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30
[Vol. 6:23
1983]
ISLMIC LAW
32
[Vol. 6:23
his own argument, and all of them are sincerely striving in the way of
22
God."
D. Schools of Law
"Schools of Law" is the usual translation of al-madhahib, which
literally means "the ways of going." In most works on Islam the term
al-madhahib has become identical with Islamic Law. This identification, in itself a basic misconception, seems in addition to overlook two
main facts about these schools:
1. The four famous schools-the Hanafite, the Malikite, the Shafiite and the Hanbalite-are by no means the only schools in the history
of Muslim jurisprudence, nor are they even fully representative of Sunnite jurisprudence.
From about the middle of the first century up to the beginning of the -fourth, not less than nineteen schools of Law and
legal opinion appeared in Islam. This fact alone is sufficient
to show how incessantly our early doctors of law worked in
order to meet the necessities of a growing civilization.2 3
Most of these schools, t is true, were overwhelmed by the stronger influence of the famous four, but their disappearance as influential
schools does not imply their ineffectiveness, whether in the real establishment of Muslim jurisprudence or in setting its trends.
There is also the Shiite School of Law. Shiah is an Arabic expression which means "partnership." It was first used by a section of Muslims who attached themselves to Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet
Muhammed. This attachment not only asserted itself after the death of
the Prophet, but it also took no concrete shape or legal bearing until
after the death of All, the fourth caliph. Says Professor Asaf Fyzee,
himself a Shiite:
When the caliphate came into the hands of the Umayyads after the death of the first four caliphs and religion itself was
made the plaything of political ambition, the murder of
Husain, the Prophet's grandson, set the seal on official Shiism.
This faith preserved the passionate remembrance of this tragedy at Karbala, created an 'imam' who would be the focal
point for the love normally showered on the founder of Islam,
and systematically formulated a theology (Kalam) and a law
(Fiqh) in opposition to the Sunni creed.
With the exception of the Shiite concept of the infallibility of the imam
22. Abu-Zahrah, Malik, (Arabic), 213-14.
23. IQBAL, THE RECONSTRUCTION OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT IN ISLAM, 165.
24.
113.
1983]
ISLAMIC LAW
or the caliph, which the Sunnites basically reject, and the difference in
authentication due to some subjective political elements, there is no
great difference between the two schools of law. Says Professor Fyzee:
Apart from the doctrine of Imamat, the difference between
the Sunnite and Shiite schools is not very great. . . . As has
been pointed out by Goldziher, there are really no 'sects' in
Islam but only 'schools' or madhahib (singular, madhab), of
Muslim law. Strictly speaking, belief in the one and only God
and the apostleship of the Prophet Mohammed are the only
two beliefs necessary in Islam. In the theory of the law all
Muslims are brothers and equals, and differences in opinion
on questions of law do not constitute them, speaking legally
of course, into separate sects of the kind, for example, which
we find in Hindu law."
There are still several schools of thought within the Shiites, the most
important of which are the Ithna-Asharis and the Ismailis. "The
Zaydis, who are concentrated in the Yaman, combine Shii and Sunni
doctrines," says Professor Fyzee. The number of Shiites, as approximately calculated by him is twenty million.
2. The second fact which is often overlooked about al-madhahib,
or the schools of law, is that none of them was actually established
during the lifetime of the jurist with whose name it later became identified. This reveals yet another fact, namely, that early Muslim jurists
did not mean to establish schools, they only meant to exert all their
means of knowledge, whether in historical authentication, linguistic
implications, or in the comprehension of new occurrences. Their common purpose was to contribute to a healthy relation between the Muslims and their Shariah. None of them ever thought of erecting himself
as a barrier between the Muslims and the Shariah. Significantly, in all
books about Abu Hanifah, in whose name the first school was gradually established, one can easily discover that the methods and opinions
which later became characteristic of this school were neither introduced
nor recorded by him in writing. Even in regard to the basic conceptions of al-i/ma' and al-qiyas (the latter being usually, but inaccurately,
ascribed to Abu Hanifah, as being peculiar to hisfiqh), it is recorded
that the Hanifite scholars after his death deduced those juristic rules
from what they had collected of his opinions on different issues. Malik,
in whose name the second school came into being, rejected the caliph's
proposal to enforce his Al-Muwatta as a general legal code. No different from the attitudes of Abu Hanifah and Malik, was that of AlShafi'i, who changed his opinion on many issues after moving from
25.
36.
34
[Vol. 6:23
Iraq to Egypt. However, the third school came into existence under his
name. Ibn Hanbal did not write any books on jurisprudence. He left
only a compilation of authenticated traditions. He explicitly stated, "I
am not a man of dogmatic theology, rather, I am against it. Only what
or what has been authentically conveyed,
is in the Book and Sunnah,
26
may be considered."
The fact that none of these jurists, including those whose names
are associated with the four Sunnite schools, ever intended to establish
a definite school gives rise to the natural question: why and how, then,
were these schools of law gradually established? The answer to this
question is well indicated in the very conception of afma (consensus of
opinion) which these schools presented as a third source of Islamic
Law. The usual arguments for the validity of al-6fma can be summarized as follows:
1. The Quranic injunction: "And whoever acts hostilely to the
Messenger after guidance has become manifest, and follows other than
the way of the believers, we turn him to that to which he (himself)
turns ....
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