Introduction of Soil & Index Properties

1
DUET
CE-3301
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING -I
NOTE NO 01
INTRODUCTION TO GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING;
FORMATION, TYPE: SOIL STRUCTURE AND FABRIC; INDEX
PROPERTIES OF SOILS
PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.
Geotechnical Engineering, Soil Mechanics and Soil

Introduction:
Geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering that deals with

the properties, behavior and use of earth materials in engineering works.
The earth materials referred to here include soil and rock.
The term geotechnical is a derived from Swedish word Geoteckniska

meaning we know it today.
During the period of 1914-1922, a Swedish Commission investigated the

failures of some important works of railways and roadways.
They developed many important concepts, methods of analysis apparatuses

to solve many of the related problems. The meaning of the term
geotechnical is a sigh of there accomplishment to combine the knowledge
of geology with that of civil engineering.
The practice of geotechnical engineering requires the integrated knowledge

from numerous fields like geology, material science and testing, mechanics
and hydraulics, environmental science and engineering and there
application for the design of foundation, retaining and earth structures.
Thus geotechnical engineering deals with the multidiscipline coordination

of geology, mechanics, material properties, fluid flow and environmental
effect, concerning soil and rock.
Aspects / Branches of Geotechnical Engineering:
Soil mechanics: This concern with the engineering mechanics and

properties of soil. It applies the basic principles of mechanics of materials,
fluid mechanics and hydraulics to soils.
Rock mechanics: This concern with the engineering mechanics and

properties of rock. Similar to soil mechanics it also use the basic principles
of mechanics of materials, fluid mechanics and hydraulics to rocks, but not
necessarily bed rocks.
Engineering Geology: This deals with the formations features of earth

crust including earthquake that concerns the design and performance of
civil engineering structures.
Soil Engineering: This applies the knowledge of geology, soil mechanics

and structural engineering to the design and construction of foundation of
any engineering structures.
Rock Engineering: This applies the knowledge of geology, rock

mechanics and structural engineering to the design and construction of
foundation of any engineering structures constructed on or with rocks.
Foundation Engineering: This covers a broader area to include both soil

engineering and rock engineering.
Geo-environmental Engineering: Considers the environmental effects

like climate including, rainfall, ground water, gravitational movements,
waste disposal, chemical etc. on the properties of soil and rock.
Though geotechnical engineering is a universal set of related subjects, yet

it happens to subscribe a more inclination towards soil mechanics.
As such, the term geotechnical engineering is used in many instances as a

synonym (somo-orthok) of soil mechanics.
Strictly speaking, the use of a qualifier (like Basic, Elementary,

Introductory etc.) with geotechnical engineering in such an instance may be
indicative to convey the meaning of soil mechanics.
This book gets to this intention of covering the soil mechanics aspect of
geotechnical engineering.
Scope of Soil Mechanics:
The knowledge of soil mechanics has immense importance and vast

application to the design and construction of various civil engineering
structures.
Some of the prominent subjects are as follows:
Foundation of structures: All civil engineering structures eventually

transmit their load to the earth, mostly to soils. The type, dimension and
details of foundation will depend on the strength and deformation
characteristics of supporting soil.
Underground and earth retaining structures: Loading on structures like

underground pipelines, tunnel, earth retaining structures, sheet piles,
bulkheads etc. Estimated by the properties and behavior of soil of their
environment.
Embankment, excavation and dam: Construction of earth embankment

and excavation requires knowledge of slope stability involving the soil
behavior. Deep excavation often need bracing for their stability, dams are
designed against stability and seepage considerations. All these require the
knowledge of soil mechanics.
Pavement: The design of either a rigid or flexible pavement depends

mostly on the behavior of sub grade soil in relation to settlement, swelling,
repetitive loading, frost action etc.
Soil subsidence, Soil heave, Frost action, Soil erosion, Shrinkage and
swelling: These are the special problems affecting the design of
foundations of any civil engineering structures which can only be looked to
with the relevant knowledge of soil mechanics.
Development of Soil Mechanics:
Though soil has been used for engineering purposes since the prehistoric
period, it did not turn into a documented and a systematic knowledge until
about eighteenth century.
However, the construction of some amazing and huge structures show a

certain indication of the empirical knowledge and skill in the field of
geotechnical engineering that existed in our Predecessors (= Purbo Purus).
The notable examples are as follows:
Hanging gardens of Babylon
Pyramids of Egypt
Large public buildings, harbors, aqueducts, bridges, roads and sanitary

works of Romans
The learning tower of Pisa
The Great Wall of China
The irrigation canals, dikes and levees constructed by ancient Indians,

Chinese, Babylonians and Egyptians.
The construction itself and existence of such structures for a long period of
time are indicative of existence of knowledge of engineering behavior of
soil among those constructors.
It is apparent that the design of foundations, at that time, was based on rule
of thumb and very little theory as such was developed.
The writings of Vitruvius, the Roman engineer in the first century B.C.,
gave an evidence of a written book on construction science by two
Indians Mansar and Viswakarma during the medieval period.
Important Contribution to the Field of

