilbies and native mice are active at night and
sleep during the day. How would you classify
this type of adaptation? Why is it important for
the survival of these animals?
3 List the ways in which animals lose water. Then
suggest how animals that live in the desert
could limit their water loss.
4 The leaves of some desert plants curl into a
tube during the hottest part of the day. Suggest
why this happens.
5 Use the internet to write a brief report about
the life cycle of a native Australian desert plant.
Check!
1
Some of the following statements are false.

Select the false ones and rewrite them to
make them correct.
a Organisms that live in the ocean or in
rivers are called aquatic organisms.
b Temperature, predators and dissolved
oxygen are physical factors in aquatic
environments.
c The buoyancy effect of water supports
organisms without a skeleton, such as
jellyfish.
d Most of the water lost from a plant
occurs by evaporation of water from the
cuticle.
e As the temperature of water increases,
the amount of dissolved gases
increases.
Why dont water plants grow well in creeks

and lakes that contain muddy water?
An animal was found in a very fast-flowing

stream. From the list below, choose the
adaptations it might have.
astreamlinedbody
long,thinlegs
alattenedbodyshape
largeheadandeyes
short,muscularlegs
largegillstoabsorbthesmallamountof
dissolved oxygen
hooksontheendsofitslegs
around,ball-likebodyshape
asmooth,shinybody
Plants that live fully immersed in water

do not have any stomates on their leaves.
Suggest reasons for this adaptation.
The density of sea water is 1.03 g/cm3.

Explain why it is easier to float in sea water
than in fresh water.
List the biological and physical factors that

may affect the survival of a fish in a lake.
How are these different factors from those
that affect the survival of a mouse in a
wheat field?
Suggest why reptiles such as lizards and

snakes are generally better adapted to living
in arid environments than frogs.
Use the oxygen solubility graph on page

262 to answer the following questions
a What does the word solubility mean?
b What is the solute and what is the
solvent?
c How much oxygen can dissolve in 1 L
of water at 15C?
d Kate has an aquarium with 10 L of water
in it at 10C. How much oxygen can this
volume of water hold?
e Kate turned on an aquarium heater and
the water reached 30C. How much
oxygen can dissolve in the water now?
f Kate tested her aquarium water and
found the dissolved oxygen to be
5 mg/L at 25C. However, the tropical
fish require at least 7 mg/L dissolved
oxygen. What could she do to
successfully keep these fish?
Cacti grow in desert ecosystems. They are

very slow-growing plants.
The green part is the stem, which contains

a small number of stomates, and has a very
thick, waxy cuticle. It also stores water for
the plant. The prickles are modified leaves
and contain no stomates. The cells in the
stem contain less chlorophyll than the cells
in most other plants.
a What is the purpose of the waxy
coating?
b Use the information above to explain
how cacti are well adapted to desert life.
c Suggest why cacti are slow growing.
d Some cacti have very deep spreading
roots. Suggest a reason for this.
269
ScienceWorld8forNSW
challenge
1 Smallchildrenoftencollectishandother
aquaticanimalsfromrockpoolsatthebeach.
Iftheseanimalsareplacedinabucketofsea
waterandleftinthesun,theyusuallydieaftera
fewhours.Suggestareasonforthis.
2 Inanexperiment,Joeputaplantin200mLof
waterinaglassandadded5mLofoiltothe
watertostopevaporation.Hethenputthesetup on a balance.
Joeduplicatedtheset-upbutthistimetieda
plasticbagaroundtheplant.Heleftbothplants
in the sun for 4 hours.
d Howdoyouaccountforhisresults?
e Wouldaddingathirdglasswithnoplant
improvehisexperiment?Explain.
f WouldJoesresultsbedifferentwithdifferent
weatherconditions(eghotandwindyinstead
ofcoolandcalm)?
3 Thegraphbelowshowshowtheamountof
dissolvedoxygeninalakeinsummerchanges
withthedepthofwater.
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
2
4
drops
of water
plant
5 mL oil
200 mL
water
5 mL oil
200 mL
water
without
bag
with bag
ThetablebelowshowsJoesresults.Healso
observeddropsofwaterinsidetheplasticbag
at the end of the experiment.
Initial mass (g)
Final mass (g)
without
bag
220
204
with bag
230
230
Plant
a Suggestwhytherewasadifferenceinthe
initialmassesofthetwoplants.
b Accountforthedifferencebetweentheinal
andinitialmassesoftheplantwithoutthe
bag.
c WhydidJoeusetwoplants?
Depth (m)
2 70
8
10
12
14
16
a Writeageneralisationlinkingthedissolved
oxygenandthedepthofwater.
b Whatconcentrationofdissolvedoxygenis
foundatadepthof3m?
c Betweenwhichdepthsistherearapid
changeintheamountofdissolvedoxygenin
thewater?
d Suggest reasons for the greater concentration
ofdissolvedoxygeninthewaterabovea
depth of 8 m.
4 Mostreptilesandamphibians(frogsandtoads)
hideinburrowsduringwinter.Suggestwhyish,
crayishandotheranimalsthatliveinwaterdo
not do this.
5 Usetheparticletheorytotrytoexplain
whygasesdissolvebetterinwateratlower
temperatures.
Problemsinecosystems
When Captain James Cook sailed along the east
coast of Australia in 1770, he wrote in his journal
that this land was a continent of smoke. He was
referring to the numerous bushfires he could see
from his ship.
Before humans came to this land, it seems
that fires, which were started by lightning strikes,
occurred only very occasionally. However,
Aborigines, whose ancestors arrived about 50 000
years ago, used fire for their survival and changed
the natural pattern and timing of fires. This in
turn changed the relationships of the organisms in
certain ecosystems.
Major changes like bushfires, droughts and
floods or large toxic chemical spills have a huge
impact on the organisms in ecosystems.
Your taskimpacts on ecosystems

For each of the three topics, use the ideas to write
a report about one of the natural or humancaused disasters and how it affects the paricular
ecosystem.
What to do
Work in a small group.

Choose a topic and decide what you are
going to write about and how you are going
to structure your report. That is, will you
present your report as an essay-type report, a
PowerPoint presentation, a newspaper-type
article, a poster and oral presentation, a video
presentation etc.
You are not limited by the ideas under each of
the topics or the order in which they appear.
You can include other information as well.
You can use information from past or recent
disasters as well as models or predictions in
your report.
Document your report with the source of your
informationwebsite addresses, book titles
and authors, titles of newspaper articles and
dates etc.
Bushfires
How do bushfires start naturally? What
weather conditions cause bushfires?
Some bushfires are called low-heat fire
s
while others are very intense and destruc
tive.
Why does this occur?
The Aboriginal method of burning actu
ally
protected their environment rather than
destroying it. Explain what this stateme
nt
means.
What changes occur to the populations
of
organisms in an ecosystem as a result
of a
bushfire?
What emergency services are involved
in
fighting bushfires?
What methods are used to reduce the
risk of
bushfires and to reduce the damage caus
ed
by them?
271
2 72
ScienceWorld8forNSW
Droughts and floods
How is a drought defined? Are some

areas in Australia more likely to
experience droughts than others? Why
does this happen?
What is the El Nio effect? Does it
affect the weather in all parts of
Australia? Can it be predicted?
What changes occur to the populations
lt
of organisms in an ecosystem as a resu
of a drought and flood?
ly
Are some areas of Australia more like
Why
rs?
to experience floods than othe
does this happen?
Floods cause huge losses of property,
crops and livestock. However there are
benefits to the environment as a result
of flooding. What are these benefits?
Chemical spills
Damage to ecosystems from oil spills can
occur when oil is transported from the
oil fields to the refineries. Find out whe
re
in Australia oil is drillled and where it
is
transported to.
Give an example of a major oil spill and
document the damage it caused to the
ecosystem. What methods are used to
clean
up oil spills?
Heavy metals are very toxic to most
organisms. What are heavy metals? Give
examples of industrial processes that
produce them. How do heavy metals get
into
natural ecosystems?
The photo shows a fish kill. Why do they
occur? What measures are taken to avo
id fish
kills in Australian waterways and seas?

