1

DUET
CE-3301
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING -I
NOTE NO. 03

IDENTIFICATION OF SOILS; SOIL COMPOSITION; ENGINEERING

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET.

IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

Purpose/ benefits of soil identification and classification

1. The engineer to prepare his design, must learn what materials are present
and what properties they posses. Knowledge are gathered by reference to
geologic and engineering literature but mainly by extracting, examining
and possibly testing samples will be representative by soil materials.
2. Proper classification of subsurface materials is an important in
connection with any foundation job, because it provides the first clues to
the experience that may be anticipated during and after construction.
3. The ability to identify and classify soils properly is basic to the analysis
of all engineering problems dealing with earth material.
4. Identification and classification of soil samples are described, tested, and
evaluated depends on the type of structure to be built, economy.
5. If soils are grouped on the basis of certain definite principles and rated
according to its performance the properties of a given soil can be
understood to a certain extent, on the basis of some simple tests.
Field identification of soil:

A soil sample is separated on a flat surface and based on observation, is

classified as coarse grained if more than half of the material visible to the naked
eye, otherwise it is classified as fined grained.

Coarse-grained soils materials:

The coarse-grained soils materials are minerals fragments that may be

identified primarily on the basis of grain size. The different constituents of
coarse-grained materials are sand and gravel. The size of sand varies from
0.075mm to 4.75mm and that of gravel from 4.75mm to 80mm. the sand can
further be classified as coarse, medium, and fine. The engineer should have an
idea of the relative sizes of the grains in order to identify the various fractions.
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET.

Fine-grained soils materials:

Inorganic soils: The constituent parts of fine-grained materials are silt and
clay fractions. Both these materials are microscopic in size, physical properties
other than grain size must be used as criteria for field identification. The
following tests are used in the field for preliminary identification:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Dry strength test.

Dilatancy test or shaking test.
Plasticity test.
Dispersion test.

1. Dry strength test: The dry strength of a soil is an indication of its cohesion
and hence of its nature. It can be estimated by crushing a 3mm size of a dried
fragment between thumb and forefinger. A clay fragment can be broken only
with a great effort where as silt fragment crushes easily.
2. Shaking test or Dilitancy test: It helps to distinguish silt from clay since silt
is more permeable than clay. In this test a part of soil mixed with water to a very
soft consistency is placed in the palm of the hand. The surface of the soil is
smoothed out with a knife and the soil is shaken by tapping the back of the
hand. If the soil is silt, the water will rise quickly to the surface and give it a
shiny glistering appearance. If the part is then deformed either by squeezing or
stretching, the water will flow back into the soil and leave the surface with a
dull appearance. Since clay soils contains much smaller voids than silts and are
much less permeable, the appearance of the surface of part does not change
during the shaking test. An estimate of the relative properties of silt and clay in
an unknown soil mixture can be made by nothing whether the reaction is rapid,
slow or nonexistent.

3. Plasticity test: If a sample of moist soil can be manipulated between the

palms of the hands and fingers and rolled into a long thread of about 3mm
diameter, the soil then contains a significant amount of clay. Where as silt
cannot be rolled into a thread of 3mm diameter without severe cracking.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET.

4. Dispersion test: This test is useful for making a rough estimate of sand, silt
and clay present in materials. The procedure consists in dispersing a small
quantity of the soil in water taken in a glass cylinder and allowing the particles
to settle first followed by finer ones. Ordinary sand particles settle within about
30 seconds if the depth of water is about 10cms. Silt particles settle in about 0.5
to 240 minutes whereas particles of clay size remain in suspension for at least
several hours and sometimes several days. The time required for some of the
particles size to settle through 10cms is given in Table-1.
Table
Dispersion test - Time to settle 10 cm depth.

Particle size (mm)

Velocity of fall (cm/s)

Time to settle 10 cm
depth

2.0

360

0.03 sec

0.6

32

0.31 sec

0.2

36

2.78 sec

0.06

324 x 10-3

30.8 sec

0.02

36 x 10-3

4 m 38 sec

0.002

36 x 10-5

7 hour 43 m

0.0002

36 x 10-7

32 days 3 hour 36 m

Organic Soils: Surface soils and many underlying formations may contain
significant amounts of solid matter derived from organisms. While shale
fragments and similar solid matter are found at some locations, organic
materials in soil is usually derived from plant or root growth and consists almost
completely disintegrated matter, such as muck or more fibrous materials, such
as peat. The soils with organic matter are weaker and more compressible than
soils having the same mineral composition but lacking in organic matter. The
presence of an appreciable quantity of organic material can usually be
recognized by the dark-gray to black color and the odor of decaying vegetation
which it lends to the soils.
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET.