Geotechnical Engineering
The recorded earlier events of important contribution to the field of

geotechnical engineering are perhaps as follows:.
Wedge theory of earth pressure published by a Frenchman, coulomb in

1776, and his subsequent works on shear strength parameters of soil and
bearing capacity of foundation soil.
Extension of Coulombs theory by a Frenchman Poncelet in 1840, a

German Culmann in 1866 and an Austrian Rebhann in 1871.
Stokes (an Englishman) law of falling velocity of particles in a fluid

media, 1845.
Darcys (a Frenchman) law of fluid flow through soil mass in 1856.
Rankines (Scottish) theory of earth pressure in 1857.
Paukers (a Russian) bearing capacity theory, 1859.
Boussinesqs (a Frenchman) theory of stress distribution, 1885.
Mohrs (a German) work on graphical analysis of stress in 1887 and failure

hypothesis of real materials in 1900.
The prominence of these earlier works is so appreciable that many of these

concepts are still in use in the field of geotechnical engineering especially
in soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
In twentieth century much attention and interest have been focused on

various aspects of soil mechanics.
In this respect, the inventors works have much more scientific and given
practical considerations.
The most notable references are:
Consistencies of soil and their limits by Atterberg 1911
Bells bearing capacity theory,1915
Prandtls theory of bearing capacity, 1920
Terzaghis theory of one dimensional consolidation, 1925; bearing capacity

theory,1943
Cassgrandes works on Atterberg limits, clay structure, consolidation of

soil seepage, soil classification etc. During 1932-1975
Compaction of soil by proctor,1933
Stability analysis of slope by Fellenius, 1936, bearing capacity theory by

Fellenius,1939
Taylors theory on stability of earth slope, 1937, characteristics of

theoretical consolidation curve, bearing capacity factors, seepage and flow
nets,1948
Newmarks chart for computation of stresses in elastic foundation,1942
Bearing capacity theory by Meyerhof,1951
Skemptons bearing capacity theory,1951,pore pressure parameters,1954
Dynamics of bases and foundations by barkan,1962
Stress path concept of Lambe and Whitman,1969
Vibrations of soil and foundations by Richart, 1970.
In fact, by the turn of the 20 thcentury much of the knowledge in the field of
soil mechanics was getting disseminated through various publication of the
extent of works done during this period is tremendous an excellent account
of earliest documented works of geotechnical engineering is given by
Skempton(1979).
The contributions by various authors to develop the field of soil mechanics

are really noteworthy.
Even though, if to mention of the significant single contribution, it is

perhaps Austrian born American professor Terzaghi who exerted a
profound influence to establish soil Mechanics as one of the subject of civil

Engineering.
His genuine interest, research, publication and practical experience elevate

him to level of most fruitful contributor in the field of soil mechanics and
foundation engineering.
As such, Terzaghi is generally regarded as the Father of soil mechanics.
What is soil?
Definition:
Soil is usually considered as a loose agglomerate of minerals and organic

materials; where as rock consists of mineral grains having strong internal
cohesive and molecular forces holding them to gather resulting voluminous
mass.
However, the dividing line between soil and rock is very arbitrary and the
definition of them depends on to the professionals who have encounters
with these natural materials.
The term soil is derived from the Latin word solium, meaning the upper
layer of earth crust that may be dug or ploughed.
Though it shows a close resemblance in meaning with definition of soil of

agronomists, soil is defined by other professionals to get to their own
Pursuits (= Porchat onosoran).
Soil is used by geologists, agronomists and civil engineers. Engineers use

soil and rock for many purposes; as construction materials, as supports to
the foundation of structures and also as structural materials.
According to civil engineering definition, soil is considered to include all

naturally occurring loose or soft deposit overlying the solid bedrock.
It is formed of the disintegration and decomposition of rocks, the process

that is known as weathering.
Agronomists, Agriculturist and soil science are much more concerned

with the growth of plants on the earth surface.
The nomenclatures used by the different professionals for soil and rock are
shown in Fig.0.1.
Formation of soil:
Soil is a product due to disintegration and /or decomposition of rocks and

organic matters, the process that is known as weathering.
The earths crust consists of both rock and weathered rock (as soil) up to an
approximate depth of 20 km. a rock has variable properties and is formed
of mixture of several minerals.
Where as, minerals have fixed properties, and are formed of chemical
elements.
Fig 0.1 Nomenclature used for soil and rock by the various Professionals
Soil forming rocks and minerals
(Studied Geology in the Last Semester)
The term rock applies to the solid materials that form outer rocky shell or
crust of the earth.
Three broad groups are considered based on origin;
Igneous rocks are those that have cooled from a molten state. Examples are
Granite, Diorite, and Basalt etc.
Sedimentary rocks are those deposited from a fluid medium usually water
and typically as products of weathering of other rocks. Common examples
are limestone, Sandstone, Shale.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from preexisting rock by the action of heat
and pressure. Common examples are Quartzite, Schist, Slate etc.
The earth crust of approximately 95 percent consists of igneous rocks and