adaptations
1 An _____ is the system of feeding relationships between the living
buoyancy
things and their interactions with the non-living things.
2 The survival of an organism depends on _____ factors as well as
ecosystem
drying out
functional
physical or non-living factors.
biological
_____ are characteristics that help an organism survive in its

particular living place. They can be classified as structural, _____
or behavioural.
_____ is a process by which those organisms with characteristics
best suited to their environment survive and reproduce.
light
natural selection
oxygen
physical
temperature
5 The _____ factors in an ecosystem include dissolved gases, _____,

humidity and the availability of air and water.
6 The main environmental factors that affect organisms which live in water
are the amount of _____, water temperature, light, currents or waves, and
the _____ effect of water.
7 To live successfully on land organisms must obtain _____ from the air,
and have ways of obtaining water and avoiding _____.
REVIEW
1 For each of the words below, write a sentence

to show that you understand its meaning.
stomates
biological factors
buoyancy
adaptation
2 Which of the following would you class as a
functional adaptation? (There may be more
than one answer.)
A Dolphins have a layer of fat under their skin.
B Dolphins sometimes follow ships.
C Female dolphins give birth to live young and
produce milk on which to feed them.
D A dolphin is able to make many sounds with
its voice box.
E Dolphins have a streamlined shape.
3 Which of the following would you class as a

physical factor in an ecosystem? (There may be
more than one answer.)
A the number of predators in the area
B the availability of light
C the density of trees in the area
D the amounts of nutrients in the soil
4 Which one of these statements is correct?
A The solubility of gases increases as the
temperature of the water increases.
B The shape of a birds beak would be classed
as a structural adaptation.
C Waves and currents usually decrease the
amount of dissolved oxygen in the water.
D An object with a density greater than that of
water will float.
273
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2 74
REVIEW
5 Plants can control water loss in a number of

ways. Which of the following would help a
plant reduce water loss? (There may be more
than one answer.)
A A large number of stomates on both surfaces
of the leaves
B Small, narrow leaves
C A thick cuticle on the leaves
D Stomates that open during the middle of the
day
E A waxy coating over the surface of the
leaves
6 In an experiment similar to the one on colour
adaptation, disks (20 of each colour) were
scattered over an area 3 m by 3 m. The
predators found as many as they could in
10 seconds and the results were tabled.
Colour of disk
blue
green
yellow
red
Number found
20
17
4
8
a Draw a bar graph of the results.

b Infer the type of surroundings over which
the disks were scattered.
c Explain how this experiment can be used as
a model for natural selection.
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
7 The water-holding burrowing frog lives in the

desert regions of central Australia. Suggest
adaptations it might have to help it survive in
this environment.
8 How would you explain to a class of young

science students what the term buoyancy
means? Describe any demonstrations you
would use in your explanation.
9 Read each of the following questions and then
answer them as fully as you can.
a Why do land animals have to have some
sort of skeleton whereas aquatic animals can
survive without one?
b Why does an oil spill kill aquatic animals
and plants?
c Why is natural selection often called
survival of the fittest?
d How do land animals avoid losing water
from their bodies?
10 Kerrie used an oxygen meter to measure
the changes in the dissolved oxygen in her
aquarium at home. The aquarium was next to
a window and contained many water plants,
fish and snails. It was kept at 25C, and had an
aerator (bubbler) fitted to it.
However, during her experiment, the
aerator was accidentally switched off for
8 hours. The graph below shows her results.
a When was the aerator switched off? Explain
your answer.
b What was the highest concentration of
dissolved oxygen in the aquarium? What
was the lowest?
c Why was there a slight fall in the dissolved
oxygen after 6 pm?
d Predict the shape of the graph if no aerator
had been used in the aquarium.
6
5
4
3
2
1
12 noon
6 pm
12 midnight
6 am
12 noon
Time (hours)
US AREA
C
O
F
D
E
B
I
R
C
PRES
QUEENSLAND
Murray River crisis
Bourke
Broken Hill
NEW
SOUTH
WALES
pipeline
Morgan
M
ur
r
n
hla
La c
Mildura
Murrumb
idge
ve
Ri
Adelaide
ivid
i ng
ng
rl i
Da
Moree
at D
SOUTH
AUSTRALIA
e
Riv
Ran
ge
Brisbane
ay
r
The Murray is Australias longest river, and its

basin covers 1 000 000 square kilometres of
Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and
South Australia. Most of its water comes from
the Great Dividing Range in the east, and it then
wanders across the western plains, reaching the
ocean in South Australia. An Aboriginal legend
says its wandering course was formed by a giant
cod thrashing as it tried to escape a hunters spear.
Forty per cent of Australias farms are in the
MurrayDarling basin and they produce a third of
Australias agricultural productionwool, cotton,
wheat, sheep, cattle, dairy products, rice, oil-seed,
wine, fruit and vegetables. The water used to
irrigate these farms is taken from the river. Once
25 000 gigalitres flowed down the river each year,
but today the flow is less than 3000 gigalitres!
Dams and reservoirs have been built to control
the flow of water. This means there is not enough
water in places, and too much in other places.
This has affected plants such as the River Red
Gums (page 259) and animals such as the Murray
CodAustralias largest freshwater fish. In 1991
there was an outbreak of toxic blue-green algae
along 1000 km of the Darling River.
Too much water is being taken out of the
Murray River, and too much pollution is being
put back in. This is a major problem for the city
of Adelaide, which draws its water from the
Murray. Over the last 200 years, 40% of the
natural vegetation has been cleared, and shallowrooted crops, such as wheat and pasture for
livestock, have been planted. This has caused the
underground water to rise, bringing salt to the
surface and causing a major salinity problem.
Obviously the Murray River needs more water,
but where will it come from, if rainfall doesnt
increase? Australia is suffering a long-lasting
drought, perhaps the worst in 1000 years, and
climate change could reduce the flow in the river
even further. The Federal and State governments
are working together to try to solve the problem.
Toowoomba
Dubbo
Gre
Learning focus: Why different groups and

cultures may have different views in relation
to scientific issues
275
er
Riv
Sydney
Griffith
eR
ive
Wagga Wagga
Canberra
Shepparton
VICTORIA
Melbourne
Snowy Mountains Scheme
One obvious solution is to reduce the amounts

of water that farmers are allowed to use for
irrigation. Also, large amounts of water could
be saved by improved irrigation systems, as up
to 85% of water is now lost due to evaporation
and leaks. Perhaps farmers could switch to crops
that use less water. It has even been suggested that
water could be piped from high-rainfall areas into
the MurrayDarling.
Questions
1 How would the following groups differ in
their views on what should be done about the
Murray?
farmers in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation
Area
people living in Adelaide
the Federal and State governments
the Australian Conservation Council
people living in Sydney
2 The Wiradjuri Aboriginal people who live
along the river say, Look after the land and
rivers, and the land and rivers will look after
you. Explain what you think this means. Try
to correctly use the word sustainable in your
answer.
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2 76
Answers to Reviews
the right-hand test tube. The salt that was
dissolved in the water is left behind in the
left-hand test tube.
c The ice-cold water lowers the temperature
inside the right-hand test tube. This causes the
water vapour in the tube to condense back to
liquid water.
If your answer does not agree with the answer given

here, go back to the chapter, and read the relevant
section again. Your answers may be slightly different
from the answers given here. If in doubt, check with
your teacher.
Chapter 1 Mixing and separating

