Basic Components of Electronics

Table of contents
1. CAPACITOR
2. CONNECTOR
3. DIODE
4. IC
5. LAMP
6. LED
7. RELAY
8. RESISTOR
9. SWITCH
10.
TRANSISTOR
11.
VARIABLE RESISTOR
12.
OTHER
Home | Capacitor | Connector | Diode | IC | Lamp | LED | Relay | Resistor | Switch | Transistor | Variable Resistor |
Other
Capacitors
Polarised (> 1F) | Unpolarised (< 1F) | Real Values | Variable & trimmers
Also see: Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes
time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as
a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC
(changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so
prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F

n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F
p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labelling systems!
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and
unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarised capacitors (large values, 1F +)
Examples:
Electrolytic Capacitors
Circuit symbol:
Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round, at
least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end
(220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10F in picture). Radial
capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their
capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it
should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does
not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power
supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.
Tantalum Bead Capacitors
Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors.
They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a
small size.
Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full.
However older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits) and a
spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the value in F. The standard colour code is used,
but for the spot, grey is used to mean 0.01 and white means 0.1 so that values of less than
10F can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow 6.3V, black
10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the right
when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in sight, the positive is to the
right'.
For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68F
For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8F
For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68F
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)
Examples:
Circuit symbol:
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not
damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high
voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these
small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labelling systems!
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so
you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!
For example 0.1 means 0.1F = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
the 1st number is the 1st digit,
the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)

For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code
Colour Code
Colour Number
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now
Green
obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colours should be read
like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the value in pF. Ignore Blue
the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating).
Violet
For example:
5
6
7
Grey
White
brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F.

Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2
actually appear as a wide band.
identical bands
For example:
wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22F.
Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed
without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when
soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink
(such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint.
Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)

You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value, for example
22F and 47F are readily available, but 25F and 50F are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10F giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50
and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to
make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very small difference,
too small to be noticeable in most circuits and capacitors cannot be made with that accuracy.
To produce a sensible range of capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the
value increases. The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they form a series
which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.
The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten)
10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases (values roughly double each time).
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps.
The E3 series is the one most frequently used for capacitors because many types cannot be made
with very accurate values.
Variable Capacitor Symbol
Variable Capacitor
Photograph Rapid Electronics
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning
capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF
(100pF = 0.0001F). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small
adjustments - see below) as well as the main variable capacitor.
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the standard knobs
used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is
available before ordering a variable capacitor.
Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too
small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use
a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time period.
Trimmer capacitors
Trimmer Capacitor Symbol
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors.

They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board
and adjusted only when the circuit is built.
A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers.
The process of adjusting them requires patience because the
presence of your hand and the tool will slightly change the
capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer!
Trimmer Capacitor
Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It
is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum
and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.
Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.
Other
Electronics Club Home Page

Site Map
Example Projects
Construction of Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
Electronic Components
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols
Frequently Asked Questions
Links to other Electronics sites
John Hewes 2009, The Electronics Club, www.kpsec.freeuk.com

Other
Connectors and Cables

Connectors: Battery clips | Terminal blocks | Croc clips | 4mm & 2mm | DC power
Audio & communication: Jack | Phono | Coax | BNC | DIN | D | IDC & RJ45
Cables: Single-core | Stranded | 'Figure 8' | Signal | Screened | Co-axial |
Mains flex
Battery clips and holders
Photographs Rapid Electronics
The standard battery clip fits a 9V PP3 battery and many battery holders such as the 6 AA cell
holder shown. Battery holders are also available with wires attached, with pins for PCB
mounting, or as a complete box with lid, switch and wires.
Many small electronic projects use a 9V PP3 battery but if you wish to use the project for long
periods a better choice is a battery holder with 6 AA cells. This has the same voltage but a much
longer battery life and it will work out cheaper in the long run.
Larger battery clips fit 9V PP9 batteries but these
are rarely used now.
PCB
terminal
block
Terminal block
Terminal blocks and PCB terminals

Terminal blocks are usually supplied in 12-way lengths but they can be cut into smaller blocks
with a sharp knife, large wire cutters or a junior hacksaw. They are sometimes called 'chocolate
blocks' because of the way they can be easily cut to size.
PCB mounting terminal blocks provide an easy way of making semi-permanent connections to
PCBs. Many are designed to interlock to provide more connections.
Crocodile clips
The 'standard' crocodile clip has no cover and a screw
contact. However, miniature insulated crocodile clips are
more suitable for many purposes including test leads.
They have a solder contact and lugs which fold down to
grip the cable's insulation, increasing the strength of the
Crocodile clips
joint. Remember to feed the cable through the plastic
cover before soldering! Add and remove the cover by
fully opening the clip, a piece of wood can be used to hold the jaws open.
4mm plugs, sockets and terminals

These are the standard single pole connectors used on
meters and other electronic equipment. They are
capable of passing high currents (typically 10A) and
most designs are very robust. Shrouded plugs and
sockets are available for use with high voltages where
there is a risk of electric shock. A wide variety of
colours is available from most suppliers.
Plugs
Plugs may have a screw or solder terminal to hold the
cable. Check if you need to thread the cable through the
cover before connecting it. Some plugs, such as those
illustrated, are 'stackable' which means that they
include a socket to accept another plug, allowing
several plugs to be connected to the same point - a very
useful feature for test leads.
4mm terminal
and solder tag
Sockets
These are usually described as 'panel mounting' because
they are designed to be fitted to a case. Most sockets
have a solder contact but the picture shows other options. Fit the socket in the case before
attaching the wire otherwise you will be unable to add the mounting nut.
Terminals
In addition to a socket these have provision for attaching a wire by threading it through a hole (or
wrapping it around the post) and tightening the top nut by hand. They usually have a threaded
stud to fit a solder tag inside the case.
2mm plugs and sockets

These are smaller versions of the 4mm plugs and sockets described above, but terminals are not
readily available. The plugs illustrated are stackable. Despite their small size these connectors
can pass large currents and some are rated at 10A.
DC power plugs and sockets

These 2-pole plugs and sockets ensure that the polarity of
a DC supply cannot be accidentally reversed. The standard
" (6.3mm) jack plug and socket

or
3.5mm jack plug and socket

size
sizes are 2.1 and 2.5mm plug

diameter. Standard plugs have a
10mm shaft, 'long' plugs have a 14mm
shaft. Sockets are available for PCB
chassis mounting and most include a
switch on the outer contact which is
normally used to disconnect an
internal battery when a plug is
inserted.
Miniature versions with a 1.3mm
diameter plug are used where small
is essential, such as for personal
cassette players.
3.5mm jack line socket

(for fitting to a cable)
Jack plugs and sockets

These are intended for audio signals so mono and stereo versions are available. The sizes are
determined by the plug diameter: " (6.3mm), 3.5mm and 2.5mm. The 2.5mm size is only
available for mono.
Screened plugs have metal bodies connected to the COM contact. Most connections are soldered,
remember to thread cables through plug covers before soldering! Sockets are designed for PCB
or chassis mounting.
" plug connections are similar to those for 3.5mm plugs shown below. " socket connections
are COM, R and L in that order from the mounting nut, ignore R for mono use. Most " sockets
have switches on all contacts which open as the plug is inserted so they can be used to isolate
internal speakers for example.
The connections for 3.5mm plugs and sockets are shown below. Plugs have a lug which should
be folded down to grip the cable's insulation and increase the strength of the joint. 3.5mm mono
sockets have a switch contact which can be used to switch off an internal speaker as the plug is
inserted. Ignore this
contact if you do not
require the
switching action.
L = left channel
signal
R = right channel signal
COM = common (0V, screen)
3.5mm jack plug and socket connections

