EIM313

Industrial Control

Industrial Control Systems

Industrial control systems are often divided into two major groups, servomechanism control and
process control.
Servomechanism control involves the control of power to manipulate the position, speed, or
acceleration of an object (so as to follow closely the set-point command). There must be some
regulation to reduce the effects of a disturbance on the objects movement. However, the analysis
and design of servo systems are carried out primarily from the viewpoint of how well the output
responds to a change in set-point, given a constant load. This response is fast, often completed
within a second or less.
In process control the variables that are manipulated are those used most often in manufacturing,
which involves change of material or physical shape/state. Manipulated variables include
temperature, liquid and solid level, flow rate, pressure, force, pH, humidity, etc. The primary
objective is to regulate one or more of these variables, keeping them at the set-point. This
regulation must compensate for changes in the systems load (conditions) and other disturbances
introduced.
Analysis and design of process control systems are carried out primarily from the viewpoint of
how well the output responds to a change in load, given a constant set-point (though this may
also change, though slightly). Responds rates are slow, often on the order of minutes or hours.
Process control systems may be subdivided into two categories: batch and continuous processes.
Batch processing involves the timed sequencing of operations performed on the material(s) being
processed. For example, manufacturing a chemical product may invlove mixing two chemicals,
heating them for a certain period, cooling and then draining from the tank. Another example is
boiler start-up.
Batch processing is usually performed by relays, digital logic or PLCs.
In a continuous process, one or more characteristics of the material being processed are
manipulated as the material passes through that part of the process. Material is continuously
entering and leaving the process. Producing film is an example of a continuous process. A liquid
is continuously poured onto a rotating drum, where it cools into a sheet. The sheet is pulled off,
heated, and stretched in both length and width to set the correct dimensions of thickness and
width. Additional processing such as coating, drying stages may be applied as the film passes by.
Another example is boiler temperature/pressure control where water/steam is continuously
entering and leaving the (heating) process.
Process Characteristics
Before one can control a process, one must fully understand its behaviour. One important
characteristic of processes is that of delaying and retarding changes in the value of the process
variables; for example the temperature of the hot water out of a heat-exchanger process takes
some time to respond to a set-point change.

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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cold water
in

thermocouple

Temp
indicator

steam
input

hot water
output

valve
valve
steam coils

steam
out
These delays and retardations are referred to as process time lags. These time-lags, in addition to
inertia, are caused by three properties of the process: capacitance., resistance and transportation
time. These elements determine the dynamic and steady-state responses to upsets.
Capacitance
Those parts of a process which have the ability to store energy (or a quantity of material) are
termed capacities. For example, a liquid/gas storage tank, or the thermal capacity of walls of
steam coils in a heat-exchanger system. This energy storing capacity gives capacities the ability
to retard change.
Below is the system equations and the block diagram for the capacitive element.
C

dc
1
m (Cs )c c
m
dt
Cs

1
Cs

where C is the capacitance, c the output variable and m is the input variable.
Resistance
These are parts of a process which resist the transfer of energy or material between capacities.
The insulating effect of the walls of the steam pipes that resist the transfer of heat between the
steam and the water to be heated. The thermal resistance is given by
R

d
Rdq d
dq

where d is the temperature drop across the thermal resistance corresponding to a change dq in
the energy flow rate.
In the block diagram, m refers to the input variable (heat energy) and c is the output variable
(temperature)

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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Pressure drop through pipes and other equipment is another illustration of a resistance-type
process. The drop may be due to valves or a capillary flow system. In this case
dh
dq

where h is the (liquid) head (measure of pressure) and q is the liquid flow rate.
Resistance and capacitance
The combined effect of supplying a capacity through a resistance is a time retardation, which is
very basic to most dynamic systems found in industrial processes. An example is the heatexchanger system. Such resistance-capacity(R-C) time retardations are often called capacity lags
or transfer lags.
Processes may be classified by the number and arrangement of their R-C pairs.
cold water
in
R1
steam
input

hot water
out

C1

heat capacity
of steam coils

resistance to
heat flow of pipes, etc.

heat capacity of
water in tank

Supplying/discharging a capacitance through a resistance gives the following transfer function:

R
m where T = RC
Ts 1

R
c
Ts 1

Process elements of this description are generally referred to as first-order lags. The response of
a first-order system is characterised by two constants: a time constant T and a gain K. The
response curve is the exponential.
A process may have two or more tanks connected in series, and the system, therefore, has two or
more time constants operating in series. The additional time-constant produce the S-shaped
response curves and serve to retard the initial response.
Second-Order Response
Due to inertia effects (electro-mechanical systems) and various interactions between first-order
resistance and capacitance elements, some processes are second order in nature and are described
by the following transfer equation:

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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c
s 2 s
2
n

Three solutions are posible depending on the value of the damping ratio: underdamped,
overdamped or critically damped.
The actual frequency of an underdamped response is related to the natural frequency by

n 1

Dead Time
A contributing factor to the dynamics of many processes involving the movement of mass from
one point to another is the transportation lag, or dead time. For example, if the temperature of the
incoming water in the heat-exchanger system drops, some time will elapse before this water
affects the temperature (reading) of the outgoing water. This is not a slowing down or retardation
of a change, it is a discrete time delay during which no change whatsoever occurs.

Hot water
temperature

dead-time

0
time
Dead-time introduced by moving position of thermometer

The transfer function for dead-time is

Ls

where L is the delay.

A transit delay thus represents constant gain but a phase shift that increases linearly with
frequency.

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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That is, the response curves are shifted to the right by the presence of the dead-time. Once deadtime has passed, the process starts responding at its characteristic speed, as determined by its
dynamic response curve.
The transportation lag may be reduced by increasing the rate of pumping (increase velocity at
which material travels) or agitation (mixing), or reducing the distance between the measuring
device and the process. Some processes are inherently dead-time processes, for example a belt
feeder.
Transit delay also occurs in sampled-data systems.
Types of process disturbances
Supply disturbances: this is a change in the energy (or material) input to a process. For example,
changes in steam quality, steam pressure, or steam valve opening.
Demand disturbances: this is a change in the energy (or material) output from a process. For
example, changes in cold water temperature and rate of water flow.
Problem of Control
The automatic control system should be able to influence the overall plant dynamic response
such that this response is within some specified (performance) criteria (e.g. quarter cycle
damping).
If closed-loop control were applied (to maintain desired output temperature), and the demandload was increased, exact correction applied simulataneously with the load change may prevent
any deviation of the controlled variable. Exact correction here refers to that correction required
to exactly compensate for any load change.
But this is not possible due to the process time lags that include, for example, capacity lags
(steam pipes, water), steam valve opening (delay), dead-time and measurement delays.
Meanwhile, the controlled variable continues to deviate from the desired value.
This shows that the problem of control is to overcome the effects of time lags that occur around
the closed-loop of control. That is, the control system should be applied in such a manner as to
improve the response of the controlled variable to load changes.
The manner in which a control system makes corrections relative to deviation is referred to a the
mode of control.
Modern industrial control instruments are usually made to produce one (or a combination) of the
following modes: proportional-, integral- and derivative-control. Selection of the control mode(s)
will depend on the needs of the particular process.
Process Variables
Many external and internal conditions affect the performance of a process unit. These conditions
may be expressed in terms of process variables such as temperature, pressure, flow, level, etc.
The process is usually controlled by measuring one of the variables that represents the state of
Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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the system (the controlled variable) and then by automatically adjusting one of the variables that
determine the state of the system (manipulated variable).
Consider the heat exchanger system. The purpose of the exchanger is to maintain a supply of
water at a constant temperature. The variable that best represents this objective is the temperature
of the exit water, and should be selected as the controlled variable.
In other cases, direct control of the variable that best represents the desired condition is not
possible. For example, in producing a chemical product direct measurement of the product
composition is not always possible, in which case other process variables that are directly related
to the composition need to be used. The choice could be holding the pressure constant and use
the temperature as an indication of composition.
To fully understand a process, one must know the number of variables that can be controlled in
the process. Consider, for example, a ship. In order to specify its position, we would require three
co-ordinates: altitude, latitude and longitude. However, the altitude is not arbitrary because it is
given by the sea level. Consequently the ship has two degrees of freedom. This result is derived
from the following relation:
df v e