1
Bsee page 7
Dsee page 14
a Watersince it dissolves more of solid B

than the other liquids do
b WaterIf you add water to the mixture of A
and C, only A will dissolve. You can then
separate them by filtration and evaporation.
c A mixture of A and B could be separated using
petrol. Some of A would dissolve, and this
could be recovered by evaporation. However,
this is not a good method, because A doesnt
dissolve very well in petrol.
The fact that a sediment settles out on standing

indicates that some of the fruit juice is in
suspension. However some is also in solution
since the liquid is coloured. And if you don't get
a clear solution on settling then the fruit juice is a
colloid (see page 8). So fruit juice is a solution, a
suspension and possibibly a colloid as well.
There are many possible sentences using these

words. For example:
a Milk is a liquid-in-liquid colloid called an
emulsion (see page 8).
b A concentrated solution contains more solute
than a dilute solution (see page 7).
The ink in a felt pen is a mixture of several

different colours. Different felt pens contain
different ink mixtures, which can be separated
using paper chromatography.
a and b
Cbeaker
To start with, the police would test a sample

of ink from the ransom note. Then they would
test the ink from the felt pens of each of the three
suspects. If they get the same pattern of colours as
in the ransom note, then the owner of this pen is
probably guilty. (It is of course possible that the
note was not written using this particular felt pen,
but with another pen of the same type.)
Bfilter paper
RESIDUE
Ering clamp
Dstand
Afilter funnel
FILTRATE
The mixture should be poured from the beaker

down a stirring rodas shown in Fig 19 on
page 12. The stem of the filter funnel should be
touching the inside of the beaker.
a Distillationsee page 16
b Heating causes the water in the lefthand test
tube to boil. Water vapour travels along the
tube and condenses to form pure water in
Lab review
1
Add water to the mixture and stir. The salt

dissolves but the dirt does not.
Filter the mixture as in Investigate 2 on

pages 1213. The residue on the filter paper is
the dirt, and the filtrate is the salt solution.
Equipment needed:
piece of ilter paper
ilter funnel
stand and ring clamp wash bottle
glass stirring rod
2 beakers
AnswerstoReviews
b The variables to control are:
how big and how dirty each piece of
cloth is
amount of washing powder you use
volume of water you use
temperature of water
method of washing the cloth
how long you wash the cloth
c You are purposely changing the type of
washing powder.
d You will measure the cleanness of the cloth.
Evaporate the salt solution as in Part A of

Investigate 3 on page 15.
Equipment needed:
watch glass
matches
Bunsen burner
metal tongs
heatproof mat
boiling chips
gauze mat
tripod
Chapter 2 Science at work

1
DOne-quarter of the candle burns in 2 hours,

so you can predict that the whole candle will burn
in 4 2 = 8 hours.
AIt is difficult to control how hard you hit (B)

or throw (C) the balls.
a Steel is a metal and conducts electricity.

b Metals conduct electricity, but non-metals
dont conduct electricity.
c You would not expect carbon (a non-metal)
to conduct electricity. You could modify
the hypothesis as follows: Metals conduct
electricity, but most non-metals dont.
C (D is incorrect because the solubility increases

with temperature at a uniform rate. In other
words, the graph is a straight line.)
a about 1 pm
b about 11.30 am and between 12.30 pm and
1.30 pm
c at the top of the high range
d Most probably there were clouds around
12 noon that blocked some of the UVB.
Chapter 3 What are things made of?

1
DBecause the statement says all matter, it is a

generalisation rather than an inference.
See the diagram at the bottom of this page.
There are several examples on page 58 but you

have probably thought of others.
Aluminium (density 2.7 g/cm3) and lead (density

11.3 g/cm3) will both sink in water. And because
their densities are less than the density of mercury
(14 g/cm3), they will float in mercury.
mass of pure gold
a Density of pure gold =
volume of pure gold
b Density of crown
solidification
1500 g
1000 cm3
= 15.0 g/cm3
c Nothe density of the crown is less than
19.3 g/cm3, therefore it is not pure gold.
evaporation
melting
solid
= 19.3 g/cm3
mass of crown
=
volume of crown
=
a Cut a piece of dirty cloth into equal-sized

pieces. Using the same quantities of soap
powder and water, wash one piece of cloth in
Sudso and the others in other types of
washing powders for the same time. Compare
the results. Do the experiment in both hot and
cold water.
1930 g
1000 cm3
liquid
condensation
gas
277
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2 78
Your answer should be something like this:

Shopping bags are normally made of LPDE
plastic. These are cheap but are difficult to
dispose of and at present cannot be recycled.
However, the green shopping bags made of
polypropylene can be reused many times. Plastic
is a synthetic material made from coal. It is
therefore non-renewable. The bags could be
made from paper, a processed material made
from wood, which is renewable. However, paper
bags may not be as strong as plastic ones. Bags
could also be made from cotton canvas. These
are more expensive but can also be reused.
a A particles vibrating or moving very slowly

D particles very close together, almost
touching
G very strong bonds between particles
b C particles moving freely and rapidly
F wide spaces between particles
I very weak bonds between particles
c B particles moving around freely but slowly
E particles fairly close together
H particles held together to some extent
but free to move around
d D particles very close together, almost
touching
e D particles very close together, almost
touching
G very strong bonds between particles
f A
a The particles in gases are much more spread
out than the particles in liquids or solids.
There are fewer particles packed into each
cubic centimetre. Hence gases have lower
densities than liquids or solids.
b When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy
and dont move as quickly. They become
closer together and attract each other more
strongly. As a result the gas condenses to a
liquid.
Chapter 4 Building blocks of life

1
CAll cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and

organelles.
CCells have many and varied shapes.
a chloroplast
b cytoplasm
c
d
e
f
nucleus
cell membrane
cell wall
vacuoles
A 10 objective and a 4 eyepiece lens gives

a total magnifying power of 40. An object
0.05 mm in diameter would appear to be
40 0.05 = 2 mm in diameter.
Kates list should be:

1 eyepiece lens
2 body tube
3 focusing knob
4 objective lens
5 stage
6 stage clips
7 light
a Firstly, the eggs may be eaten by other

animals, and secondly sperm from the male
may not reach the eggs to fertilise them.
b Fewer frogs eggs reach adulthood than
birds because (1) the frogs eggs are fertilised
externally, which means that many eggs may
not be fertilised, and (2) the young tadpoles
are not cared for by the adult frog, so many
young may be eaten by other animals.
A unicellular organism consists of a single cell

which contains all the structures necessary to live
an independent life. On the other hand, a
multicellular organism contains many different
types of cells which work together for the
survival of the organism.
The stomach is an organ because it is made up of

many different types of tissues, eg gland tissue,
muscle tissue and connective tissue. These tissues
contain specialised cells which work together to
digest food.
Tissue A could be found in the lining of the gut

where its function would be to produce mucus
that is slippery and allows the food to move
smoothly through the gut.
The cells of Tissue B could form a flat surface like
paving stones, and this tissue could be found in
the skin.
10 a The pine seed has a wing that allows it to be

carried in the wind.
b The apple has a sweet, edible fruit that is
eaten by animals. The seeds pass through the
gut of the animal and out in its droppings, and
are spread this way.
AnswerstoReviews
c The eucalypt has very small, light seeds
which fall out of the gumnut and are
carried away by the wind.
d The burr seed has spikes which stick
to the fur, hair or feathers of animals.
The animal may pick off the burr some
distance from the plant.
e The paw paw has edible flesh around
its seeds. The seeds are spread in animal
droppings in the same way as apple seeds.
People often say that electrical energy is made

in power stations, but this is not scientifically
correct. According to the law of conservation of
energy, energy cannot be madeyou can only
change it from one form to another. In a power
station you are converting the chemical energy
in coal or the kinetic energy of falling water into
electrical energy.
wood, bagasse and

other renewables
3.7%
Microscope licence test

1
Making a wet-mount slidesee the Activity

on page 81.
Setting up a microscopesee the Skillbuilder

on page 80.
natural
gas
19.6%
CThis is against the law of conservation of

energy (page 117).
AHeat energy is transferred from the hot tea to

the cup.
a B
b C
a The other 95 joules of energy are wasted

as heat energy. This is why the bulb
becomes so hot.
energy
100
b efficiency
=
input energy
coal
41.8%
oil 33.8%
Chapter 5 Energy in our lives