only the remaining 5 percent are sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
However, sedimentary rocks are present on 80 percent of the earths

surface area.
A mineral formally defined as a naturally occurring crystalline material

formed by inorganic processes, with a definite chemical composition and
ordered internal arrangement of atoms having definite a crystal structure.
This is a restricted definition; oil and coal do not qualify nor does volcanic
ash (which lacks the ordered internal structure) or manufactured glass.
Blast furnace slag, a by product of steel making, which is commonly used

as road base material and as concrete aggregate, does not qualify because it
is glassy and not naturally occurring.
An ordered internal arrangement of atoms in a mineral is known as mineral

structure or crystalline structure.
In contrast, a non-ordered internal arrangement is termed as amorphous, or

without form and it occurs in liquids and super cooled liquids such as glass.
Most rock forming minerals are, however, silicates. Subgroups of silicates

are developed on the basis of their silicon to oxygen ratio, which controls
the crystal structure.
Differentiate soil and Rock:

The terms rock and soil, as used by the civil engineer, imply a clear distinction
between two kinds of foundation materials.
Rock is considered to be a natural aggregate of mineral grains connected

strong and permanent cohesive forces.
Soil, on the other hand, is regarded as a naturals aggregate of minerals

grains, with or without organic constituents that can be separated by gentle
mechanical means such as agitation in water.
10
Physical properties
Soil grain and aggregate properties
Soil structure and fabric:
Soil structure may be defined as the physical construction of a soil material

as expressed by the size, shape and arrangement of the solid particles to
form compound particles and the compound particles themselves.
Soil structure includes gradation, arrangement of particles, void ratio,

bonding agents and associated electrical forces. It is the property which
produces a response to external changes in the environment, such as loads,
water, temperature and other factors.
Soil fabric denotes the structure of clay i.e. the geometric arrangement of
the mineral particles in a clay mass as observed by optical or electron
microscopes. It includes particle spacing and pore size distributions.
Soil cohesion and friction:
A measure of attraction between cohesive soil particles is cohesion (symbol

c).
Similarly resistance to relative displacement in cohesion less soils is

friction.
Friction in the sense used here has the usual meaning in that the friction
force, Ff.
Ff =
where
= friction co-efficient
N = Normal force between particles.
11
v
h
A=1
unit
Fig.1: Relation between angle of

internal friction, and Normal
pressure
Fig: 1
The friction co-efficient in geotechnical work (refer to Fig.1) is taken as

where
is termed the angle of internal friction of the soil.
Depending on c and soil may be defined three types such as cohesive

soil, cohesionless soil or granular soil and c - soil.
Cohesive soil is that soil which has c-value but value is zero such as
purely clay.
The granular soil is that soil which has value but c value is zero, such as
purely sand, gravel etc.
The c soil is that soil which have both c value and value such as
sandy clay, silty sand, gravelly clay etc.
Structure of cohensionless soil:
The structures generally encountered in cohesionless soils (Fig.-2) can be

divided into three categories: (a) Single grain structure (b) Flocculent
structure and (c) Honeycomb structure.
12
Fig: 2
In single grained structures, soil particles are in stable position, each being
in contact with surrounding particles.
The shape and size distribution of the soil particles and their relative
positions influence the denseness of packing, giving a wide range of void
ratios.
In honeycombed structures, relatively fine sand and silt deposited by

sedimentation form small arches with chains of particles.
It has large void ratios and negative relative densities. They can carry
ordinary static loads.
However, under heavy load or when subjected to shock loading, the

structure breaks down, resulting in large settlement.
Structures in cohesive soils:
A cohesive soil may be defined as an aggregation of mineral particles

which has a plasticity index defined by the Atterberg limits and which
forms into a coherent mass on drying such that force is necessary to
separate the individual microscopic grains.
The ingredients necessary to give the soil deposit cohesion are clay
minerals, sometimes termed argillaceous minerals.
The amount of cohesion depends on the relative sizes and amounts of

various soil grains and argillaceous materials present.
The inter-particle forces appear to be developed from three different types

of electric charges:
13
i)Ionic bonds: Bonds due to deficiency in electrons in the outer shells of

atoms making up the basic soil units.
ii)
Vander waals bonds: Bonding due to alternations in the number of

electrons at any one time on one side of an atomic nucleus.
iii) Others: Includes hydrogen bonds and gravitational attraction between

two bodies.
By sedimentation, the individual particles may settle very slowly or remain