Organic silt: It is fine grained more or less plastic soil containing minerals
particles of silt size and finely divided particles of organic matter. Shells visible
fragment of partly decayed vegetative matter may also be present.

Organic clay: It is a clay soil which owes some of its significant physical
properties to the presence of finely divided organic matter. Highly organic soil
deposits such muck or peat may be distinguished by a dark-brown to black
color, by the presence of fibrous particles of vegetable matter in varying status
of decay. The organic odor is a distinguishing characteristic of the soil. The
organic odor can sometimes be distinguished by a slight amount of heat.

Classification of soils:
The object of soil classification is to divide soils into a limited number of
groups. On the basis of a few characteristics the grading and the plasticity the
various soil classification systems are:
A. Textural system.
1. Bureau of soils, USDA (United States department of agriculture).
2. ASTM system (American society for testing materials)
3. MIT system (Massachusetts institute of technology)
4. The international soil classification system.
B. The unified soil classification system.
C. AASHTO system (American association of the state highway
and transportation officials)
D. PRA system (public roads administration classification system)

Unified soil classification:

The unified soil classification (USC) system originally proposed in the United
States in 1957. Soil is identified and allocated to an appropriate group on the
basis of grading and plasticity, after excluding boulders and cobbles. Each
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET.

group is represented by a group symbol consisting of a primary and a secondary

descriptive letter. The descriptive letters the basic soil components are given in
table.1. The essentials features of the USC system are given in table 2 and 3.C u
= the uniformity co-efficient =

and Cc= the co-efficient of curvature =

where D10, D30, D60 are shown in Fig.-1.

Fig.-1 Analysis of grading curve.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET.

Table -1
Descriptive letters and Basic soil component in the unified soil classification
system
Primary
Letter

Soil
component

Size & Description

Gravel

Sand

Silt

Particles smaller than 75m, identified by

plasticity

Clay

Particles smaller than 75m, identified by

plasticity

Organic
Metter

Organic matter in various size & stages of

decomposition

Pt

Peat

Bulky, hard particles, Coarse:75mm-19mm,

Fine:19mm-4.75mm
Bulky, hard particles, Coarse:4.75mm-2.0mm,
Medium: 2.0mm-425m, Fine: 425m -75m

Highly organic soils

Secondary Letter

Description

Well graded

Poorly graded

Non- plastic fines i.e. silt

Plastics fines i.e. clay

Low plasticity, WLL< 50%

High plasticity, WLL>50%

Table 2
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET.

USC of coarse grained soil more than 50% > 75%

Primary
division

Group
symbol
s

Description

Gravel

GW

Well graded gravels,

Sandy gravel with little
or no fines

05

Poorly graded gravels,

Sandy gravel with little
or no fines

0 5 Not satisfying
GW
requirements

GM

Silty gravels, Silty

Sandy gravels

>12

Below A line
or Ip < 4

GC

Clayey gravels, Clayey

Sandy gravels

>12

Above A line
or Ip > 7

(More
than 50%
of coarse
fraction of
gravel
size)

GP

Laboratory criteria
Fine
s
(%)

Grading/Plastic Remarks
ity
Cu > 4
1 < Cc <3

Use dual
symbols
if fines
are 5
12% or
Ip = 4
7.
For
Exam:
GW
GM
SM SC

Sands
(More
than 50%
of coarse
fraction of
sand size)

SW

Well graded sands,

gravelly sands with
little or no fines

05

Poorly graded sands,

gravelly sands with
little or no fines

Not satisfying
SW
05
requirements

SM

Silty sands

>12

Below A line
or Ip < 4

SC

Clayey sands

>12

Above A line
or Ip > 7

SP

Cu > 6
1 < Cc <3

* Soil fines mentioned in Table 2 refer to the fraction smaller than 75m or
No. 200 sieve.
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET.