1
hydro-electricity
1.1%
b Coal, oil and natural gas

c 4.8% (hydro-electricity + wood, bagasse and
other renewables)
d Bagasse is the crushed, juiceless remains of
sugar cane left after extracting the sugar. It is
used as a fuel and for making wallboard etc.
10 gravitational potential energy of water in dam
kinetic energy of water in pipe
5 joules 100
100 joules
= 5%
7
gravitational
potential
electrical energy in electrical generator

11 The more efficiently a ball changes its kinetic
energy into elastic potential energy (then back
to kinetic energy), the higher it bounces. To
compare different balls, you could drop them
from the same height onto the same surface and
measure how high they bounce. To make the test
completely fair, the balls would need to be the
same mass and size.
Chapter 6 Investigating heat
KINETIC
HEAT
kinetic energy of spinning turbine
sound
Csee page 139
279
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2 80
a
Warming of a cup of water
25
Temperature (C)
SUN
20
SHADE
x
x
15
a true
b falseconduction is fast in conductors (or
slow in insulators)
c true
d falsethe Sun transfers heat energy to the
Earth by the process of radiation
e falsethe hotter an object is, the more
radiation it emits
f true
g true
According to the particle theory (page 129) the

particles in a hot object move more rapidly than
the particles in a cooler object.
The amount of heat in an object depends on its

mass, its temperature and what it is made of. So
a bucket of water has more heat energy than a
teaspoon of water at the same temperature.
When your hand is

above the candle, heat
rises through the air
by convection. When
your hand is beside
the flame, some heat
travels to your hand by
conduction, but air is a
poor conductor of heat.
The candle is not hot
enough to produce a lot
of radiation.
10
20
30
Time
40
50
60
b The cup of water in the Sun warms up more

rapidly than the cup of water in the shade.
c Same volume of water in each cup
Identical cups
Same initial water temperature
Identical thermometers
d Heat was transferred to the cups by radiation
from the Sun.
e If you painted the cup black it would absorb
more radiation. However, as it warmed up it
would probably lose heat more rapidly than
an ordinary styrofoam cup.
10 Heat flows from warm places to cold places. So
the insulation is to slow down the movement of
heat from warm to cold. It is therefore better to
say to keep the warm in rather than to keep the
cold out.
cold
warm
convection
a Heat travels from the heating element to the

sandwich by radiation.
b Heat cannot travel downwards by convection,
and conduction through the air would be very
slow because air is a poor conductor.
insulation
11 You can base your experiment on Investigate 15

on page 138.
1 Make two model sheep, eg by wrapping wool
around soft drink cans.
2 Wet the wool on one of the cans.
3 Fill both cans with warm water at the same
temperature, and put a thermometer in each.
4 Record the temperature in each can every
minute for 15 minutes.
AnswerstoReviews
b Jupiters solid core is estimated to be
12 800 km in diameter (6400 km 2).
c The thickest layer is the liquid hydrogen layer
which is 41 000 km thick.
d The temperature decreases as the distance
from the centre increases.
5 Plot the results on a graph and decide which

sheep cools more rapidly. This should give
you some idea of whether sheep get colder
when it is raining.
Chapter 8 Building blocks of matter

dry
wool
wet
wool
Chapter 7 Exploring space

1
Csee page 152
a The inner planets and the outer planets.

The inner planets have rocky surfaces and are
relatively small. The outer planets are all
relatively large and consist of gases.
b Pluto is much smaller than any of the outer
planets and its orbit is tilted (see Fig 7 on
page 154). Also it is more like the inner rocky
planets than the outer gas planets.
Dsee page 165
Jupiter and Saturn are gas planets and have no

known solid surface on which a spacecraft could
land. Mercury, on the other hand, has a solid
surface.
a As the distance from the sun increases, a

planets orbital speed decreases.
b BJupiters orbital speed is slower than
that of Venus. It is also further from the sun,
making its orbital path longer.
Bsee pages 165 and 166
Supernovas occur to end the lives of giant, hot

stars. Our sun is only a medium-sized star and
will end its life as a red giant, then a white dwarf.
10 a Jupiter is composed mainly of hydrogen in gas

and liquid states. It also contains some water
and ammonia, with a small rocky core.
BOnly elements, eg the substances copper,

mercury and chlorine, can be seen without a
microscope.
AThere are only 90 elements found naturally,

but they can combine to form many thousands of
different compounds.
CSugar is a compound of carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen.
COnly NO2 has nitrogen and oxygen in the

ratio 1:2. The ratios of nitrogen to oxygen are:
A NO
1:1
B N2O
2:1
C NO2
1:2
D N2O2
2:2 or 1:1
B represents an elementatoms of one type

only. (A represents a mixture of elements and
compounds, C represents a mixture of elements
and D represents a compound.)
Four (three hydrogen and one nitrogen)

although there are only two different types of
atoms.
a 1 and 4
b 2 and 4
c 4because it gives a yellow flame and
produces a purple gas
BThe tests show that the elements hydrogen,

chlorine and zinc are present. The zinc reacted
with the acid, so the acid contains only hydrogen
and chlorine.
10 Your answer should be something like this:

Elements and compounds are substances but
atoms and molecules are invisible particles. A
compound is a substance containing two or more
elements combined together. A molecule is two or
more atoms joined together.
281
ScienceWorld8forNSW
2 82
sources such as the cellophane bag. It is called

an experimental control.
d The volume of water in each beaker, the
volume of starch solution in each piece of
tubing, and the time each was left.
11 The electric current causes the water to decompose

into the elements hydrogen and oxygen (see page
193).
electric current
8
When hydrogen and oxygen are mixed, a lighted
match causes them to combine again. In both
cases a chemical reaction occurs.
lighted match
12 The scientist needs to use chemical reactions to

break the compounds into their elements, as in
Question 11. If she does this, the first
compound will give her equal amounts of
and . The second compound will give
twice as much as .
Chapter 9 Food for life

1
DPhotosynthesis needs the energy from

sunlight, so it stops at night.
Bsee page 203
a
b
c
d
e
Solid wastes (faeces) pass out of the gut through

the anus. Liquid wastes are removed by the
kidneys through the bladder. Gaseous wastes are
removed by the lungs and breathed out through
the trachea. (See pages 219 and 220.)
a The glucose came from the breakdown of

starch by the enzyme in saliva. The glucose
passed through the cellophane tubing and into
the water in beaker 2.
b The aim of the experiment was to test whether
glucose is produced when saliva and starch are
mixed together.
c Beaker 1 was used as a comparison, and to
check that glucose did not come from other
Chapter 10 Electricity
1
a Rods with the same charge repel each other.