in suspension Brownian motion.
The sediment formed by the settling of the individual particles will have a
dispersed structure, which are face to face contact and all particles will be
oriented more or less parallel to each other (Fig.-3b-2.11).
If the clay particles initially dispersed in water come close to each other
during random motion in suspension, they might tend to aggregate into
visible floes with edge-to-face contact (Fig.-3a-2.11) in this instance, the
particles are held together by electrostatic charged faces; this condition is
known as flocculation.
When the floes become large, they settle under the force of gravity.
14
Fig.3
The sediment formed in this manner has a non salt flocculent structure for
undisturbed fresh water (Fig.-3b-2.12), the ions tend to neutralize the
charges of the clay particles and the particle orientation approaches a large
degree of parallelism due to van der waals forces for undisturbed salt water
(Fig.-3a-2.12).
Clay minerals:
Weathering action on rocks produces a very large number of clay minerals with
the common property of affinity, but in widely differing amounts, for water.
Some of the most common clay minerals are: a) Kaolinite b) Illite c)
Montmorillonite. The structures of 3-type clay minerals are given as shown in
Fig.-.4.
(a)
15
(b)
(c)
Fig.-.4 Clay minerals structure: a) Kaolinite b) Illite c) Montmorillonite

Engineering definition and phase relations of soil:
Soil mass is composed of matter existing generally in three states or phase
solid, liquid and gaseous. Soil particles form the solid phase, water forms the
liquid phase and air forms the gaseous phase. These phases are symbolically
represented in Fig.-.5. Water and air constitute the voids or pore space of a
soil mass.
(c)
Fig.-.5 Phase Diagram or Weight-Volume Relationships of Soil Mass
1.
Density and unit weight:
16
Density is the ratio of mass M to volume V, and the unit weight is the
ratio of weight W (a force) to volume V.
M
W Mg
and
or g
V
V
V
The unit weight of water at a given temperature is expressed as the ratio of

the weight of water to the volume of water at the same temperature and is
designated as
Where g 9.81 m s 2
= unit weight of water at temperature 4C
The total unit weight of a soil mass, t is the ratio of the weight of the mass
W, to the volume of the mass V:
t
W
V
This is also known as Bulk unit weight of soil.
The dry unit weight d, of a soil mass is expressed as the ratio of the weight
of solids (Ws) dry, to the total volume V:
d
Ws
(Ws ) dry / V
V
The saturated unit weight sat , of a soil is the ratio of the saturated weight
of the mass (Ws)sat to the total volume V,
sat
Ws
(Ws ) sat / V
V
The unit weight of solids s, is defined as the ratio of the weight of solids
Ws to the volume of the solids Vs:
Ws
Vs
Density is usually expressed in g/cc or
, Mg/m3
and unit weight is expressed in kN/m3.

Relations: 1 g/mc3 = 1 t/m3 = 9.8 kN/m3.
For practical purpose the density of water w = 1 g/cm3 = 1 tcm3 and the
unit weight of water, w = 9.8 kN/m3
17
2.
Specific gravity:
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its weight in air to the
weight of an equal volume of water at reference temperature 4C
So the specific gravity of solid soil particles, G is the ratio of the density of
solids to the density of water.
s s
or s G w and s G w
w w
3.
Water content or Moisture content

W
mass of water M W
,
mass of solids M s
It is always expressed as percent.

4.
Degree of saturation,
Sr
Volumns of water Vw
, It is always expressed as percent.

Volums of voids
Vv
The degree of saturation may vary from zero for a completely dry soil to 1
or 100% for a fully saturated soil.
5.
Void ratio
e
6.
Porosity
n
7.
Volums of voids Vv
, The void ratio is expressed as a decimal.
Volums of solids Vs
V
Volums of voids
v
total volums of soil V
, It is always expressed as percent.
Air content or Air void

na %
V
Volums of air
a 100
total volums of soil V
Relations of parameter of soil:
From the definition of void ratio, if the volume of solids is 1 unit, the
volume of voids will be e units and the total volume of soil will be 1+e
units. The mass of solids is then Gw and the volume of water is G.
18
Similarly, if voids are represented by n units, the total volume is 1 unit and the
volume of solids is 1-n units. The corresponding phase diagrams are shown in
Fig.-6 (a) Partially Saturated Soil Mass
(b) Fully Saturated Soil Mass
Fig.- 6 Weight-Volume Relationships for Vs = 1.
(c) Partially Saturated Soil Mass (d) Fully Saturated Soil Mass
Fig.- 6 Weight-Volume Relationships for V = 1.
19
Relation between e and n.

e
Vv
and V Vs Vv
Vs
Vv
V
VV
V /V
Vs
6
n v
v s
V 1 6
V Vs Vv Vs Vv
1 v
Vs
Vs
n
6
n
or e
6 1
1 n
Relation between e, G and
Case 1: When partially saturated the degree of saturation Sr by definition is

Sr
Vw V w
W
Ws
but Vw w
G w G
Vv
6
w
w
w
Since can be assumed as equal to unity.

w
Sr
G
S
Here s will be e (***It is print mistake)
Case 2: when saturated, Sr = 100% since the voids are completely filled with
water.
We have, when S = 1
e = G
Relationship between n, na and Sr
Vv Vw
6w
6 1
Va Vv Vw Vs Vs 6 6 w
6
na
V Vs Vv Vs Vv
1 6
1 6
Vs Vs
Vw
V
V
e
Sr w s w
Vv Vv
e
Vs
So,
na
6
6
(1 S r ) n(1 S r ), and n
1 6
1 6
20
Unit weight of soil expressed in terms of other parameters.