where df = number of degrees of freedom

v = number of variables that describe the system
e = number of independent relationships that exist among the various variables
An airplane has three degrees of freedom and a train has one (its speed). Similarly, a process has
a finite number of degrees of freedom. Consider the heat exchanger. There are four variables:
inlet temperature
outlet temperature (controlled variable)
water flow rate
heat input rate
and v = 4. There is one defining equation obtained from conservation of energy (first law of
thermodynamics). Therefore, e = 1. The number of degrees of freedom for this process are 4 1
= 3.
Therefore, the number of independently acting automatic controllers on a system or process may
not exceed the number of degrees of freedom. This means three controllers may be used to
control the heat exchanger. However, this option is not usually exercised and only one control
loop can be used. One would select the controlled variable to be the process property which is
the most important, because it has the most impact on plant productivity, safety or product
quality. One would select the manipulated variable to be that process input variable which has
the most direct influence on the controlled variable, which in this case is the flow rate of the
heating fluid (heat input rate).
The other load variables are uncontrolled independent variables which, when they change, will
upset the system, and their effects can only be corrected in a feedback manner.

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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Control Modes
The total performance of a control system depends on the overall response of the control loop
and process acting together. The response is evaluated by the speed with which the controlled
variable returns to the set-point and by the amount of overcorrection or overshoot that occurs and
affect the stability of the system during an upset condition. Depending on the nature of the
process, different modes may be required for optimum performance.
In this section the closed loop response using the various control modes will be described. It will
be noted that, in general, the differential equation describing the behavior of a control system is a
function of not only the controller but of the process dynamics and the control hardware as well.
Each element in the control loop can contribute significantly to the overall performance of the
system.
Analysis of a FB-controlled process
To illustrate the overall analysis of a control system, consider the following generalised block
diagram:
The transfer function of the system is
y( s)

Gp( s )Gf ( s )Gc( s )

Gd ( s )
y sp ( s )
d ( s)
1 Gp ( s )Gf ( s )Gc( s )Gm( s )
1 Gp ( s )Gf ( s )Gc ( s )Gm( s )

This function may be resolved into a servo- or regulator- problem.

Servo problem: the disturbance does not change (i.e. d(s) = 0) whilst the setpoint changes.
y ( s ) G sp ( s ) y sp ( s )

Regulator problem: set point = constant ( y sp ( s ) 0 ).

process
Gd(s)
ysp(s) +

e(s)

Gc(s)

u(s)

Gf(s)

m(s)

Gp(s)

y(s)

ym(s)
Gm(s)

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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The effect of the control modes on the response of the controlled process will now be discussed.
For simplicity, assume Gm(s) = Gf(s) = 1
Proportional Control
The proportional mode is characterised by a continuous linear relationship between the controller
input and output.. The adjustable parameter is the proportional gain, K c, or the proprtional band,
PB, where
Kc

1
PB

May have wide band or narrow band settings. When a small error results in a large response,
the gain (Kc) is said to be large or the proportional band (PB) is said to be narrow; and viceversa.
Substituting Gc(s) = Kc in the transfer function yields
Kp
Kd
1 ps
1 ps
y ( s)
y sp ( s )
d ( s)
KpKc
KpKc
1
1
1 ps
1 ps
Kc

or

y ( s)

K s1

where

K s1
K s2
y sp ( s )
d ( s)
1 ss
1 ss
KpKc
;
1 KpKc

K s2

Kd
; and
1 KpKc

p
1 KpKc

Characteristics of the closed-loop response of a first order system:

It remains first order with respect to load and set point chabges;
s <p , i.e. the closed loop response is faster than the ope-loop response to changes
in the set poimt or load; and
The static gains hae been reduced.

An undesirable feature of the proportional controller is its steady-state response. The response of
the system to a step change disturbance d0 is

y (t ) K s1 (1 e t / s )0.0 K s 2 (1 e t / s )d 0
For simplicity, assume Gm(s) = Gf(s) = 1
Under steady-state conditions ( t ),
y (t ) Yss K s 2 d 0

or
Yss

1
d0
1 KpKc

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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This result is a steady-state deviation (offset) from the desired setpoint. Errors due to setpoint
changes can be eliminated by calibration.
The steady-state response of the system to a step change in ste point is

Yss lim t K s1 (1 e t / s )Y0

Yss K s1Y0

Although offset 0 as Kc we never use extremely large Kc for reasons of stability.