b Rods with opposite charges attract each other.
a If a material loses electrons it becomes

positively charged.
b If a material gains electrons it becomes
negatively charged.
3
3the small intestine (see page 209)
1enzymes start digesting starch in the mouth
2the stomach
1the mouth
4the large intestine
a Vessel B contains blood which is being

pumped away from the heart. Therefore,
it would have thicker walls.
b The blood in Chamber 1 would have less
oxygen since the blood has come from the
body and is being pumped to the lungs to
receive more oxygen.
c The blood flows through vessel A into
chamber 1, then into chamber 2. It is pumped
from chamber 2 to the lungs in vessel B. It
then returns from the lungs to chamber 3 in
vessel C, and finally is pumped from chamber
4 to the body in vessel D.
Conductors
Insulators
copper
steel
salt water
plastic
air
wood
a A (Set-up D may or may not work, depending

on whether the battery terminal touches
the spring at the bottom. Because of this, torch
batteries are usually put in with the + terminal
nearest the bulb.)
b The batteries are connected in series.
a The bulbs in circuit B will glow only half as

brightly as the bulb in circuit A. This is
because the electric current has to flow
through two bulbs instead of one.
b The bulb in circuit C will glow as brightly as
the bulb in circuit A. This is because the three
bulbs are in parallel, and each bulb glows
as brightly as if it were the only bulb in the
circuit.
AnswerstoReviews
Buoyancy is the upwards force when objects
are placed in water. See page 263.
The biological factors in an ecosystem are
all the living things that interact with an
organismits food, predators, competitors
and disease organisms. See page 254.
An adaptation is a characteristic which
enables an organism to survive in its habitat.
See page 255.
c You would need to arrange the two bulbs in

parallel. Alternatively you could add a second
battery to give the current more push.
C (Current flows only in the left-hand part of the

circuitthrough bulbs A and B, but not through
bulb C.)
C and DFunctional adaptations are those that

refer to the functioning or working of an
organisms body.
As your shoes rub on the nylon carpet, static

electricity builds up on your body. When you
touch something which conducts electricity (eg a
metal door knob), an electric current flows across
your skin and you feel a slight electric shock.
B and DAll the others involve organisms.
B, C and Esee pages 266 and 268.
The battery, bulb and

switch need to be in
parallel, as shown.
When the switch is
open (off), current flows
in the bottom half of
the circuit, lighting the
bulb. When you close
the switch, virtually
all the current flows
through the top half of the circuit. This is because
the switch has a much lower resistance than the
bulb, and the current follows the path of least
resistance. Hence the light goes off when the
switch is closed.
Chapter 11 Living systems

1 The leaves of plants have tiny openings called
stomates on their surfaces which allow gases
to enter and leave the leaf. See page 266.
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Blue
Green Yellow
Red
b The yellow and red disks were similar in

colour to the surroundings, since fewer of
them were found than blue and green. The
surroundings might have been a yellow-red
coloured sand or soil.
c The four different coloured disks represent the
variations in a population. On this particular
surface, the yellow and red disks have a better
chance of survival. Over time the predators
will reduce the blue and green disks and the
population will consist mainly of red and
yellow disks.
Lab review
The equipment needed is almost the same for
both circuits:
1.5 volt battery and holder
3 bulbs and holders
switch
connecting wires (6 for the left-hand one,
7 for the right)
Disksfoundondifferentsurfaces
Number found
As its name suggests, the frog stores water in its

body and loses very little. It would also burrow
into the soil to avoid the heat of the day and the
cold of the night. The frog would probably lay
eggs in pools after rain, the eggs would hatch and
the tadpoles would mature quickly before the
water dried up. (Your answer may be different
from this. If you are in doubt ask your teacher.)
283
ScienceWorld8forNSW
8
Buoyancy is why you seem to float in water. The

water seems to push up on your body.
You could suspend a rock from a spring balance
and slowly lower it into a bucket of water. The
reading on the balance will decrease, showing the
rock doesnt weigh as much in water.
a Aquatic animals have the buoyancy effect of

water to support their weight in water,
whereas land animals need strong skeletons
to support their weight on land.
b Oil floats on water so a spill will cover the
surface of the water, stopping oxygen from
dissolving in it. Oil is also poisonous to living
things.
c Natural selection is called survival of the
fittest because only those organisms that
have adaptations suited to their environment
survive. They are said to be the fittest
and they produce offspring with the same
adaptations.
d To reduce water loss, land animals have a
tough waterproof skin or covering, and organs
such as lungs with moist surfaces inside their
bodies.
10 a Between 2 am and 10 am, since the amount of

dissolved oxygen decreased during this time.
b The highest concentration was 5.6 mg/L. The
lowest concentration was 2.1 mg/L.
c It became dark after 6 pm, so photosynthesis
in the water plants stopped, thus reducing the
dissolved oxygen.
d
6
Dissolved oxygen
2 84
with aerator
5
4
3
2
without aerator
1
12 noon
6 pm 12 midnight
Time
6 am
12 noon
Glossary
The words in this list occur in dark type throughout
the book. The number after each entry gives the page
where you will find more information. For some words
the pronunciation is given. The syllable in capitals
should be stressed; for example, bicycle (BY-sick-el).
adaptations (ADD-ap-TAY-shuns): the

characteristics of an organism which enable it to
survive in its habitat. 255
alveoli (AL-vee-OH-lee): minute air sacs in the lungs
which allow the gases to pass into and out of the
blood capillaries. 219
arteries: thick-walled blood vessels that carry blood
away from the heart. 217
asteroids: tiny chunks of metallic rock found orbiting
the sun in a wide belt between Mars and Jupiter.
157
atmosphere: the layer of gas surrounding a planet. 157
atoms: particles too small to see, that make up all
matter. 180
behavioural adaptation: the way an organism behaves
in order to survive in its environment. 256
buoyancy: the upwards force on objects when they are
placed in water. 263
capillaries: microscopic blood vessels with very thin
walls that allow substances in the blood to pass to
and from the body cells. 217
carbohydrates: a food type that supplies energy for the
body; carbohydrates include sugars and starches.
203
cell division: the process in which a cell divides to
make two new cells. 89
cell membrane: the thin covering surrounding
a cell which controls the movement of
substances into and out of the cell. 82
cells: the building blocks of all living things. Cells are
usually microscopic. 79
cellular respiration: the process that occurs in cells in
285
which food is broken down in chemical reactions to

release energy. 201
cell wall: the tough outside layer of a plant cell. 82
change of state: a change from one state of matter to
another, eg from solid to liquid. 61
chemical bonds: attractive forces between atoms. 62
chemical energy: the form of energy stored in
chemicals, eg foods and fuels. 109
chemical formula: a group of symbols and numbers
indicating the elements in a compound and the ratio
of these elements; for example H2O. 187
chloroplasts: small structures containing chlorophyll,
found in the cytoplasm of plants and algae. 82
chromatography (CROW-ma-TOG-ra-fee): a
technique used to separate small amounts of soluble
substances in a mixture; for example, the coloured
substances in ink can be separated using filter paper.
19
circuit diagram: a standard way of drawing an electric
circuit, using symbols. 242
colloid (COL-oid): a mixture which has properties in
between a solution and a suspension; the particles
in the colloid may be tiny bits of solid, liquid
droplets or gas bubbles. 8
comets: small bodies that orbit the sun in elongated
elliptical orbits; they usually have long glowing
tails. 165
compound: a pure substance that contains atoms of
two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio; it
can be broken down into its elements by chemical
reactions. 187
concentrated (CON-cen-TRAY-ted): describes a
solution containing a large amount of solute,
compared with other solutions. 7
concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a
certain volume of solution. 9
condense: to change from a vapour into a liquid;
condensation is the opposite of evaporation. 14
conduction: the transfer of heat through a solid, or
the passing of an electric current through a solid or
liquid. 134
conductor: a substance that allows heat or electricity to
move through it easily. 134, 236
conservation of energy: this law says that energy
cannot be made or destroyedit can only be
changed from one form to another. 117
2 86
ScienceWorld8forNSW
control the variables: to keep all the variables the
same, except the one you are purposely changing in
an experiment. 32
convection: the transfer of heat in a liquid (or gas) by
the movement of particles, when less dense liquid
rises and more dense liquid flows in to take its
place. 136
cytoplasm (SIGH-toe-plaz-um): jelly-like substance
that fills most of a cell. 82
data: information gathered by observation, experiment
or library research; it may be qualitative or
quantitative. 28
decanting: gently pouring off a liquid, leaving the solid
in the container. 11
density: how much matter is packed into a measured
volume; it is measured in grams per cubic
centimetre. 55
dependent variable: a variable that changes in response
to changes in the independent variable; values for
this variable are graphed on the vertical axis. 35
diffusion: the gradual mixing of substances caused by
the random movement of particles. 70
digestion: the physical and chemical breakdown of
food into soluble materials. 209
dilute (dye-LOOT): describes a solution containing
a small amount of solute, compared with other
solutions. 7
dissolves: when two or more substances mix
completely, so that they appear as one; eg sugar
dissolves in water. 5
distillation: a separation technique that involves
evaporating a liquid, then condensing the vapour in
a separate container. 14
ecosystem: a system of relationships among organisms
and the way they interact with the non-living things
in their habitat. 254
elastic potential energy: the energy stored in
compressed or stretched springs or other elastic
devices. 108
electrical resistance: resistance to the flow of electric
current through a conductor; good conductors have
low resistance. 239
electric charge: results when an object gains
electrons (negative charge) or loses electrons
(positive charge). 228
electric circuit: a continuous path around which an
electric current can flow. 236
electric current: the flow of electricity around an

electric circuit. 235
electrons: tiny particles carrying a negative charge; they
surround the nucleus of an atom. 231
element: a pure substance made up of only one type
of atom; it cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions. 182
emulsion (ee-MULL-shun): a colloid with tiny droplets
of one liquid spread through a second liquid; milk
is an emulsion. 8
energy: the ability to do work; there are many different
forms of energy. 104
energy chain: a series of steps in which energy changes
form, eg chemical energy heat energy kinetic
energy. 116
enzymes (EN-zimes): substances made by special cells
in the body to speed up chemical reactions. 209
evaporate (e-VAP-or-ATE): to change state from liquid
to gas; evaporation can be used to separate a solute
from a solvent. 14
excretion (ex-KREE-shun): the process of removing
wastes from the body by the liver and kidneys. 220
experiment: a well thought out scientific test, usually
designed to test a hypothesis or prediction. 28
faeces (FEE-seas): solid waste produced by the body
and removed through the anus. 220
fair test: an experiment where you change something,
measure something and keep everything else the
same. 32
fats: a food type that supplies a large amount of energy
and which can be stored in the body. 203
fertilisation (FUR-til-eyes-AY-shun): the
process in which the nuclei of a sperm and ovum
join to make a new living thing. 89
filtering (filtration): a way of separating a solid from a
liquid (or gas) using a filter. 11
fossil fuels: fuels obtained from material that was once
living; for example, oil, coal and natural gas. 118
functional adaptation: the way an organisms body
works in order to survive in its environment. 256
galaxy: an enormous number of stars grouped together
and having one of three basic shapesspiral,
elliptical or irregular. 169
generalisation: a statement or conclusion, based on
many observations, that holds true in most cases:
for example, most plants are green. 29
Glossary
gravitational potential energy: the energy stored in a
raised object. 107
heat: a type of energy that can raise the temperature of
things; it is measured in joules. 128
hypothesis (high-POTH-e-sis): a generalisation
that explains a set of observations or gives a
possible answer to a question; it can be tested by
experimenting. 33
independent variable: a variable that is
purposely changed in an experiment; values for this
variable are graphed on the horizontal axis. 35
insulator: a substance that does not allow heat or
electricity to move through it easily. 134, 236
joule (J): the unit for measuring work and energy. 104
kidneys: organs that filter and remove waste materials
from the blood. 219
kilojoule (kJ): a unit in which energy is measured;
1 kilojoule = 1000 joules. 104
kinetic (kin-ET-ic) energy: the energy that a moving
object has. 107
light-year: an astronomical unit that is used to measure
the huge distances between stars; it is the distance
light travels in one year. 169
liver: a large dark red organ that stores and distributes
digested food materials. 216
lungs: large organs which absorb oxygen from the air
and remove carbon dioxide from the body. 219
matter: a term used to include anything that has mass
and occupies space (has volume). 53
menopause: the period in the life of a woman when the
reproductive cycle stops operating. 91
meteorites: pieces of rock or metal from space that
crash into planets or moons. 165
mixture: two or more pure substances mixed together
but not chemically combined. 4
model: a way of representing something that cannot
be observed directly because it is too small, too
large or too complicated; for example, a model of a
molecule. 62
molecule: a tiny particle containing two or more atoms
in a fixed ratio and joined by chemical bonds. 180
natural selection: the process in which organisms
that have favourable characteristics survive in a
particular habitat, and reproduce. 257
nebula (NEB-you-la): a huge expanding cloud made
up of dust and gases formed after a massive star
explodes (supernova). 172
non-renewable energy: energy resources that are not

replaced as they are used; for example, coal and oil.
120
nuclear energy: the energy stored inside the nuclei of
atoms. 109
nucleus (atom): the positively charged core of an atom;
it contains protons and neutrons. 231
nucleus (cell): the small rounded object that controls
the activities of a living cell. 82
orbit: the path followed by an object as it revolves
around another object, eg the orbit of the Earth as
it revolves around the Sun. 153
organ: a collection of tissues that has a particular
function in the body, eg heart, kidney. 86
organelles (OR-gan-els): small structures found in the
cytoplasm of cells, eg chloroplasts. 82
ovary (OH-var-ee): the female reproductive organ that
makes ova (eggs). 89
ovum (plural ova): the female sex cell, also called an
egg. 89
parallel connection: a method of connecting
electrical components (eg batteries and bulbs), so
that the current divides and part passes through
each component. 243
particle theory: the theory that all matter is made up of
particles (atoms or molecules) that are too small to
see and that are always moving. 62
plasma (blood): the pale yellow liquid part of blood,
which contains mainly water, dissolved food,
minerals and waste products from cells. 216
plasma (matter): fourth state of matter that exists
at very high temperatures; it consists of charged
particles even further apart than the particles in a
gas. 69
potential energy: stored energy, available to be
converted to other forms of energy. 107
properties: the characteristics or features something
has. 4
proteins: a food type that provides the materials for the
growth and repair of cells. 203
puberty: the period of time (usually between the ages
of 10 and 15) during which sexual development
occurs. 91
pure substance: matter containing only one substance
(either an element or a compound); it has a fixed
composition and fixed properties. 4
radiation: the transfer of heat from a hot object
through space (or air) to a cold object. 137
287
2 88
ScienceWorld8forNSW
red blood cells: small red-coloured, doughnut-shaped
cells in the blood that carry oxygen to other cells in
the body. 216
reliable: results are reliable if they are the same when
the experiment is repeated many times. 140
renewable energy: energy resources that can be
replaced as they are used; for example, solar energy.
120
saturated: describes a solution that contains the
maximum amount of solute that will dissolve at
that temperature. 7
series connection: a method of connecting electrical
components (eg batteries and bulbs), so that the
current passes through one then the other. 242
sex cell: a special cell for reproduction. The male sex
cell is a sperm and the female is an ovum (egg). 89
solubility: the amount of solute that will dissolve
in a measured volume of solvent at a particular
temperature. 7
solute: a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a
solution. 5
solution: a liquid (or solid) containing one or more
solutes dissolved in a solvent; for example, salt
water. 5
solvent: a substance that can dissolve other
substances. 5
specific heat capacity: the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by
one degree Celsius. 131
sperm cell: the male sex cell. 89
states of matter: there are three states of mattersolid,
liquid and gas; a substance can exist in any of these
three states. 53
stem cells: unspecialised cells that can develop into any
one of many different types of cells in the body. 101
structural adaptation: a special body part that helps an
organism survive in its environment. 256
supernova: an explosion of a massive star which