Case 1: when partially saturated
The total unit weight,
W
Ws 1 w
Ws
W
W Ww
(1 w) G w (1 )
t sat s

s
V
Vs Vv
1 6
1 6
Vv
Vs 1
Vs
here w = 1 gm/cc
Now, S r
S 6
G
r putting the value of
6
G
S 6
G Sr 6
G w 1 r G w
G
G w G S r 6
1 6
1 6
1 6
Bulk unit weight or total unit weight,

t
w (G S r e)
1 6
Case 2: when soil fully saturated,

When, Sr = 1, then t
t sat
w (G 6)
1 6
w (G 6)
1 6
Case 3: the soil is dry

When Sr = 0
t d
wG
1 6
Case 4: when the soil is submerged.

If the soil is submerged, the unit weight of the submerged soil, is equal to the
unit weight of the saturated soil reduced by the unit weight of water. i.e.
21
Inter relations
a)
Between
b)
Between
22
At zero air voids,
Example 1:
A sample of soil weighing 30.6 kg had a volume of 0.0183
When dried out
in an oven its weight was reduced to 27.2 kg. The specific gravity of the solids
was found to be 2.65. Compute the parameters: (i) Bulk unit weight, (ii) Dry
unit weight, (iii) Moisture content, (iv) Saturated unit weight, (v) Percentage air
voids, (vi) Void ratio, (vii) Porosity, (viii) Degree of saturation.
Solution:
Here,
i)
Bulk unit weight,
ii)
Dry unit weight,
iii)
Weight of water in sample
(Ans)
(Ans)
Moisture content,
Percentage of moisture content
23
Volume
(m3)
0.0004
6
0.0003
4
0.0103
Weight
(kg)
Air
Water
3.4
30.
6
Solids
GS=2.
27.
2
65
iv)
Density of particles,
If soil saturated, voids will be all water:

Saturated density
v)
Percentage of air voids or air content,
24
vi)
Void ratio,
vii)
Porosity,
Or
viii) Degree of saturation,

Example -2:
A laboratory test carried out on an undisturbed of soil weighing 1.74 kg and
having a volume of
, determined the specific gravity of the solids to be
2.6 and the dry density of the soil to be

i)
The moisture content
ii)
The void ratio and porosity
iii)
The saturated and submerged density
iv)
The degree of saturation of soil.
. Compute:
25
Volume
(m3)
0.0004
2
0.0002
0.00
4
1
0.0005
8
Weight
(kg)
Air
Water
Solids
GS=2.
0.2
4
1.7
4
1.5
0
Solution:
i)
Moisture content,
ii)
Void ratio,
Porosity,
26
iii)
Submerged,
iv)
Example 3:
The dry unit weight
of a soil having
moisture content is
Find the bulk unit weight, saturated unit weight and submerged unit weight.
Assume
Solution:
Submerged,
Or
Index properties of soils:

The properties which air either qualitative or quantitative could be used in
discriminating between different kinds of soil in a given category or in the
27
design calculations of foundations on soils. These properties are termed as

Index properties.
The various properties of soils which would be considered as index properties
are:
i)
Specific gravity
ii)
The size and shape of particles
iii) The relative density and consistency of soil.

The index properties of soil can be studied in general under two classes. They
are:
i)
Soil grain properties
ii)
Soil aggregate properties.
The principle soil grain properties are the specific gravity, size and shape of
grains and the mineralotical character of the finer fractions.
The most significant aggregate property of cohesionless soils is the relative
density, whereas that of cohesive soils is the consistency.
Specific gravity:
The specific gravity of the various minerals a soil may contain varies on the
average, from 2.5 to 2.70. A normal average value of G is 2.65. It is used in
computing soil properties, for example, the void ratio of a soil, its unit weight,
soil particle size determination by means of the hydrometer method.
Laboratory method of specific gravity determination:
Commonly, about 200 gms of dry weight of sample a 500 cc constant

volume or pycnometer bottle and distilled water are used.
First plot the temperature versus weight of bottle plus water. Next it is
required to determine the weight of bottle with a known weight of soil and
water filled just to the constant volume mark. To expect all air from the
mixture by a gentle boiling or by suction. The weight is taken after the
bottle cooled to the room temperature.
28
Fig.-7 Pycnometer and its Activities

The measurements that are used in the computation of specific gravity are:
Weight of pycnometer bottle + soil + water
Weight of pycnometer bottle + distilled water
Dry weight of soil
We can write the following equations:
Volume of soil grains
Weight of an equivalent soil volume of water
Where,
, the specific gravity of water
at the temperature of test.