(the R connection is not present on mono plugs)
Do not use jack plugs for power supply connections because

the contacts may be briefly shorted as the plug is inserted.
Use DC power connectors for this.
Phono plugs and sockets

These are used for screened cables carrying audio and video signals. Stereo connections are
made using a pair of phono plugs and sockets. The centre contact is for the signal and the outer
contact for the screen (0V, common). Screened plugs have metal bodies connected to the outer
contact to give the signal additional protection from electrical noise. Sockets are available for
PCB or chassis mounting, singly for mono, or in pairs for stereo. Line sockets are available for
making extension leads.
Construction of a screened cable
Coax plugs and sockets

These are similar to the phono plugs and sockets described above
but they are designed for use with screened cables
carrying much higher frequency signals, such as TV
aerial leads. They provide better screening because at
high frequencies this is essential to reduce electrical
noise.
BNC plug, photograph Rapid Electronics
BNC plugs and sockets

These are designed for screened cables carrying high frequency signals where an undistorted and
noise free signal is essential, for example oscilloscope leads. BNC plugs are connected with a
push and twist action, to disconnect you need to twist and pull.
Plugs and sockets are rated by their impedance (50 or 75 ) which
must be the same as the cable's impedance. If the connector and
cable impedances are not matched the signal will be distorted
because it will be partly reflected at the connection, this is the
electrical equivalent of the weak reflection which occurs when light
passes through a glass window.
DIN plug
5 way 180 DIN socket

(chassis mounting)
DIN plugs and sockets

These are intended for audio signals but they can be used for other low-current purposes where a
multi-way connector is required. They are available from 3 way to 8 way. 5 way is used for
stereo audio connections. The contacts are numbered on the connector, but they are not in
numerical order! For audio use the 'common' (0V) wire is connected to contact 2. 5 way plugs
and sockets are available in two versions: 180 and 270 (the angle refers to the arc formed by
the contacts).
Plastic covers of DIN plugs (and line sockets) are removed by depressing the retaining lug with a
small screwdriver. You may also need small pliers to extract the body from the cover but do not
pull on the pins themselves to avoid damage. Remember to thread the cable through the cover
before starting to solder the connections!
Soldering DIN plugs is easier if you clamp the insert with the pins. Wires should be pushed into
the hollow pins - first 'tin' the wires (coat them with a thin layer of solder) then melt a little
solder into the hollow pin and insert the wire while keeping the
solder molten. Take care to avoid melting the plastic base, stop
and allow the pin to cool if necessary.
Mini-DIN connectors are used for computer equipment such as
keyboards and mice but they are not a good choice for general use
unless small size is essential.
D connectors
These are multi-pole connectors with provision for screw fittings to make semi-permanent
connections, for example on computer equipment. The D shape prevents incorrect connection.
Standard D-connectors have 2 rows of contacts (top picture); 9, 15 and 25-way versions are the
most popular. High Density D-connectors have 3 rows of contacts (bottom picture); a 15-way
version is used to connect computer monitors for example.
Note that covers (middle picture) are usually sold separately because both plugs and sockets can
be fitted to cables by fitting a cover to a chassis mounted connector. PCB mounting versions of
plugs and sockets are also available. The contacts are usually numbered on the body of the
connector, although you may need a magnifying glass to see the very small markings. Soldering
D-connectors requires a steady hand due to the closeness of the contacts, it is easy to accidently
unsolder a contact you have just completed while attempting to solder the next one!
IDC communication connectors

These multi-pole insulation displacement connectors are used for computer and
telecommunications equipment. They automatically cut through the insulation on wires when
installed and special tools are required to fit them. They are available as 4, 6 and 8-way versions.
The 8-way RJ45 is the standard connector for modern computer networks. If you regularly use
these you may be interested in our network lead tester project.
Standard UK telephone connectors are similar in style but a slightly different shape. They are
called BT (British Telecom) connectors.
Cables
Cable... flex... lead... wire... what do all these terms mean?
A cable is an assembly of one or more conductors (wires) with some flexibility.
A flex is the proper name for the flexible cable fitted to mains electrical appliances.
A lead is a complete assembly of cable and connectors.
A wire is a single conductor which may have an outer layer of insulation (usually
plastic).
Single core equipment wire

This is one solid wire with a plastic coating available in a wide variety
of colours. It can be bent to shape but will break if repeatedly flexed.
Use it for connections which will not be disturbed, for example links between points of a circuit
board.
Typical specification: 1/0.6mm (1 strand of 0.6mm diameter), maximum current 1.8A.
Stranded wire
This consists of many fine strands of wire covered by an outer plastic
coating. It is flexible and can withstand repeated bending without
breaking. Use it for connections which may be disturbed, for example wires outside cases to
sensors and switches. A very flexible version ('extra-flex') is used for test leads.
Typical specifications:
10/0.1mm (10 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 0.5A.
16/0.2mm (16 strands of 0.2mm diameter), maximum current 3A.
55/0.1mm (55 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 6A, used for test leads.
'Figure 8' (speaker) cable

'Figure 8' cable consists of two stranded wires
arranged in a figure of 8 shape. One wire is usually
marked with a line. It is suitable for low voltage, low
current
(maximum
1A) signals
where screening from electrical
interference
is not required. It is a popular choice for
connecting
loudspeakers and is often called 'speaker
cable'.
Signal cable
Signal cable consists of several colour-coded cores of stranded wire housed within an outer
plastic sheath. With a typical maximum current of 1A per core it is suitable for low voltage, low
current signals where screening from electrical interference is not required.
The picture shows 6-core cable, but 4-core and 8core are also readily available.
Screened cable (mono)
Screened cable (stereo)
Screened cable (stereo)

Screened cable
The diagram shows the construction of screened cable. The central wire carries the signal and the
screen is connected to 0V (common) to shield the signal from electrical interference. Screened
cable is used for audio signals and dual versions are available for stereo.
Construction of a screened cable
Co-axial cable
This type of screened cable (see above) is designed to carry high frequency signals such as those
found in TV aerials and oscilloscope leads.
Mains flex
Flex is the proper name for the flexible cable used to
connect appliances to the mains supply. It contains 2
cores (for live and neutral) or 3 cores (for live,
neutral and earth). Mains flex has thick insulation for
the high voltage (230V in UK) and it is available
with various current ratings: 3A, 6A and 13A are popular sizes in the UK.
Mains flex is sometimes used for low voltage circuits which pass a high current, but please think carefully before
using it in this way. The distinctive colours of mains flex should act as a warning of the mains high voltage which
can be lethal; using mains flex for low voltage circuits can undermine this warning.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of connectors and they

have kindly allowed me to use their photographs on this
page. The photographs are from their Image Gallery CDROM.
Other