scatters most of its matter into space. 171
suspension: a mixture in which tiny bits of solid (or
liquid) are evenly spread through a liquid (or gas),
but are not dissolved; if allowed to stand, the
suspended matter slowly settles out. 5
symbols: signs, markings or letters that
represent something else; for example, the symbol
for copper is Cu. 182
temperature: how hot or cold something is; it is
measured in degrees Celsius. 128
testes (TES-teez): the two male reproductive organs
that make sperm. 89
theory: what a hypothesis becomes after it has been
supported again and again by experimental results.
62
tissue: a group of similar cells organised to do a
particular job in the body, eg muscle tissue. 86
trachea (track-EE-a): a cartilage-banded pipe that takes
air from the throat to the lungs. 219
universe: space and everything in it. 152
vacuole (VAK-you-ole): a liquid-filled space found
mainly in plant cells which is used to store water
and dissolved food. 82
variable: any changeable factor that may influence the
results of an experiment. 32
veins: tubes in plants that carry water, minerals and
food materials. 215 : blood vessels that carry blood
towards the heart. 217
vitamins and minerals: substances needed in very small
amounts by your body to keep it healthy. 203
voltage: the electrical push causing current to flow in
an electric circuit. 236
work: the result of a force moving an object a certain
distance; energy is needed to do work. 104
Index
absolute zero 129
adaptations 255
in leaves 268
in rocky shore organisms 263
to fire 258
toothpick investigation 256257
air pressure 72
alveoli 219
amino acids 210
ammeter (using) 237, 245
amylases 210
Andromeda galaxy 169
Archimedes 56
Aristotle 152
arteries 217
asexual reproduction 87, 94
asteroids 157, 164
atmospheres (planets) 157
atomic theory 76, 181
atoms 62, 76, 180181, 231
inside them 198
bacteria 85
baking bread 83
balanced diet 206
ball and ring apparatus 71
banknotes 58
batteries 236
connecting them 243244, 246
behavioural adaptations 256
Benedicts solution 204205
biological factors 254255
blood 216
blood system 217218
boiling 61, 6566
bonds (chemical) 62
Bornemissza, George 44
brainstorming 103
bumping (in test tubes) 15
Bunsen burner (safe use) 15
buoyancy 263, 265
bushfires 258, 271
caloric theory 128, 149
capillaries 217
in fish 218
carbohydrates 203, 207
289
cell division 89
cell membrane 82
cell nucleus 82
cell wall 82
cells 7982
drawing them 83
observing them 848
stem cells 101
cellular respiration 201, 212
centrifuge 11
changes of state 61, 6465
chemical bonds 62
chemical energy 109, 201
chemical equations 194
chemical formulas 187
chemical reactions 191194
chemical spills 272
chloroplasts 82, 84
chromatography 19
circuit diagrams 242243
coal (how formed) 119
colloids 8
Comet Tempel 1 166
comets 165166
compounds 187, 191192
concentration 7, 9
conclusion 29
condensation 14, 61, 65
conducting plastics 251
conducting vessels (plants) 215216
conduction (heat) 134
conductors
electrical 237238
heat 134135
conservation of energy (law of) 117
control (experimental) 140,
205206
controlling variables 32
convection 136
Copernicus, Nicholas 152153
corner discussion 101
Crab Nebula 171
crystallisation 15
CSIRO 4447
Curie, Marie 184
cytoplasm 82
Dalton, John 76, 181, 198

data 28
datalogger use 66, 117, 138, 145
decanting 11, 13
Democritus 62, 76
density 55
measuring it 5657
dependent variable 35
desert ecosystem 268
diamond 185
diffusion 70
digestion 209
digestive system (gut) 209
discussion 29
disposable nappies 58
dissolved gases (in water) 262
dissolving 5, 71
dissolving time (effect of
temperature) 37
distillation 14, 16
DNA 189
doing a project 43
drawing graphs 3536, 39, 66
droughts and floods 272
dung beetles 44
Earth (place in universe) 152
ecosystems 254
coral reef 254
desert 268
problems in 271272
River Red Gum 259
efficiency 117
eggs
hens 9091
other animals 93
elastic potential energy 108
electric charges 228232
electric circuits 235236, 242245
series and parallel 242245
electric current 235236
electrical energy 109
electrical resistance 239
electrical symbols 242
electrons 198, 231, 236, 238
elements 182183
in human body 188
library research 200
emulsions 8
energy 103104
forms of 107
from food 105, 201
in everyday activities 106, 202
measuring it 104
2 90
ScienceWorld8forNSW
renewable and non-renewable 120
wasted 116
energy arrows 116, 120
energy chains 116
energy changes 110112
energy-efficient house 146
environments 253254
enzymes 209210, 212
in detergents 210
experiment 211
epidermis 266
euglena 79
evaporation 1415, 61, 65
excretion 220
expansion and contraction 7172
experimental control 140, 205206
experiments 2830, 3234, 50
faeces 220
fair tests 32
fats 203, 207
testing 205
fermentation 83
fertilisation 89
internal/external 93
filter paper (folding) 13, 34
filtering 1113, 18, 34
filters 12
firewalking 143144
fireworks 186
flame tests 185
flocculation 18
flowers (parts of) 95
fluted filter paper 34
food technologist 36
food types 203
food
processed 206
testing 204205
why we need it 201
forensic science 25
formulas (chemical) 187
fossil fuels 119
Franklin, Benjamin 230
frog research 45
froth flotation 17
Fry, Art 44
functional adaptations 256
galaxies 169170
Galileo 153
gas chromatography 19, 25
Gaspra (asteroid) 164
generalisation 2829, 33
glucose test 205

GM foods 225
gold panning 17
graphing 3536, 39
gravitational potential energy 107
gravity separation 17
heat and temperature 128, 130131
heat energy 109, 128
heat experiments 138, 140, 145146
heat transfer 117118, 129, 134
controlling it 139
heating a test tube 204
Herschel, William 154
Horsehead Nebula 172
hydro-electric power station
122124
hydrogen test 193
hypothesis testing 33, 4041, 149
independent variable 35
inferences from observations 152
inferring 28, 152
infra-red radiation 137
ink (separating colours) 19
inner planets 157
insulators
electrical 237239
heat 134135, 140
invention (electrical) 248
investigations 29
iron sulfide (making) 193194
Joules, James 149
joules 104
Jupiter 159
moons of 153, 168
kidneys 219220
kilojoules 104, 202
kinetic energy 107
Kuiper Belt 160161
lambs (twin) 45
large intestine 209
Lavoisier, Antoine 149
leaf cells (observing) 8687
light (in water) 262
light bulb 235236
light energy 109
lightning 232
light-year 169
lipsases 210
lipstick 4
liver 209, 216
living and non-living 188189
living in water 262263