Therefore,
29
By simplifying, we have,
30
The shape and size of particles:

Shape of particles:
---Course fractions of soil are
made of grains composed
chiefly of quartz.
---The shape of individual
grains may be angular, or subangular, which the large
particles may be sub rounded,
rounded or well-rounded.
---The shape of particles of
bulky soil grains as conceived
by visual inspection gives only
a qualitative idea.
---Particles finer than 0.075
mm diameter cannot be seen
by naked eye, one can
visualize the nature of the coarse grained particles only.
The influence of shape of particles on the compressibility characteristics of

soils are:
i)Reduction in the volume of mass upon the application of pressure
depends upon the shape of particles.
ii)
A small mixture of mica to sand will result in a large increase in its

compressibility.
Size of grains:
The size of grains may range from the finest i.e. colloidal size to the
coarsest i.e. boulders.
The fine grains of soil are so much affected by structures, shape of grains,
geological origin etc.
One can asses the nature of a mixed soil on the basis of the percentage of
fine grained soil present in it.
It is, therefore, essential to classify the soil according to grain size.
31
The determination of grain size distribution in soils:
The physical separation of a sample of soil by any method into two or more
fractions, each containing only particles of certain size, is termed
fractionation.
The determination of the weight of material in fractions containing only

particles of certain sizes is termed Mechanical Analysis.
The Mechanical analysis can be divided into:

i)Sieve Analysis
ii)
Wet Mechanical Analysis
The grain size distributions of coarse materials can easily made by passing
a sample through a set of sieves and weighing the amount retained on each
sieve.
The finer material which are less than 75 mm size will have to be analyzed
by wet mechanical analysis.
Sieve analysis:
Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of standard sieves. Sieves are
made by weaving two sets of wires at right angles to one another.
The square holes thus formed between the wires proved the limit which
determines the size of the particles retained on a particular sieve.
The sieve sizes are given in terms of the number of opening per inch.
The number of opening per inch varies according to different standards.
Thus, an ASTM 60 sieve has 60 openings per inch width with each opening
of 0.250 mm.
Table.1.gives a comparison of British standard, ASTM and the Indian

standard sieves.
The sieve analysis is carried weight of sample through the nest of sieves
placed below the other so that the openings decrease in size from the top
sieve downwards, with a pan at the bottom of the stack as shown in Fig. 9.
The whole nest of sieves is given a horizontal shaking for about 10 minutes
till the weight of soil remaining on each sieve reaches a constant value.
---The amount of shaking required depends on the shape and number of
particles.
32
If a sizable portion of soil is required on the NO. 200 ASTM sieve it should
be washed.
Fig: 9 Sieves
33
By determining the weight of soil sample left on each sieve the following
calculation can be made.
Wt. of soil retained
100
Total soil weight
i)
Percentage retained on any sieve
ii)
Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve = sum of percentage retained

on all coarser sieves
iii) Percentage finer than any sieve size, P = 100 percent minus cumulative
percentage retained
The results may be plotted in the form of a graph on a semi-log paper with
the percentage finer on the arithmetic scale and the particle diameter on the
log scale as shown in Fig.9.b.
A smooth curve can be drawn through them depending on the distribution

of sizes in the soil.
34
Fig: 9(b) Grain Size Distribution Curves

Wet Mechanical Analysis:
The grain size analysis of materials finer than the NO. 200 sieve is made by
other means known as wet mechanical analysis. The wet mechanical analysis is
based on sedimentation principle of Stokes law. Some of the methods are:
i)
Successive sedimentation.
ii)
Sedimentation into clear water.
iii) Observation of amount sediment per unit volume at a given point in the
sedimentation tube.
iv) Observation of the total amount of soil in suspension above a given
elevation.
v)
Observation of total sedimented soil.
vi) Elutriation method
is the field method.
Sedimentation Analysis: a) The pipette method. b) The hydrometer method.

The sedimentation analysis:
The sedimentation analysis is based on the Stokes law which governs the
velocity at which spherical particles settle in a suspension, the larger the
35
particle the greater is the settling velocity and vice versa. ----The Stokes
law may be stated as follows:
Where, V
If
= settling velocity (cm/s)
= diameter of particle (mm)
= gravitational acceleration (m/ sec2)
= specific gravity of soil.
= Viscosity of water (poise, i.e. dyne-sec/cm2)
is the depth of settlement (cm) of a particle in 1 minute, the settling
velocity is given by:
And the Stokes law may be expressed as:
Or
where
By substituting
and
poise at
an
approximate expression for the Stokes law is obtained as