Table 3
USC of Fine grained and Organic soils (More than 50% of material < 75m
sieve size)
Primary
division

Group
symbo
l

Description

Field criteria
Dilatancy

Dry
strength

Plasticity

Silts &
Clays

ML

Inorganic silts of
low plasticity

Quick to
slow

None to
slight

None to
slight

(Liquid
limit less
than 50%)

CL

Inorganic clays of
low plasticity

None to
very slow

Medium to
high

Medium
to slight

OL

Organic silts of
low plasticity

Slow

Slight to
Medium

Slight

Silts &
Clays

MH

Inorganic silts of
high plasticity

Slow to
none

Slight to
Medium

Slight to
Medium

(Liquid
limit more
than 50%)

CH

Inorganic clays of
high plasticity

None

High to
very high

High

OH

Organic clay of high

plasticity

None to
very
slow

Medium to
high

Slight to
Medium

Highly
organic
Soils

Pt

Peat and other highly Organic color, odor, spongy feels,

organic soils
frequently fibrous.

Plasticity chart: Casagrande devised a plasticity chart which is useful for

identifying and classifying USC system for fine grained soils. The chart which
is constructed, the ordinate represents the values of the plasticity index and the
abscissa the values of the liquid limit and used in unified soil classification is
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DUET.

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called plasticity chart. The equation of the inclined line is Ip = PI = 0.73 (WLL 20) which is called the A line. The plasticity chart is shown in fig-2.
60

50

-8)
ine
- L .9(LL
U
=0
PI

40
Plasticity Index (%)

CL

CI

=
PI

CH

LL
(
3
0.7

20)

Inorganic Silts of High

Compressibility and Organic
Clays

Inorganic Clays of Medium

Plasticity

Inorganic Clays
of Low Plasticity

ML
or
OL

MI
or
OI
Inorganic Silts of
Low Compressibility

10
Cohesionless
Soil
CL - ML

e
Lin

Inorganic Clays of High Plasticity

30

20

A-

10

20

30

40

50

MH
or
OH
Inorganic Silts of Medium
Compressibility and Organic Silts

60

70

80

90

100

Liquid Limit (%)

Fig-2: Plasticity chart for fine grained Soils.

All soils represented by points bellow the line may be inorganic silts,
organic silts organic clay. Inorganic clays may be of low, medium or high
plasticity depending on whether liquid limit is below 30, between 30 and 50 or
above 50. Similarly the inorganic silts are said to be of low, medium or low
compressibility according to the region they fall bellow the line. Organic silts
are represented by points within the region bounded by liquid limit of 30 and 50
and organic clays by points in the region with liquid limit, greater than 50. This
chart is explained in above table-2 and 3.

Example-1:
Mechanical analysis on four different samples designed as a, b, c and d were
carried out in a soil laboratory. The results of tests are given below. Hydrometer
analysis was carried out on sample D, soil is non-plastic.
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Sample D:
Liquid limit = 42
Plastic limit = 24
Plasticity index = 18.

Samples

ASTM sieve
designation

Percentage finer than

63.0 mm

100

93

20.0 mm

64

76

6.30 mm

39

100

65

2.00 mm

24

98

59

600 m

12

90

54

212 m

47

100

63 m

34

95

20 m

23

69

6 m

14

46

2 m

31

Classify the soil as per the unified classification system.

Solution:
Grin size distribution curves of samples A, B, C and D are given in the
following Graph No .1.
The values of Cu and Cc are obtained from the curves as given below

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DUET.

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Cu =

and Cc =

Sample

D10

D30

D60

Cu

Cc

0.47

3.50

16.0

34.0

1.60

0.23

0.30

0.41

1.80

0.95

0.003

0.042

2.40

800.0

0.25

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DUET.

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Graph No.-1
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET.

14

Sample A: Well graded sandy gravel classified as GW. Gravel size particle more
than 50%, fine grained soil less than 50% Cu greater than 4, and Cc lies between
1 and 3.
Sample B: Poorly-graded sand, classified as SP with 96% of particles being of
sand. Finer fraction is less than 5%. Cu=1.8, Cc is not between 1 and 3.
Sample C: Gravel-sand-silt mixture, classified as GM. Coarse grained fraction
greater than 66% and finer grained fraction less than 34% the soil is non-plastic.
Cu is very high but Cc is 0.25 only.
Sample D: Silty-clay of low plasticity, classified as CL. Finer fraction 95% with
clay size particles 31%. The point plots just above the A-line in the CL zone on
the plasticity chart.