living on land 266
Lowell, Percival 154
lungs 219220, 266
MacNamara, Jean 46
magnetic separation 17
magnifying power 78, 81
Mars 158
colonising 177
materials 5758
matter 53
measurements (repeating them) 41
medicines from frogs 45
melting 61, 64, 66
Mercury 157
meteorites 165
meteorologist 65
microscope (using) 8181, 8485
microwave oven 137
milk 8, 36
Milky Way galaxy 169170
mixtures 4
models 6263
molecular models 188
molecules 180
motormouse (making) 108
mousetrap 227
mousetrap racer 115
Murray River 259, 275
myxomatosis 46
natural selection 257258
nebulas 172
Neptune (discovery) 154
nitrates 207
nuclear energy 109
nuclear power station inquiry 125
nucleus (atom) 198, 231
observing 28
oesophagus 209
oil (how formed) 119
operating theatres 233
orbits of planets 153
organelles 82
organs 86
outer planets 159
ova (egg cells) 8990
ovaries 91
oxygen in water 262, 264265
oxygen molecule 180
packing beads 58
paper bridges 30, 32
Index
paper chromatography 1920
parental care 9394
particle theory 6265, 7073
and heat 129
pendulum experiment 32
peppered moths 261
photocopiers 233
photosynthesis 118, 207
physical factors 254256, 262266
planets 152, 157, 163164
gravity on 163
plant cuttings 97
plasma (blood) 11, 216
plasma (matter) 69
plastics (conducting) 251
Pluto (discovery) 154, 160
podcasts (producing) 225
post-it notes 44
potential energy 107
powder coating 233
predicting 28, 33
projects (doing one) 43
properties 4, 58
proteases 210
proteins 203, 207
testing 205
Ptolemy 152
puberty 91
pulse (measuring) 218
pure substances 4, 191
pyrotechnics 186
qualitative and quantitative 28
rabbit plagues 46
radiation 137
absorbing & emitting 138139
radium 184
red giant 171
reliable results 140
reports (writing them) 29
reproduction 89, 9394
asexual 89, 94
in chickens 91
in dogs 91
in flowering plants 94
in humans 8990
vegetative 97
resistance (electrical) 239
respiration 201
respiratory system 219
River Red Gum ecosystem 259, 275
roller-coaster 107
Rumford, Count 128, 149
Rutherford, Ernest 198

saturated solution 7
Saturn 159
science at work 28
science contests 43
scientists at work 4446
sea breeze 136
seahorses 94
seed dispersal 96
separating funnel 22
separating solids 3, 17
series and parallel 242245
sex cells 89
small intestine 209, 212
model for 213
soap film 73
sodium chloride (salt) 187
soil nutrients 207
solar distillation 14
solar energy 120
solar system 154, 157
solids, liquids and gases 5254,
6163
sols (gels) 8
solubility 7
soluble and insoluble 57
solutions 5
separating them 14
solvents 5
solving problems 4042
sound energy 109
space (library research) 162
space missions 161
space travel 173
sparklers 128
specific heat capacity 131
speed of light 169
sperm cells 8990
stars (life cycle) 171
states of matter 53
static electricity 228232
stem cell research 101
stomach 87, 209
stomates 266268
stopping distance (investigation) 41
structural adaptations 256
sublimation 61
Suns shadow 153
Sunsorb 58
superconductors 239
supernovas 171172
Super-Sci 179
suspensions 5
separating them 11
switches (electrical) 235, 241
telescope (invention) 153154
temperature 128
terraforming Mars 177
thermocouple 112
thermos 144
Thomson, JJ 198
thunderstorms 231232
timelines 155
tissues 8687
trachea 219
transport
in humans 216217
in plants 215216
Turner, Dr Helen Newton 45
Tyler, Dr Michael 45
universe 152, 169172
Uranus 159
urine 219220
vacuoles 82
Van de Graaff generator 228
variables 32, 35, 50
variation (biological) 257
vegetative reproduction 97
veins
in animals 217
in plants 215
Venus 158
villi 212
vitamins and minerals 203
voltage 236
volume by displacement 5657
Voyager 161
wasted energy 116
wastes (from body) 219
water (decomposing it) 193194
water formula 187
water loss 266
in plants 267
water molecule 180, 194
water purification 18
WaterSorb 58
waterwheel (making) 115
wet-mount slide (making) 81
wetsuit 135
white dwarf 171
windmill (making) 115
yeast 83
291
Macmillan Education Student CDs now come with

great new interactive functionality, which makes
teaching and learning even easier in a digital world!
All you need is Abode Reader to access this great functionality.
Students:
Create a digital portfolio of your work related to each
chapter of the book.
Link iles, such as answers to questions, PowerPoint presentations,
assignments, videos or any other digital files to any location on a
page of the book. This will allow you to have all your work in
one place and do away with the binder full of paper!
Create study and revision notes inside each chapter

of the book.

Annotate the pages with text boxes, or sticky notes.

Record voice notes.
Highlight text.
Underline text.
Draw or write on the page using the pencil tool.
Save a copy of the PDF chapter and your notes as a permanent
record of your study.
Teachers:
Prepare lessons ready for the classroom or interactive
whiteboard.
Link iles, such as answers to questions, PowerPoint presentations,
assignments, instructions for hands on practical activities, videos,
photographs, animations or any other digital files to any location
on a page of the book. This will allow you to teach through each
page of the book opening interactive files as you go. Have all your
planning in one place ready to go!
Add sticky notes and text boxes with activities, comments or
questions, ready for students to discuss or complete.
Teach using the interactive whiteboard.

Annotate, highlight and underline the text or images as you work
through the content on a page.
Add sticky notes and text boxes with activities, comments or
questions, ready for students to discuss or complete.
Zoom in and out quickly to focus on relevant parts of the page.
Open linked iles quickly and easily with a simple click to display
any linked interactive digital files.
For a demo or more information please contact your local

Macmillan sales representative.

Science World 8 For Year 8 Students and Teachers

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Science World 8 For Year 8 Students and Teachers

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Peter Stannard

First published 2009

Visit our website at www.macmillan.com.au

Associated companies and representatives

The authors and publisher are grateful to the following for

Copyright Anteater Publications and K. L. Books 2009

AAP Image, 17 (right), /AFP Photo/Leslie E. Kossoff, 101,

MACMILLAN EDUCATION AUSTRALIA PTY LTD

1519 Claremont Street, South Yarra 3141

All rights reserved.

While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge

1.1 Whats a mixture?

2.1 What is science?

Heat and temperature

6.3 Heat in everyday life

10.1 Electric charges

Planning and Safety Check

in Chapter 2 where you learn how to

in Chapter 4 where you learn how to

on which pages you do investigations

p 140 Which type of material keeps you

What safety procedures are necessary

To get the most out of the investigations, you

1 Read the investigation carefully and study the

When should you use

What should you do if you get a

2 Make sure you know exactly what you will be

How can you make creek water pure

How much weight will a paper bridge

Heres all the

Why dont you do

ScienceWorld 7 and 8 for NSW, Stage 4 Syllabus Checklist

the history of science

the nature and practice of science

the applications and uses of science

the implications of science for society and the environment

current issues, research and developments in science

ScienceWorld 7 for NSW

ScienceWorld 8 for NSW

the law of conservation of energy

4.6.10 gravitational force

the particle theory of matter

properties of solids, liquids and gases

compounds and reactions

Newtonian model of the solar system

components of the universe

the structure of Earth

performing first-hand investigations

gathering first-hand information

gathering information from secondary sources

the use of creativity and imagination

working individually or in teams

1.3 Separating mixtures

Review and Lab review

Prescribed focus area

possible career paths in science (pages 19 and 25)

choosing equipment or resources (Investigate 2 and 3)

Work in a small group to solve one or more of

1.1 What's a mixture?

The parts of mixtures can be solids, liquids

Which of the following are mixtures, and

Copy and complete these sentences.

Lipstick is a complex mixture.

1 A is a substance that dissolves in a to form a