.
Assumptions of Stokes Law:
i)
Soil particles are perfect spherical, rigid and smooth.
ii)
Soil particles are sufficiently large so that Brownian movement, which is

the movement of settlement are too small for dependable measurement,
36
does not influence their rate of fall, that is, the particles are much larger
than water molecules.
iii) The settling velocity is sufficiently low so that the viscosity of the liquid is
the only resistance to settlement, that is, the flow around the particles is
laminar. And
iv) The particle reaches constant terminal velocity within a few seconds after it
is allowed to fall and maintained indefinitely.
Dispersing or deflocculating Agent:
A suitable chemical agent should be used to prevent formation of flocs by

neutralizing electric charges of the fine grain soil, is called Dispersing
agent.
The agent that are commonly used are sodium silicate (NaSiO3), Sodium
Oxalate (Na2C2O4) and Sodium hexametaphosphate Na(PO3).
About 20cc of 2 percent dispersing agents are used.
Hydrometer Method:
A 1000 ml suspension of fine particles is prepared and specific gravity of

the suspension at depth h is measured at given intervals of time using a
hydrometer in Fig.12 and Fig. 13.
The hydrometer gives a direct reading for the specific gravity of the
suspension.
For convenience, the 1 is often omitted from the specific gravity reading on
hydrometers and the decimal point moved three places to the right i.e. a
reading of 12 on the hydrometer means the specific gravity of the
suspension is 1.012.
37
Fig.12 Hydrometer and its Activities
Fig.12b
and
Fig.13
Assume units are grams and milliliters then w = 1gm/cc

38
In original suspension of
Weight of solids = Wb
Volume of solids
Volume of water
Weight of water
Initial density of suspension,

And density of suspension at depth h after time ,
Percentage of particles less than size
in original suspension
and
But
reading of the should be taken after

minutes, 1, 2 and 4 hours and then once or twice daily.
39
Corrections must be made for temperature variations and the addition of

dispersing agent. The hydrometer sinks, h will increase slightly. If is therefore
normal to calibrate the hydrometer before use.
40
41
42
Example - 4:
In a sedimentation test 20 g of soil of specific gravity 2.69 and passing a
sieve were dispersed in
of water having a viscosity of
One hour after the commencement of sedimentation,
of the suspension
were taken by means of a pipette form a depth of 100 mm. The amount of solid
particles (in the sample of 20 ml taken by pipette) obtained on drying was 0.07
g. Compute the following:
a)
The largest size of particle remaining in suspension at a depth of 100 mm,

1 hour after the commencement of sedimentation.
43
b)
The percentage of particles finer than this size in the original sample.
c)
The time interval from the commencement, after which the largest particle
remaining in suspension at 100 mm depth is one-quarter of this size.
Solution:
a)
Also
, At commencement volume of solids
b)
After 1 hour,
Percentage particles less than
c)
if D is multiplied by
1
4
then D2 must be multiplied by
1
16
and t must be
multiplied by 16 i.e.16 hours

Example 5:
44
A sample of soil weighing 50 g is dispersed in 1000 ml of water. How long after

the commencement of sedimentation should the hydrometer reading be taken in
order to estimate the percentage of particles less than 0.002 mm effective
diameter, if the center of the hydrometer is 150 mm below the surface of the
water? Given that
Solution:
From Stokes law,
Time of reading,
Grain Size Distribution curves:
The particle size distribution curve i.e. the grading curve is used to
determine percentage contents of particle sizes necessary for classification
of solids, and to define the grading of the soil.
The grading is defined in terms of the effective size the uniformity

coefficient and the coefficient of curvature.
Three sizes are determined from the grading curve as shown in Fig.14.
45
Fig: 14
i)
Particle diameter at which

coarser than
of the soil mass is finer, i.e.
is
. This diameter is called the effective size. So the
effective size may be defined as the maximum particle size of the smallest
10 percent or the
ii)
finer size.
of the soil mass is finer, called the
finer size.
iii)
of the soil mass is finer, called the
finer size.
46
The uniformity coefficient,

particle size of the smallest
may be defined as the ratio of the maximum

percent to the effective size be,
The co-efficient of curvature may be defined as
The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested. On the basis
of the shapes we can classify soil as:
i) Uniformly graded or poorly graded. ii) Well graded. iii) Gap graded.
Uniformly graded:
Uniformly graded soils are represented by nearly vertical posses lines as shown
by curve C2 in Fig.15 such soils possess particles of almost the same diameter.
---Low values of Cu imply a uniform close grading. If all the particles are the
same size, Cu is unity.
47
Fig: 15
Well graded soil:
A well graded soil represent by curve
granular soil is termed well graded if
, possesses a wide range of particles. A

lies between1-3 and
is greater than
6 in case of sands and greater than 4 in case of gravels.

Gap graded:
A gap graded soil as shown by curve
has some of the sizes of particles
missing. On this curve the soil particles falling within the range of XY are
missing
and
are
parallel curves indicate the same grading curves.