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Home | Capacitor | Connector | Diode | IC | Lamp | LED | Relay | Resistor | Switch | Transistor
| Variable Resistor | Other
Diodes
Signal diodes | Rectifier diodes | Bridge rectifiers | Zener diodes
Also see: LEDs | AC and DC | Power Supplies
Example:
Circuit symbol:
Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one
direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow.
Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and
early diodes were actually called valves.
Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its
way through the diode, rather like a person
pushing through a door with a spring. This
means that there is a small voltage across a
conducting diode, it is called the forward
voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal
diodes which are made from silicon. The
forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing
through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real
diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most
circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward
direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or
more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the
reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of 100mA
or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are LEDs (which
have their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).
Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram
may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes,
it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a
line painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in
small print, you may need a magnifying glass to read this on
small signal diodes!
Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are
using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink
clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as
a heat sink.
Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering them.
Testing diodes
You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that
a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a
rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large
current passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!
Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they
are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.
General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward
voltage drop of 0.7V.
Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this
makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the
weak radio signal.
For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon diodes are
better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they have a lower resistance
when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a reverse voltage is applied.
Protection diodes for relays
Signal diodes are also used to protect
transistors and ICs from the brief high
voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a
protection diode is connected 'backwards'
across the relay coil.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field
which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The
sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high
voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the
induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather
than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.
Maximu
Maximu
m
Diode
m
Reverse
Current
Voltage
Rectifier diodes (large current)

Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process
called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in
circuits where a large current must pass through the
diode.
1N400
1
1A
50V
1N400
2
1A
100V
1N400
7
1A
1000V
3A
100V
3A
1000V
All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a
forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum current 1N540
1
and maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes.
The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current
1N540
of less than 1A.
8
Also see: Power Supplies
Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting
diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to
DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and
it is available in special packages
containing the four diodes required.
Bridge rectifiers are rated by their
maximum current and maximum reverse
voltage. They have four leads or
terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled
.
The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice how
alternate pairs of diodes conduct.
Also see: Power Supplies
Various types of Bridge Rectifiers

Note that some have a hole through their centre for attaching to a heat sink
Zener diodes
Example:
Circuit symbol:
a = anode, k = cathode
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are

designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and non-destructive way
so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed voltage
across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are
connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current.
Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by
their code and breakdown voltage which are printed on them.
Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their breakdown
voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7
means 4.7V for example.
Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:
The minimum voltage available is 2.4V.

Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Integrated Circuits (Chips)

Pin numbers | IC holders | Static | Datasheets | Sinking/sourcing |
Combining outputs |
555 and 556 Timers | Logic ICs | 4000 Series | 74 Series | PIC microcontrollers
Also see: 4000 Series ICs | 74 Series ICs | 555 and 556 Timer Circuits
Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are complex circuits which have been
etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in a plastic holder with
pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will fit the holes on stripboard and breadboards. Very
fine wires inside the package link the chip to the pins.
Pin numbers
The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC
(chip) starting near the notch or dot. The diagram
shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for all
sizes.
IC holders (DIL sockets)

ICs (chips) are easily damaged by heat when soldering and their short
pins cannot be protected with a heat sink. Instead we use an IC holder,
strictly called a DIL socket (DIL = Dual In-Line), which can be safely
soldered onto the circuit board. The IC is pushed into the holder when all
soldering is complete.
IC holders are only needed when soldering so they are not used on breadboards.
Commercially produced circuit boards often have ICs soldered directly to the board without an IC holder, usually
this is done by a machine which is able to work very quickly. Please don't attempt to do this yourself because you
are likely to destroy the IC and it will be difficult to remove without damage by de-soldering.
Removing an IC from its holder

If you need to remove an IC it can be gently prised out of the holder with a small
flat-blade screwdriver. Carefully lever up each end by inserting the screwdriver
blade between the IC and its holder and gently twisting the screwdriver. Take care to
start lifting at both ends before you attempt to remove the IC, otherwise you will
bend and possibly break the pins.
Antistatic bags for ICs

Photograph Rapid
Electronics
Static precautions
Many ICs are static sensitive and can be damaged when you touch them because
your body may have become charged with static electricity, from your clothes for
example. Static sensitive ICs will be supplied in antistatic packaging with a warning
label and they should be left in this packaging until you are ready to use them.
It is usually adequate to earth your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before
handling the IC but for the more sensitive (and expensive!) ICs special equipment is available,
including earthed wrist straps and earthed work surfaces. You can make an earthed work surface
with a sheet of aluminium kitchen foil and using a crocodile clip to connect the foil to a metal
water pipe or window frame with a 10k resistor in series.
Datasheets
PDF files
To view and print PDF files you

Datasheets are available for most ICs giving
need an Acrobat Reader which
detailed information about their ratings and
may be downloaded free for
functions. In some cases example circuits are
Windows, Mac, RISC OS, or
shown. The large amount of information with
UNIX/Linux computers. If you are
symbols and abbreviations can make datasheets
not sure which type of computer
seem overwhelming to a beginner, but they are
you have it is probably Windows.
worth reading as you become more confident
because they contain a great deal of useful
information for more experienced users designing and testing circuits.
Datasheets are available as PDF files from:
DatasheetArchive.com
Datasheets.org.uk
DatasheetCatalog.com
Sinking and sourcing current

IC outputs are often said to 'sink' or 'source' current. The
terms refer to the direction of the current at the IC's
output.
If the IC is sinking current it is flowing into the output. This

means that a device connected between the positive supply (+Vs)
and the IC output will be switched on when the output is low
(0V).
If the IC is sourcing current it is flowing out of the output. This means that a device connected
between the IC output and the negative supply (0V) will be switched on when the output is
high (+Vs).
It is possible to connect two devices to an IC output so that one is on when the output is low and
the other is on when the output is high. This arrangement is used in the Level Crossing project to
make the red LEDs flash alternately.
The maximum sinking and sourcing currents for an IC output are usually the same but there are
some exceptions, for example 74LS TTL logic ICs can sink up to 16mA but only source 2mA.
Using diodes to combine outputs

The outputs of ICs must never be directly connected
together. However, diodes can be used to combine
two or more digital (high/low) outputs from an IC such
as a counter. This can be a useful way of producing
simple logic functions without using logic gates!
The diagram shows two ways of combining outputs using

diodes. The diodes must be capable of passing the output
current. 1N4148 signal diodes are suitable for low current
devices such as LEDs.
For example the outputs Q0 - Q9 of a 4017 1-of-10 counter go
high in turn. Using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th (Q3) outputs as shown in the bottom
diagram will make the LED flash twice followed by a longer gap. The diodes are performing the
function of an OR gate.
Example projects: Traffic Light | Dice |
Model Lighthouse
The 555 and 556 Timers

The 8-pin 555 timer IC is used in many
projects, a popular version is the NE555. Most
circuits will just specify '555 timer IC' and the
NE555 is suitable for these. The 555 output
(pin 3) can sink and source up to 200mA. This
is more than most ICs and it is sufficient to
supply LEDs, relay coils and low current lamps. To switch larger currents you can
connect a transistor.
The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package. The two timers (A and B) share
the same power supply pins.
Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used
when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA
(with 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin
arrangement as a standard 555.
For further information please see the page on 555 and 556 timer circuits.
Logic ICs (chips)

Logic ICs process digital signals and there are many devices, including logic gates,
flip-flops, shift registers, counters and display drivers. They can be split into two
groups according to their pin arrangements: the 4000 series and the 74 series
which consists of various families such as the 74HC, 74HCT and 74LS.
For most new projects the 74HC family is the best choice. The older 4000 series is the only
family which works with a supply voltage of more than 6V. The 74LS and 74HCT families
require a 5V supply so they are not convenient for battery operation.
The table below summarises the important properties of the most popular logic families:
Property
4000 Series
Technology
CMOS
Power Sup
ply
3 to 15V
Inputs
74 Series
74HC
74 Series
74HCT
High-speed CM High-speed CMOS

OS
TTL compatible
2 to 6V
Very high impedance. Unused inputs

must be connected to +Vs or 0V.
Inputs cannot be reliably driven by
74LS outputs unless a 'pull-up'
resistor is used (see below).
74 Series
74LS
TTL Low-power
Schottky
5V 0.5V
5V 0.25V
Very high
impedance. Unused
inputs must be
connected to +Vs or
0V. Compatible with
74LS (TTL) outputs.
'Float' high to logic