Textural soil classification system

In soil mechanics, soil texture is understood to be the combination of the size or

granulometry of individual soil particles and the proportion by dry weight of the
material of certain groups of particle size present.
The size of a soil particle is one of the most apparent physical properties of a
soil. It is therefore no wonder that most of the older soil classification systems
used in soil technology is based on soil particle size or diameter. Accordingly
such systems are termed textural soil classification systems.

Table: Some textural soil classification system

1. Bureau of soil USDA
2.0 mm

1.0 mm

0.5 mm

0.25
mm

0.1 mm

Coarse

Medium

Fine

Very
fine

Gravel

0.05 mm

Silt

0.005 mm

Clay

Sand
2. ASTM system
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DUET.

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2.0 mm

0.42 mm

0.074 mm

0.005 mm

0.001 mm
Colloidal

Medium
sand

Fine sand

Silt

Clay

Clay

Note: 0.001mm = 1 micron

3. MIT nomenclature
2.0
mm

0.60

Coarse Medium

0.20

0.06

0.02

Fine

Coarse Medium

Sand

0.006
Fine

0.002
Coarse

Silt

0.0006
Medium

0.000
2
Fine

Clay

4. International system
2.0
mm

1.0

0.5

0.05 0.02
0.2

Very Coars
coars
e
e

Mediu
m

0.1

0.0
06

Fine Coars
e

Sand

Fine

Glacial silts

0.00
0.002 06

0.000
2

Coars Fine Coars Fine

e
e
Silt

Clay

5. AASHTO system
75 mm

2.0 mm

0.42 mm

Coarse
Gravel

0.074 mm

Fine
Sand

Silt and Clay

Comparison between AASHTO and Unified soil classification system:

AASHTO system

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DUET.

Ultra
fine

16

75 mm

2.0 mm

0.42 mm

Coarse

0.074 mm

Fine
Sand

Gravel

Silt and Clay

Unified system

75 mm

19 mm

Coarse

Fine

Gravel

4.75mm
Coarse

2.0 mm
Medium

0.425 mm

0.075 mm

Fine
Silt and Clay

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET.

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Fig-3: Tri angular textural Classification chart used by the U.S Department of
Agriculture

Description of Triangular Classification of Fig. 3

The first step in the classification of soil is to determine the percentages of sand,
silt and clay size materials in a given sample by mechanical analysis. With the
given relative percentages of the sand, silt and clay a point is located on the
triangular chart as shown in Fig. 3.

The designation given on the chart for the area in which the point falls is then
used as the classification of the sample. This method of classification does not
reveal any properties of the soil other than grain size distribution. Because of its
simplicity it is widely used by workers in the field of agriculture and highway
engineering. One significant disadvantage of this method is that the textural
name as derived from the chart does not always correctly express the physical
characteristics of the soil. For example since some clay size particles are much
less active than others, a soil described as clay on the basis of this system may
have physical properties more typical of silt.
A loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay particles in
varying proportions. The term loam originated in agricultural soil work and
was taken over by highway engineers who have to deal with surface soil layers.
Highway Sub grade soil Classification
The AASHTO soil classification: the soil classification system presented by
the highway representatives are a modification of the PRA soil classification
system. The modified system is summarized in Table - 4
Table 4
General

Granular materials

Silt Clay materials

Classifi
ca-tion

(35% or less passing No. 200)

(More than 35% passing

No. 200)

Group
Classifi

A1

A2

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DUET.

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ca-tion
Sieve
analysis

3
A1-a

A1-b

4
A2-4

A2-5

A2-6

A2-7

7
A-75

Percent
passing

A-76

No. 10

50m
ax

No. 40

30m 50m 51mi

ax
ax
n

No. 200 15m 25m 10m 35m 35m 35m 35m 36mi 36mi 36mi 36mi
ax
ax
ax
ax
ax
ax
ax
n
n
n
n
Charact
eris-tics
of
fraction
passing
No. 40
Liquid
limit
Plasticit
y Index

Group
Index

6 max

N.P
(0)

Usual
Stone
type of
fragments
significa gravel and
nt
sand
constitu
ent
material

Fine
sand

40m 41m 40m 41m 40m 41mi 40m 41mi

ax
in
ax
in
ax
n
ax
n
10m 10m 11m 11m 10m
ax
ax
in
in
ax

4 max

Silty or clayey gravel

and sand

8
max

10m 11mi 11mi

ax
n
n

12m
ax

Silty soils

16m
ax

20m
ax

Clayey soils

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DUET.