Example 5 :
48
The results of a sieving analysis of a soil were as follows:

Retained on sieve size
(mm)
Weight retained
(gm)
20
12.5 10
1.7
6.3 5.6
2.8
1.4 0.5 0.355 0.18 0.063
2.3 8.4 5.7 12.9 8.5 1.1 30.5 45.3 25.4
7.4
The total weight of the sample was

a)
Plot the particle-size distribution curve and describe the soil comment on
the 'flat' part of curve.
b)
State the effective grain size.
c)
Find the uniformity co-efficient and curvature co-efficient.
Solution:
Retained on
sieve size (mm)
20
12.5
10
6.3
5.6
2.8
1.4
0.5 0.355 0.18 0.063
Weight retained
0
1.7
2.3
8.4
5.7
12.9 8.5 1.1 30.5 45.3 25.4
(gm)
Weight passing
147.2 145.2 143.2 134.8 129.1 116.2 112.7 111.6 81.1 35.8 10.4
(gm):
Percentage
100 98.8 97.2 91.5 87.8 79.0 76.5 75.8 55.0 24.3 7.0
passing:
7.4
3.4
2.0
49
For curve plotted from result as shown in Fig.16
From Fig.16
i)
Description: Poorly graded gravelly sand. The flat portion of the curve
indicates as absences of particles around 2 mm diameter.
ii)
D10 = effective size = 0.21
iii) D60 = 0.69 mm, D30 = 0.35mm
Uniformly co-efficient
Curvature co-efficient
*** Similar Illustrate Examples in Arrora Books No. 3.1, 3.2 3.3.

Introduction of Soil &amp; Index Properties

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Introduction of Soil &amp; Index Properties

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

1

Geotechnical Engineering, Soil Mechanics and Soil

Geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering that deals with

The earth materials referred to here include soil and rock.

The term geotechnical is a derived from Swedish word Geoteckniska

During the period of 1914-1922, a Swedish Commission investigated the

They developed many important concepts, methods of analysis apparatuses

The practice of geotechnical engineering requires the integrated knowledge

Thus geotechnical engineering deals with the multidiscipline coordination

Soil mechanics: This concern with the engineering mechanics and

Rock mechanics: This concern with the engineering mechanics and

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.

Engineering Geology: This deals with the formations features of earth

Soil Engineering: This applies the knowledge of geology, soil mechanics

Rock Engineering: This applies the knowledge of geology, rock

Foundation Engineering: This covers a broader area to include both soil

Geo-environmental Engineering: Considers the environmental effects

Though geotechnical engineering is a universal set of related subjects, yet

As such, the term geotechnical engineering is used in many instances as a

Strictly speaking, the use of a qualifier (like Basic, Elementary,

Scope of Soil Mechanics:

The knowledge of soil mechanics has immense importance and vast

Some of the prominent subjects are as follows:

Foundation of structures: All civil engineering structures eventually

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.

Underground and earth retaining structures: Loading on structures like

Embankment, excavation and dam: Construction of earth embankment

Pavement: The design of either a rigid or flexible pavement depends

However, the construction of some amazing and huge structures show a

The notable examples are as follows:

Hanging gardens of Babylon

Large public buildings, harbors, aqueducts, bridges, roads and sanitary

The learning tower of Pisa

The Great Wall of China

The irrigation canals, dikes and levees constructed by ancient Indians,

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.

Important Contribution to the Field of

The recorded earlier events of important contribution to the field of

Wedge theory of earth pressure published by a Frenchman, coulomb in

Extension of Coulombs theory by a Frenchman Poncelet in 1840, a

Stokes (an Englishman) law of falling velocity of particles in a fluid

Darcys (a Frenchman) law of fluid flow through soil mass in 1856.

Rankines (Scottish) theory of earth pressure in 1857.

Paukers (a Russian) bearing capacity theory, 1859.

Boussinesqs (a Frenchman) theory of stress distribution, 1885.

Mohrs (a German) work on graphical analysis of stress in 1887 and failure

The prominence of these earlier works is so appreciable that many of these

In twentieth century much attention and interest have been focused on

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.

The most notable references are:

Consistencies of soil and their limits by Atterberg 1911

Bells bearing capacity theory,1915

Prandtls theory of bearing capacity, 1920

Terzaghis theory of one dimensional consolidation, 1925; bearing capacity

Cassgrandes works on Atterberg limits, clay structure, consolidation of

Compaction of soil by proctor,1933

Stability analysis of slope by Fellenius, 1936, bearing capacity theory by

Taylors theory on stability of earth slope, 1937, characteristics of

Newmarks chart for computation of stresses in elastic foundation,1942

Bearing capacity theory by Meyerhof,1951

Skemptons bearing capacity theory,1951,pore pressure parameters,1954

Dynamics of bases and foundations by barkan,1962

Stress path concept of Lambe and Whitman,1969

Vibrations of soil and foundations by Richart, 1970.

Introduction of Soil & Index Properties

Introduction of Soil & Index Properties