Second order systems (Servo problem d(s) = 0):
Gp ( s )

y(s)
Kp
2 2
m( s ) s 2s 1

Gp ( s )

y(s)
K' p

y sp ( s )
2 2
m( s ) ( ' ) s 2 ' ' s 1

where ' 1 KpKc

'

1 KpKc

K' p

KpKc
1 KpKc

Characteristics of closed-loop second order system:

It remains second order;
Static gain decreases;
Natuiral period and damping factor decrease and therefore an overdamped process, with Pcontrol and an appropriate Kc may become underdamped (oscillatory); and
For unit step change, offset is present;
As Kc increases, causing ' to decrease, the overshoot and the decay ratio increase, while
the period of oscillation for the closed-loop response decrease as ' decreases.
Integral Control
Integral mode is also called the reset mode, because after a load change it returns the controlled
variable to setpoint and eliminates the offset which the plain proportional controller would leave.
The setting of the controller is specifiesd interms of the integral time or reset time, I
First order systems servo problem (d(s) = 0)
Let Gm = Gf = 1, for simplicity.
Gp

Kp
ps 1

first order process,

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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Gc Kc

1
Is

simple integral control action

Then,

Kc 1

s 1
I s
p

y (s)
y sp ( s )
Kp

1
K

1
s 1 c s
p
I

Kp

or
y( s)

1
y sp ( s )
s 2s 1
2

where,

I p
K p Kc

; and

I
1
2 p K p Kc

Integral control action increases the order of the dynamics for the closed-llop response;
By increasing the order of a system, its response becomes more sluggish;

For the servo problem, y ( s ) 1 / s , and y ( s ) 2 s 2 2s 1 s

The ultimate value of the response from the final value theorem is

y (t ) lim
s 0

1
=1
s 2s 1
2

offset = 1-1=0; that is, integral action eliminates offset.

The form of the closed loop response depends on Kc and I;

As Kc increases, decreases and the response moves from sluggish overdamped to faster
but oscillatory underdamped behaviour and the overshoot and decay ratio of the C/L response
increases.
As I decreases, decreases too and the effect is as above, and therefore increasing
integral action (i.e. increasing Kc and decreasing I) makes the closed-loop response more
sensitive.

Derivative Control
The proportional mode considers the present state of the process error, and the integral mode
looks at its past history, while the derivative mode anticipates its future state and acts on that
prediction. The unit of the derivative setting is the derivative time, D.
Gc K c D s , and Gm G f 1 , then

y(s)

K c D s

s 1
p

Kp

Kp

ps 1

y sp ( s )
K c D s

or

y ( s)

K p K c D s

K p K c D s 1

y sp ( s )

Derivative control action does not change the order of the response;

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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The effective time constant ' p p K p K c D is larger than p ; therefore the C/L
response is slower than the original first order process;
As Kc increases, ' p increases and the response becomes progressively slower.

Second order systems:

Kp

K c D s
s 2s 1
y(s)
y sp ( s ) ; or
Kp
1 2 2
K c D s
s 2s 1
2

y( s)

K p K c D s

s 2 K p K c D s 1
2

y sp ( s )

The natural oscillation of the C/L response remains the same;

The new damping factor ' can be found from 2 ' 2 K p K c D ; i.e ' and,
therefore, the C/L response is more damped and the damping increases as K c or D
increases. This produces more robust behaviour by the controlled process.

Composite Control Modes

P-control can be used alone, I and D alone never. PI and PID are the usual control modes
emplyed in practice.
Effect of PI control
The order of the response increases (effect of the integral mode);
The offset is eliminated (integral mode);
As Kc increases, the response becomes faster (P and I modes) and more oscillatory to set
point changes (i.e. overshoot and decay ratio increase (I-mode). A large K c creates a very
sensitive response and may lead to instability;
As I decreases for a constant Kc, the response becomes faster but more oscillatory with
higher overshoots and decay ratios (I-mode).
Effect of PID control
The dynamic characteristics are similar to those of PI control. The introduction of the derivative
mode brings a stabising effect to the system, i.e. we can achieve acceptable response speed by
selecting an appropriate value for the gain K c while maintaing moderate overshoots and decay
ratios.
Although increasing Kc leads to faster responses, the overshoot remains almost the same and the
settling time is shorter. Both are results of the derivative mode.

Eng. Talon Garikayi [M.Eng. B.Eng. (Hons) Mechatronics]

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