1 if unconnected.
1mA must be
drawn out to hold
them at logic 0.
Can sink
and source
about 5mA
(10mA
with 9V
supply),
Outpu enough to
light an
ts
LED. To
switch
larger
currents
use a
transistor.
Fanout
One
output can
drive up to
50 CMOS,
74HC or
74HCT
inputs, but
only one
74LS
input.
Maxi
mum about 1M
Frequ
Hz
ency
Power
consu
mptio
A few W.
n
Can sink
and
source
about
20mA,
enough to
light an
LED. To
switch
larger
currents
use a
transistor.
Can sink
and source
about
20mA,
enough to
light an
LED. To
switch
larger
currents
use a
transistor.
Can sink
up to
16mA
(enough to
light an
LED), but
source
only about
2mA. To
switch
larger
currents
use a
transistor.
One
output can
One output can drive
drive up to
up to 50 CMOS, 74HC
10 74LS
or 74HCT inputs, but
inputs or
only 10 74LS inputs.
50 74HCT
inputs.
about
25MHz
A few
W.
about
25MHz
about
35MHz
A few W.
A few
mW.
Driving 4000 or 74HC inputs from a

74LS output using a pull-up resistor.
of the
IC itself
Mixing Logic Families

It is best to build a circuit using just one logic family, but if necessary the different
families may be mixed providing the power supply is suitable for all of them. For
example mixing 4000 and 74HC requires the power supply to be in the range 3 to
6V. A circuit which includes 74LS or 74HCT ICs must have a 5V supply.
A 74LS output cannot reliably drive a 4000 or 74HC input unless a 'pull-up'
resistor of 2.2k is connected between the +5V supply and the input to correct
the slightly different logic voltage ranges used.
Note that a 4000 series output can drive only one 74LS input.
Quick links to
individual ICs
4000
4001
4002
4011
4012
4017
4020
4023
4024
4025
4026
4028
4029
4030
4040
4049
4050
4060
4068
4069
4070
4071
4072
4073
4075
4077
4081
4082
4093
4510
4511
4516
4518
4520
4000 Series CMOS

This family of logic ICs is numbered from 4000 onwards, and from 4500 onwards.
They have a B at the end of the number (e.g. 4001B) which refers to an improved
design introduced some years ago. Most of them are in 14-pin or 16-pin packages.
They use CMOS circuitry which means they use very little power and can tolerate
a wide range of power supply voltages (3 to 15V) making them ideal for battery
powered projects. CMOS is pronounced 'see-moss' and stands for Complementary
Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
However the CMOS circuitry also means that they are static sensitive. Touching a pin while
charged with static electricity (from your clothes for example) may damage the IC. In fact most
ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or
window frame before handling them will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective
packaging until you are ready to use them. For the more sensitive (and expensive!) ICs special
equipment is available, including earthed wrist straps and earthed work surfaces.
For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links on the right or go
to 4000 Series ICs.
Quick links to
individual ICs
74 Series: 74LS, 74HC and 74HCT

There are several families of logic ICs numbered from 74xx00
onwards with letters (xx) in the middle of the number to indicate the
type of circuitry, eg 74LS00 and 74HC00. The original family (now
obsolete) had no letters, eg 7400.
The 74LS (Low-power Schottky) family (like the original) uses TTL
(Transistor-Transistor Logic) circuitry which is fast but requires more power
than later families.
The 74HC family has High-speed CMOS circuitry, combining the speed of TTL
with the very low power consumption of the 4000 series. They are CMOS ICs
with the same pin arrangements as the older 74LS family. Note that 74HC inputs
cannot be reliably driven by 74LS outputs because the voltage ranges used for
logic 0 are not quite compatible, use 74HCT instead.
7400
7402
7403
7404
7405
7408
7409
7410
7411
7412
7414
7420
7421
7427
7430
7432
7442
7447
7486
7490
7493
74132
74160
74161
74162
74163
74192
74193
74390
74393
74HC4017
74HC4020
74HC4040
74HC4060
74HC4511
The 74HCT family is a special version of 74HC with 74LS TTL-compatible

inputs so 74HCT can be safely mixed with 74LS in the same system. In fact 74HCT can be used
as low-power direct replacements for the older 74LS ICs in most circuits. The minor
disadvantage of 74HCT is a lower immunity to noise, but this is unlikely to be a problem in most
situations.
Beware that the 74 series is often still called the 'TTL series' even though the latest ICs do not
use TTL!
For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links on the right or go
to 74 series ICs.
The CMOS circuitry used in the 74HC and 74HCT series ICs means that they are static
sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for example)
may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and earthing your hands by
touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling them will be adequate. ICs should
be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use them.
PIC microcontrollers
A PIC is a Programmable Integrated Circuit microcontroller, a 'computer-on-a-chip'.
They have a processor and memory to run a program responding to inputs and
controlling outputs, so they can easily achieve complex
functions which would require several conventional ICs.
Programming a PIC microcontroller may seem daunting to a beginner

but there are a number of systems designed to make this easy. The
www.picaxe.co.uk
PICAXE system is an excellent example because it uses a standard computer to program (and reprogram) the PICs; no specialist equipment is required other than a low-cost download lead.
Programs can be written in a simple version of BASIC or using a flowchart. The PICAXE
programming software and extensive documentation is available to download free of charge,
making the system ideal for education and users at home. For further information (including
downloads) please see www.picaxe.co.uk
If you think PICs are not for you because you have never written a computer program, please
look at the PICAXE system! It is very easy to get started using a few simple BASIC commands
and there are a number of projects available as kits which are ideal for beginners. The system is
stocked by Rapid Electronics.

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Lamps
Function | Symbols | Selecting | Types of lamp | Connecting
Function and Construction

Lamps emit light when an electric current passes
through them. All of the
lamps shown on this page have a thin wire
filament which
becomes very hot and glows brightly when a
current passes through
it. The filament is made from a metal with a high
melting point such as
tungsten and it is usually wound into a small coil.
Filament lamps have a
shorter lifetime than most electronic components because eventually the filament
'blows' (melts) at a weak point.
Circuit symbols
There are two circuit symbols for a lamp, one for a lamp used to provide illumination
and another for a lamp used as an indicator. Small lamps such as torch bulbs can be
used for both purposes so either circuit symbol may used in simple educational
circuits.
Lamp used for lighting
Lamp used as an indicator
(for example a car headlamp or

torch bulb)
(for example a warning light on a car

dashboard)
Selecting a Lamp
There are three important features to consider when selecting a lamp:
Voltage rating - the supply voltage for normal brightness.

Power or current rating - small lamps are usually rated by current.
Lamp type - please see the table below.
The voltage and power (or current) ratings are usually printed or embossed on the
body of a lamp.
Voltage rating
This is the supply voltage required for normal brightness. If a slightly
higher voltage is used the lamp will be brighter but its lifetime will be
shorter. With a lower supply voltage the lamp will be dimmer and its
lifetime will be longer. The light from dim lamps has a yellow-orange
colour.
Torch lamps pass a relatively large current and this significantly reduces the output
voltage of the battery. Some voltage is used up inside the battery driving the large current
through the small resistance of the battery itself (its 'internal resistance'). As a result the correct
voltage rating for a torch lamp is lower than the normal voltage of the battery which lights it!
For example: a lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A is correct for a 4.5V battery (three 1.5V cells) because
when the lamp is connected the voltage across the battery falls to about 3.5V.
Power or current rating
This is the power or current for the lamp when connected to its rated voltage. Low
power lamps are usually rated by their current and high power lamps by their
power. It is easy to convert between the two ratings:
P = I where: P = power in watts

(W)
V
or
I=P/
V
I = current in amps
(A)
V = voltage in volts
(V)
Examples:
A lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A has a power rating P = I V = 0.3 3.5 = 1.05W
A lamp rated 6V 0.06A has a power rating P = I V = 0.06 6 = 0.36W
A lamp rated 12W 2.4W has a current rating I = P / V = 2.4 / 12 = 0.2A
Lamp Type
Type of Lamp
Example
MES
Miniature Edison Screw
These are the standard small lamps. The bulb

diameter is usually about 10mm, but tubular
bulbs are also available. MES lamps have one
contact on the base and the body forms the
other contact. They are available with a good
range of voltage and power (or current)
ratings. Lens ended versions are available to
produce a focused beam of light.
LES
Lilliput Edison Screw
Smaller than MES, these have a bulb diameter of

about 5mm.
MCC
Miniature Centre Contact
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a

standard mains lamp in the UK. They have one
contact on the base and the body forms the
other contact. The bulb diameter is about
10mm.
SBC
Small Bayonet Cap
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a

standard mains lamp in the UK. They have two
contacts on the base so the metal body is not
connected in the circuit. SBC lamps have high
power ratings (24W for example) and their
bulbs are large with a diameter of up to about
40mm. Note the two filament arrangements in
the lamps shown, horizontal on the left,
vertical on the right.
Pre-focus
This type of lamp is used in torches and
lanterns. The flange at the top of the metal
body is used to hold the lamp in place.
Lampholders are not readily available so this
type is unsuitable for most projects.
Wire ended
These are very small lamps with a bulb about
3mm diameter and 6mm long. Take care to
avoid snapping the wires where they enter the
glass bulb.
Grain of Wheat
Lampsare
may
be connected
either
way
round in a circuit and the supply may be
These
similar
to the wire
ended
lamps
AC
or
DC.
above but they have stranded wire leads
usually about 150mm long. The bulb is about
Most lamps
are designed
to be
used- the
in a size
lampholder
3mm
diameter
and 6mm
long
of a but the small 'wire ended' and 'grain of
wheat'
lamps
have
wires
which
may
be
soldered
directly onto a circuit board.
grain of wheat!
Lampholders
usually
have screw
Photograph
Rapid
Electronics
terminals or solder tags to attach wires. Some small holders

have contacts which may be soldered directly to a circuit board.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of lamps and

they have kindly allowed me to use their photographs
on
this page.
The photographs are from their Image
Lamps
in Series
Gallery
CD-ROM.
Several lamps can be successfully connected in series provided they all have
identical voltage and power (or current) ratings. The supply voltage is divided
equally between identical lamps so their voltage rating must be suitable for this. For
example Christmas tree lights may have 20 lamps connected in series to a 240V
supply, so each lamp will have 240V 20 = 12V across it.
terminals
tags
A disadvantage of connecting lamps in series is that if onescrew
lamp blows
all of themsolder
will go
out
because the circuit is broken. Christmas tree lamps have a special feature to overcome this
Lampholders
problem; they are designed to short circuit (conduct like a wire link) when they blow, so the
circuit is not broken and the other lamps remain lit, making it easier to locate the faulty lamp.
Sets also include one 'fuse' lamp which blows normally.
WARNING! The Christmas tree lamps may seem safe because they use only 12V but they are connected to the
mains supply which
cansoldering
be lethal. Always unplug from the mains before changing lamps. The voltage across the
Connecting
and
holder of a missing lamp is the full 240V of the mains supply! (Yes, it really is!)

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Colours | Sizes and shapes | Resistor value | LEDs in series | LED data | Flashing |
Displays
Example:
Circuit symbol:
Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may
be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is
k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may
be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the
LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification
method).
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No
special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.
Testing an LED
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply!
It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current
will pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value,
for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if
your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the
correct way round!
For an accurate value please see Calculating an LED resistor value below.
Colours of LEDs
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber,
yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and
white LEDs are much more expensive than
the other colours.
The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the
'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may
be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are also
available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent.
Tri-colour LEDs
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED
combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour
because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is
produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different lengths
of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs, the
outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit
separately, or both together to give the third colour.
Bi-colour LEDs
A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one
backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be
lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.
Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes.
The 'standard' LED has a round cross-section of 5mm
diameter and this is probably the best type for general use,
but 3mm round LEDs are also popular.
LED Clip

Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very
easy to install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to
hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in holes. Other crosssection shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.
As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing angle. This
tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60
but others have a narrow beam of 30 or less.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good guide to the
range available.
Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to
limit the current through the LED, otherwise it will burn
out almost instantly.
The resistor value, R is given by:
R = (VS VL) / I
VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted
If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is
greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a
greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will
make the LED less bright.
For example
If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current
I = 20mA = 0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 , so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is
greater).
Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law
Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where:
V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)
I = the current through the resistor
So R = (VS - VL) / I
For more information on the calculations please see the Ohm's Law page.
Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time
it may be possible to connect them in series. This
prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the
same current as just one LED.
All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is

best if they are all the same type. The power supply must have
sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for
blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To
work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED
voltages and use this for VL.
Example calculations:
A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least 3 2V + 2V = 8V, so
a 9V battery would be ideal.
VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up).
If the supply voltage VS is 9V and the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A,
Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200 ,
so choose R = 220 (the nearest standard value which is greater).
Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared
between them is generally not a good idea.
If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED
will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it.
Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with
one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very
cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs
individually. If LEDs are in parallel each one should have its own resistor.
Reading a table of technical data for LEDs

Suppliers' catalogues usually include tables of technical data for components such
as LEDs. These tables contain a good deal of useful information in a compact form
but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations
used.
The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter round LEDs with diffused
packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are important and these are shown in bold. Please
see below for explanations of the quantities.
Type
Standard
IF
VF VR
VF
Colour max
ma ma
typ.
.
x. x.
Red
30m
1.7V 2.1V 5V
A
Luminous
intensity
Viewi
Wavelen
ng
gth
angle
5mcd @
10mA
60
660nm
Standard
Bright 30m
2.0V 2.5V 5V
red
A
80mcd @
10mA
60
625nm
Standard
Yellow
30m
2.1V 2.5V 5V
A
32mcd @
10mA
60
590nm
Standard
Green
25m
2.2V 2.5V 5V
A
32mcd @
10mA
60
565nm
High
intensity
Blue
30m
4.5V 5.5V 5V
A
60mcd @
20mA
50
430nm
Super
bright
Red
30m 1.85
2.5V 5V
A
V
500mcd @
20mA
60
660nm
Low current
Red
30m
1.7V 2.0V 5V 5mcd @ 2mA
A
60
625nm
IF max.
Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED

connected correctly.
VF typ.
Typical forward voltage, VL in the LED resistor calculation.

This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about
4V.
VF max.
Maximum forward voltage.
VR max.
Maximum reverse voltage

You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round.
Luminous
intensity
Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela.
Viewing angle Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60, others emit a narrower
beam of about 30.
Wavelength
The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the colour
of the LED.
nm = nanometre.
Flashing LEDs
Flashing LEDs look like ordinary LEDs but they contain an integrated circuit (IC) as
well as the LED itself. The IC flashes the LED at a low frequency, typically 3Hz (3
flashes per second). They are designed to be connected directly to a supply, usually
9 - 12V, and no series resistor is required. Their flash frequency is fixed so their use
is limited and you may prefer to build your own circuit to flash an ordinary LED, for
example our Flashing LED project which uses a 555 astable circuit.
LED Displays
LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the most familiar
pattern being the 7-segment displays for showing numbers (digits 0-9). The pictures
below illustrate some of the popular designs:
Bargraph
7segment
Starburst
Dot matrix
Pin connections of LED displays

There are many types of LED display and a
supplier's catalogue should be consulted for the pin
connections. The diagram on the right shows an
Pin connections diagram
Rapid Electronics
example from the Rapid Electronics catalogue. Like many 7-segment displays, this
example is available in two versions: Common Anode (SA) with all the LED anodes
connected together and Common Cathode (SC) with all the cathodes connected
together. Letters a-g refer to the 7 segments, A/C is the common anode or cathode
as appropriate (on 2 pins). Note that some pins are not present (NP) but their
position is still numbered.
Also see: Display Drivers.

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Relays
Circuit symbol for a relay
Choosing a relay | Protection diodes | Reed relays | Advantages &

disadvantages
Also see: Switches | Diodes

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing
through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which
attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil
current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions
and they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which
can be completely separate from the first. For example a low
voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC
mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the
relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and
mechanical.
Relays
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically

30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for
relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs
(chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually
used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value
required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for
the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can
supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many
more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets
of changeover contacts are readily available. For further
information about switch contacts and the terms used to
describe them please see the page on switches.
Relay showing coil and switch

contacts
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can
solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the
relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it
may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they
are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you
must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a
lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the
switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them,
making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is of.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is of.
Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this
information in the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering
the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V
relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a
supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You
can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
Relay coil
current =
supply
voltage
coil
resistance
4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a
current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current
200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to
amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)

The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control.
You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage
rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole
changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further
information please see the page on switches.
Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from
the brief high voltage produced when a relay
coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a
signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected
'backwards' across the relay coil to provide
this protection.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field
which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The
sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high
voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage
transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and
diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming
high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.
Reed Relay
Reed relays
Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normally
operated with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create
a magnetic field and close the reed switch.
Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 for example) and
a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable of switching much more
rapidly than standard relays, up to several hundred times per second; but they can only switch
low currents (500mA maximum for example).
The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin DIL socket ('IC holder').
For further information about reed switches please see the page on switches.
Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching
small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a
relay. However transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains
electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents
(> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor
may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! The main advantages
and disadvantages of relays are listed below:
Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many
times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Further information
For further information about relays please see the Electronics in Meccano website.

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Resistors
Colour Code | Tolerance | Real Values (E6 & E12 series) | Power
Rating
Also see: Resistance | Ohm's Law
Example:
Circuit symbol:
The Resistor
Colour Code
Function
Colour
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is

placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current
Black
passing through the LED.

Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not
damaged by heat when soldering.
Resistor values - the resistor colour code

Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1 k = 1000
1 M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands.

Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have 4 bands:
The first band gives the first digit.
Numbe
r
0
Brown
Red
Orang
e
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this
may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.
Find out how to make your own Resistor Colour Code Calculator
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small
values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means 0.1
and silver which means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as
normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For
example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of
390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).
A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely
required.
Resistor shorthand
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which
avoids using a decimal point because it is easy to miss the small dot. Instead the
letters R, K and M are used in place of the decimal point. To read the code: replace
the letter with a decimal point, then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K,
or 1000000 if the letter was M. The letter R means multiply by 1.
For example:
560R means 560
2K7 means 2.7 k
= 2700
39K means 39 k
1M0 means 1.0 M
= 1000 k
Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)

You may have noticed that resistors are not available with every possible value, for
example 22k and 47k are readily available, but 25k and 50k are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make resistors every 10 giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and
so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to make
1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very small difference, too
small to be noticeable in most circuits. In fact it would be difficult to make resistors sufficiently
accurate.
To produce a sensible range of resistor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the
value increases. The standard resistor values are based on this idea and they form a series which
follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 20% tolerance)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases. For this series the step (to the next
value) is roughly half the value.
The E12 series (12 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 10% tolerance)
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82, ... then it continues 100, 120, 150 etc.
Notice how this is the E6 series with an extra value in the gaps.
The E12 series is the one most frequently used for resistors. It allows you to choose a value
within 10% of the precise value you need. This is sufficiently accurate for almost all projects and
it is sensible because most resistors are only accurate to 10% (called their 'tolerance'). For
example a resistor marked 390 could vary by 10% 390 = 39 , so it could be any value
between 351 and 429 .
Resistors in Series and Parallel

For information on resistors connected in series and
parallel please see the Resistance page,
High power resistors

(5W top, 25W bottom)
Power Ratings of Resistors

Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually
the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor
high) a large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The
resistor must be able to withstand the heating effect and resistors have power
ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the standard
power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher power is required
it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors
(less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I where: P = power developed in the resistor in

watts (W)
R
or
P = V /
R
I = current through the resistor in amps

(A)
R = resistance of the resistor in ohms (
)
V = voltage across the resistor in volts
(V)
Examples:
A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/470
= 0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/27 =
3.7W.
A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Switches
Switch Contacts - pole, throw etc.
Standard Switches - SPST, SPDT, DPST, DPDT.
Special Switches - multiway, key, tilt, reed etc.
Also see: Relays | Series and Parallel Connections - Switches
Selecting a Switch
There are three important features to consider when selecting a
switch:
Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)
Circuit symbol for a

simple on-off
switch
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole - number of switch contact sets.

Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and
one switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has
two positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only
one position conducts.
Switch Contact Ratings
Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be
different ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls
to zero many times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch
contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need to check
the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and motors) because
they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.
Standard Switches
Type of Switch
Circuit Symbol
Example
ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can be

used to switch the power supply to a circuit.
When used with mains electricity this type of
switch must be in the live wire, but it is better
to use a DPST switch to isolate both live and
neutral.
SPST toggle switch
(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its

normally open (off) position when you
release the button, this is shown by the
brackets around ON. This is the standard
Push-to-make switch
doorbell switch.
ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary
A push-to-break switch returns to its

normally closed (on) position when you
release the button.
Push-to-break switch
ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT
This switch can be on in both positions,

switching on a separate device in each case.
It is often called a changeover switch. For
example, a SPDT switch can be used to
switch on a red lamp in one position and a
green lamp in the other position.
SPDT toggle switch
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off

switch by connecting to COM and one of the A or B
terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are
interchangeable so switches are usually not labelled.
ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in the
centre which is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF(ON) versions are also available where the
switch returns to the central off position
when released.
SPDT slide switch

(PCB mounting)
SPDT rocker switch
Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used to switch mains
electricity because it can isolate both the live
and neutral connections.
DPST rocker switch
Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPDT switch can be wired up as a
reversing switch for a motor as shown in the
diagram.
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in the
centre which is off. This can be very useful
for motor control because you have forward,
off and reverse positions. Momentary (ON)OFF-(ON) versions are also available where
the switch returns to the central off position
when released.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of switches and

on this page. The photographs are from their Image
Gallery CD-ROM.
Special Switches
DPDT slide switch
Wiring for Reversing Switch
Type of Switch
Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)
This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a
standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again to
switch off. This is called a latching action.
Microswitch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)

Microswitches are designed to switch fully open or closed in
response to small movements. They are available with levers and
rollers attached.
Keyswitch
A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.
Tilt Switch (SPST)

Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this
bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be used
as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some tilt switches
contain mercury which is poisonous.
Reed Switch (usually SPST)

The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small
magnet near the switch. They are used in security circuits, for
example to check that doors are closed. Standard reed switches
are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover) versions are
also available.
Warning: reed switches have a glass body which is easily
broken! For advice on handling please see the
Electronics in Meccano website.
Example
DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)

This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example
shown has 8 switches. The package is the same size as a standard
DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit.
This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the code
of a remote control.
Multi-pole Switch
The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known as a
6-pole changeover switch. It can be set to have momentary or
latching action. Latching action means it behaves as a push-push
switch, push once for the first position, push again for the second
position etc.
Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions. They
may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type has a rotary
action and it is available with a range of contact arrangements
from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
Multi-way rotary switch
The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a stop

under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch you can
buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop.
Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-pole
switch (many contact sets) described above.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of switches and

on this page. The photographs are from their Image
Gallery CD-ROM.
1-pole 4-way switch symbol

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols
John Hewes 2009, The Electronics Club, www.kpsec.freeuk.com.

Transistors
This page covers practical matters such as precautions when
soldering and identifying leads. The operation and use of
transistors is covered by the Transistor Circuits page.
Types | Connecting | Soldering | Heat sinks | Testing | Codes | Choosing | Darlington pair
Also see: Heat sinks | Transistor Circuits
Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to
amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can
operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits
a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the

transistor is being used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no
current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and
PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the
layers of semiconductor material used to make the
transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because
this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new
to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN
transistors.
Transistor circuit
symbols
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a
transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are
usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not
(yet) covered by this page.
Connecting
Transistors have three leads which must
be connected the correct way round.
Please take care with this because a
wrongly connected transistor may be
damaged instantly when you switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation of the

transistor will be clear from the PCB or
stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will
need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to
identify the leads.
The drawings on the right show the leads for
some of the most common case styles.
Transistor leads for some common case

styles.
Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you.
This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above.
Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some
common transistors.
Crocodile clip
Photograph Rapid
Electronics.
Soldering
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is
wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body.
A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below) which may be required for a
power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.
Heat sinks
Heat sink
Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through them. Heat
sinks are needed for power transistors because they pass large currents. If you find
that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The
heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding
air.
For further information please see the Heat sinks page.
Testing an NPN transistor
Testing a transistor
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you
suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it:
1. Testing with a multimeter
Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of
leads for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue
multimeter to a low resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):
The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct
one way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an

NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a PNP
transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
2. Testing in a simple switching circuit
Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the
right which uses the transistor as a switch. The
supply voltage is not critical, anything between 5 and
12V is suitable. This circuit can be quickly built on
breadboard for example. Take care to include the 10k
resistor in the base connection or you will destroy
the transistor as you test it!
A simple switching circuit

to test an NPN transistor
If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light when the
switch is released.
To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the supply voltage.
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base current and
measures the collector current so as to display the transistor's DC current gain hFE.
Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:
Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478

The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter
indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high
power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code
identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of
the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project
specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is
given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the
end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the
particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually
substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most
important properties to look for are the maximum collector current I C and the
current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in
categories determined either by their typical use or maximum power rating.
To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are normally
provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but they can be difficult
to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most
important technical data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books
will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless you are
experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below.
NPN transistors
Code
Structur Case
e
style
IC
VCE hFE
Ptot
max. max. min. max.
Category
(typical use)
Possible
substitutes
BC107
NPN
TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW Audio, low power
BC108
NPN
TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW
General purpose, BC108C BC183

low power
BC548
BC108C
NPN
TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW
General purpose,
low power
BC109
NPN
TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW
Audio (low noise),

BC184 BC549
low power
BC182
NPN
TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW
General purpose,
BC107 BC182L
low power
BC182L
NPN
TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW
General purpose,
low power
BC547B
NPN
TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW Audio, low power
BC107B
BC548B
NPN
TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW
General purpose,
low power
BC108B
BC549B
NPN
TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW
Audio (low noise),

low power
BC109
2N3053
NPN
50 500mW General purpose,
BFY51
TO39 700mA 40V
BC182 BC547
BC107 BC182
low power
BFY51
NPN
TO39
1A
30V
40 800mW
General purpose,
medium power
BC639
BC639
NPN
TO92A
1A
80V
40 800mW
General purpose,
medium power
BFY51
TIP29A
NPN
TO220
1A
60V
40
30W
General purpose,
high power
TIP31A
NPN
TO220
3A
60V
10
40W
General purpose,
TIP31C TIP41A
high power
TIP31C
NPN
TO220
3A
100V 10
40W
General purpose,
TIP31A TIP41A
high power
TIP41A
NPN
TO220
6A
60V
15
65W
General purpose,
high power
2N3055
NPN
TO3
15A
60V
20
117W
General purpose,
high power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely
consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your
supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Code
Structur Case
e
style
IC
VCE hFE
Ptot
max. max. min. max.
Category
(typical use)
Possible
substitutes
BC177
PNP
BC477
BC178
PNP
TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW
General purpose,
low power
BC478
BC179
PNP
TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW
Audio (low noise),

low power
BC477
PNP
BC177
BC478
PNP
TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW
General purpose,
low power
BC178
TIP32A
PNP
General purpose,
high power
TIP32C
TO220
3A
60V
25
40W
TIP32C
PNP
TO220
3A
100V 10
40W
General purpose,
high power
TIP32A
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely
consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your
supplier if you require precise data.
Structure
This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the
two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it
must be the same type.
Case style
There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most

common case styles in the Connecting section above. This
information is also available in suppliers' catalogues.
IC max.
Maximum collector current.
VCE max.
Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.

You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.
hFE
This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The

guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value
varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same
type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is
usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA'
means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and
maximum values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant for various
currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really
of interest to experts.
Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each
with their own symbol. There are too many to explain here.
Ptot max.
Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor,

note that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum
rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as
amplifiers, the power is roughly IC VCE. For transistors operating
as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is more
important.
Category
This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting
point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have
separate tables for different categories.
Possible subst These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will
itutes
be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a
different case style so you will need to take care when placing
them on the circuit board.
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the
amplified current from the first is amplified further by the
second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high
current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as
complete packages containing the two transistors. They
have three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the
leads of a standard individual transistor.
You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.
For example:
For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.

For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.
The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 hFE2 = 220 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Other
Variable Resistors
Construction | LIN & LOG | Rheostat | Potentiometer | Presets
Construction
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections
at both ends and a wiper which moves along the track as you
turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet
(ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track
versions, usually called sliders, are also available.
Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections
(the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer
with all three connections in use. Miniature versions called
presets are made for setting up circuits which will not require
further adjustment.
Standard Variable Resistor

Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are specified by
their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard
spindle diameter is 6mm.
The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but most are for
mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with stranded wire connecting
their terminals to the circuit board.
Linear (LIN) and Logarithmic (LOG) tracks

Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper.
This is the standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a project does not
specify the type of track. Presets always have linear tracks.
Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and
rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance! This
arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a logarithmic
response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low volumes and coarser control
(rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to connect the ends of the track the correct way
round, if you find that turning the spindle increases the volume rapidly followed by little further
change you should swap the connections to the ends of the track.
Rheostat
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two
terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the other
to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance
between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum
resistance.
Rheostat Symbol
Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the brightness of a lamp or the
rate at which a capacitor charges.
If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals are connected! However,
one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the mounting but it
serves no function electrically.
Potentiometer
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals
connected.
Potentiometer Symbol
This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a
circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at
the ends of the track are connected across the power supply then the wiper terminal will provide
a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.
Presets
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They
are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and
adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the
frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive
circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust
presets.
Preset Symbol
Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects
where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.
Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be
turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very
fine control.
Preset
(open style)
Presets
(closed style)
Multiturn preset
Other

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols
Links to other Electronics sites Home | Capacitor | Connector | Diode | IC | Lamp | LED | Relay | Resistor |
Switch | Transistor | Variable Resistor | Other
Other Components
LDR | Thermistor | Piezo transducer | Loudspeaker | Buzzer & Bleeper |
Inductor (coil)
circuit symbol
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts brightness (light) to resistance. It is
made from cadmium sulphide (CdS) and the resistance decreases as the brightness of light falling
on the LDR increases.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance in darkness and bright light, these are the typical
results for a standard LDR:
Darkness: maximum resistance, about 1M .

Very bright light: minimum resistance, about 100 .
For many years the standard LDR has been the ORP12, now the NORPS12, which is about
13mm diameter. Miniature LDRs are also available and their diameter is about 5mm.
An LDR may be connected either way round and no special

precautions are required when soldering.
circuit symbol
Thermistor
A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts temperature (heat) to resistance.
Almost all thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) which means their
resistance decreases as their temperature increases. It is possible to make thermistors with a
positive temperature coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases) but these are
rarely used. Always assume NTC if no information is given.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance at various temperatures, these are some typical
readings for example:
Icy water 0C: high resistance, about 12k .

Room temperature 25C: medium resistance, about 5k .
Boiling water 100C: low resistance, about 400 .
Suppliers usually specify thermistors by their resistance at 25C (room temperature). Thermistors
take several seconds to respond to a sudden temperature change, small thermistors respond more
rapidly.
A thermistor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when
soldering. If it is going to be immersed in water the thermistor and its connections should be
insulated because water is a weak conductor; for example they could be coated with
polyurethane varnish.
circuit symbol
Piezo transducer
Piezo transducers are output transducers which convert an electrical signal to sound. They
require a driver circuit (such as a 555 astable) to provide a signal and if this is near their natural
(resonant) frequency of about 3kHz they will produce a
particularly loud sound.
Piezo transducers require a small current, usually less than
10mA, so they can be connected directly to the outputs of
most ICs. They are ideal for buzzes and beeps, but are not
suitable for speech or music because they distort the
sound. They are sometimes supplied with red and black
leads, but they may be connected either way round. PCBmounting versions are also available.
Piezo transducers can also be used as input transducers

for detecting sudden loud noises or impacts, effectively
behaving as a crude microphone.
Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers are output transducers which convert an
electrical signal to sound. Usually they are called
'speakers'. They require a driver circuit, such as a 555
astable or an audio amplifier, to provide a signal. There is
a wide range available, but for many electronics projects a
300mW miniature loudspeaker is ideal. This type is about
70mm diameter and it is usually available with resistances
capacitor in series to block DC
circuit symbol
of 8 and 64 . If a project specifies a 64

prevent damage to the driving circuit.
speaker you must use this higher resistance to
Most circuits used to drive loudspeakers produce an audio (AC) signal which is combined with a
constant DC signal. The DC will make a large current flow through the speaker due to its low
resistance, possibly damaging both the speaker and the driving circuit. To prevent this happening
a large value electrolytic capacitor is connected in series with the speaker, this blocks DC but
passes audio (AC) signals. See capacitor coupling.
Loudspeakers may be connected either way round except in stereo circuits when the + and markings on their terminals must be observed to ensure the two speakers are in phase.
Correct polarity must always be observed for large speakers in cabinets because the cabinet may
contain a small circuit (a 'crossover network') which diverts the high frequency signals to a small
speaker (a 'tweeter') because the
large main speaker is poor at
reproducing them.
Miniature loudspeakers can also
be used as a microphone and they
work surprisingly well, certainly
good enough for speech in an
intercom system for example.
Buzzer (about 400Hz)
Bleeper (about 3kHz)
circuit symbol
Buzzer and Bleeper

These devices are output transducers converting electrical energy to sound. They contain an
internal oscillator to produce the sound which is set at about 400Hz for buzzers and about 3kHz
for bleepers.
Buzzers have a voltage rating but it is only approximate, for example 6V and 12V buzzers can be
used with a 9V supply. Their typical current is about 25mA.
Bleepers have wide voltage ranges, such as 3-30V, and they pass a low current of about 10mA.
Buzzers and bleepers must be connected the right way round, their red lead is positive (+).
Inductor (miniature)
Inductor (coil)
An inductor is a coil of wire which may have a core of air, iron
or ferrite (a brittle material made from iron). Its electrical
property is called inductance and the unit for this is the henry,
symbol H. 1H is very large so mH and H are used,
1000H = 1mH and 1000mH = 1H. Iron and ferrite cores
increase the inductance. Inductors are mainly used in tuned
circuits and to block high frequency AC signals (they are
sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily, but block AC
signals, this is the opposite of capacitors.
Ferrite rod
circuit symbol
Inductors are rarely found in simple projects, but one exception is the tuning coil of a radio
receiver. This is an inductor which you may have to make yourself by neatly winding enamelled
copper wire around a ferrite rod. Enamelled copper wire has very thin insulation, allowing the
turns of the coil to be close together, but this makes it impossible to strip in the usual way - the
best method is to gently pull the ends of the wire through folded emery paper.
Warning: a ferrite rod is brittle so treat it like glass, not iron!
An inductor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when
soldering.
Other

Site Map
Example Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
555 Timer
Circuit Symbols

Basic Components of Electronics

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Basic Components of Electronics

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Table of contents

Also see: Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors

means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F

p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1F +)

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)

For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)

brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F.

Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)

Variable Capacitor Symbol

Trimmer Capacitor Symbol

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors.

Electronics Club Home Page

Frequently Asked Questions

Links to other Electronics sites

John Hewes 2009, The Electronics Club, www.kpsec.freeuk.com

Connectors and Cables

Battery clips and holders

Photographs Rapid Electronics

Terminal blocks and PCB terminals

4mm plugs, sockets and terminals

Photograph Rapid Electronics

2mm plugs and sockets

DC power plugs and sockets

Photographs Rapid Electronics

" (6.3mm) jack plug and socket

3.5mm jack plug and socket

sizes are 2.1 and 2.5mm plug

3.5mm jack line socket

Jack plugs and sockets

3.5mm jack plug and socket connections

Do not use jack plugs for power supply connections because

Photographs Rapid Electronics

Phono plugs and sockets

Construction of a screened cable

Coax plugs and sockets

Photographs Rapid Electronics

BNC plug, photograph Rapid Electronics

BNC plugs and sockets

5 way 180 DIN socket

DIN plugs and sockets

Photographs Rapid Electronics

Photographs Rapid Electronics

IDC communication connectors

A lead is a complete assembly of cable and connectors.

Single core equipment wire

Typical specification: 1/0.6mm (1 strand of 0.6mm diameter), maximum current 1.8A.

'Figure 8' (speaker) cable

Photograph Rapid Electronics

Screened cable (mono)

Screened cable (stereo)

Screened cable (stereo)

Construction of a screened cable

Photograph Rapid Electronics

Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of connectors and they

Electronics Club Home Page

Frequently Asked Questions

Links to other Electronics sites

John Hewes 2009, The Electronics Club, www.kpsec.freeuk.com

Also see: LEDs | AC and DC | Power Supplies

Connecting and soldering

Signal diodes (small current)

Rectifier diodes (large current)