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General
rating as
sub
grade

Excellent to good

Fair to poor

60

50

Plasticity Index (%)

40
A-7-6

=
PI

30

LL

-3

20
A - 6 and A - 2 - 6

A - 7 - 5 and A - 2 - 7

10
A - 4 and A - 2 - 4

10

20

30

A - 5 and A - 2 - 5

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Liquid Limit (%)

Group index of AASHTO system or PRA system.

A new factor in the AASHTO soil classification system is the so-called
group index. The group index is calculated from the following formula:

Group index = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005 (WLL-40)] + 0.01 (F - 15)(Ip - 10)

In which,

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DUET.

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F = Percentage passing 0.074mm (No.200) sieve, expressed as a positive

whole number. This percentage is based only on the material passing
the 75mm (3in) sieve.
WLL= Liquid limit
Ip = plasticity index
The group index should be reported to the nearest whole number. When
the calculated group index in negative, the group index shall be reported as
zero, (0)

When calculating the group index of A 2 6 and A 2 7 subgroups.

Only the Ip portion of the formula shall be used.
Under average field and construction conditions drainage and
compaction, for instance, the good qualities of a sub-grade material are related
as being in inverse ratio to its group index. For example, a group index the
value of which is zero generally indicates a good sub-grade material. A group
index the value of which is 20 indicates a poor sub-grade material.
Example-2:
A sample of inorganic soil has the following grain size characteristics.
Size (mm)

Percent Passing

2.0

95

0.074 (No.200)

75

The liquid limit is 56 percent, and plasticity index 25percent .classify the soil
according to the AASHTO/PRA system.

Soln:
Here, F = 75%; WLL= 56%;

Ip = 25%.

We have,
Group Index = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005 (WLL-40)] + 0.01 (F - 15)(IP - 10)
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DUET.

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= (75 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(56 - 40)] + 0.01 (75 - 15)(25 - 10)

=40[0.2 + 0.005x16] + 0.01x60x15
=20.2 say 20
On the basis of limit values and table-4, the soil either A 7 5 or A 7 6
Since IP = 25% = or < (LL-30) i.e. (56-30) = 26%
So classification is A 7 5 (20) (Ans.)

Example - 3.
A sample of inorganic soil has the following grain-size characteristics:
Size (mm)

Percent finer

2.0 (No.10)

100

0.075 (No.200)

71

0.050

67

0.005

31

0.002

19

The liquid limit is 53 percent, and the plasticity index is 22 percent. Classify
this soil according to the following systems: U.S.D.A; AASHO; unified.
Soln:
USDA:
Clay size 19 percent, silt size= 67-19=48 percent. Classification of soil
according to Fig.-3 Tri angular textural Classification chart: loam (Ans.)
AASHO:
Computation of group index:
Here, F=71; LL=53; IP=22
Group index= (F - 7) [0.2 + 0.005 (LL - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15) (IP - 10)
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DUET.

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= (71 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005 (53 - 40)] + 0.01(71 - 15) (22 - 10)

=16.26 say 26
On the basis of limit values and table-4, the soil is either A 7 5 or A 7 6.
Since IP=22 but IP = 53 30 = 23.
IP = 22 < 23
So the classification of soil is A 7 5 (16) (Ans.)
UNIFIED:
LL = 53, IP = 22, according to table - 2 and Fig. - 2 of plasticity chart, the soil
classification is MH. (Ans.)

EXERCISE
1. The portion of a soil passing through no.200 sieve is 95% and it liquid
limit of 60% and plasticity index of 40. What is the value of group index
and also classify the soil.
2. A sample of soil passing through the 0.075mm sieve is 60% liquid limit
of 20% and plasticity index of 1% .classify the soil by AASHO system.

3. A sample of soil passing through the no.200 sieve is 55%, liquid limit of
40% and plasticity index of 25%. Classify the soil by AASHO system.
4. A sample of inorganic soil has the following grain-size characteristics:
Size (mm)
2.0(no.10)
0.075(no.200)

percent, finer
100
45

0.050

39

0.005

20

0.002

16

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DUET.

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The liquid limit is 27 percent and the plasticity index is 6 percent.

Classify the soil according to the USDA; AASHTO and unified system.
Ans.: Sandy loam; A-4(0); SM-SC.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET.