AncientHistoryPompeiiandHerculaneum

CoreStudy:PompeiiandHerculaneum

1. GeographicalContext

1.1 Thephysicalenvironment:thegeographicalsetting,naturalfeaturesandresources
ofPompeiiandHerculaneum.

PompeiiandHerculaneumlocatedinCampaniainsouthernItaly.
ThegeographicalsettingandnaturalfeaturesofVesuvius
o Largelyflatlandswithoccasionalmoundsformedbylava
o HighpointofareaisVesuvius(1277m)andhasa11kmcircumference.
o Veryfertilesoil[Florus],idealforgrowingcropsandgrazinganimals
o Hotsprings
o SarnoRiverflowedthroughtheCampanianregion.
o Bothtownswereonlookingtheseawhichfacilitatedtradewithotherparts
oftheMediterranean.
Climate
o Pleasanthotdrysummerswithseabreezesandmildwetwinters.
o Annualrainfalloncoastisabout845mm(lowerthanNSWtoday)
Resources
o Olives:oilisextractedandusedinperfumes,cooking,bread,lightingand
heating
o Grapes:usedtomakewinee.g.attheVillaoftheMysteries.Thiswinewas
knownforitspotency,notflavour[Plinytheelder].
o Otherfruits:peaches,apricots,lemons,cherries,plums,pearsandfigs.
o Crops:wheat,barleyandcabbages.
o Trees:willow,alder,beechandoak.
o Volcanicmaterial:pumicewasusedforbuildingroadsandhouses.
o Fish:plentifulandwasusedtomakegarumsauce.
o Wool:Senecamentionsthataflockof600sheepwerekilledbythe62AD
earthquake.
SenecaandStrabospeakhighlyofthetomographyandclimateoftheVesuvius
region.

1.2 PlansandstreetscapesofPompeiiandHerculaneum

Pompeii
Pompeiiwassurroundedbywallsforprotectionanddefencepurposes

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Therewere8entrancestothetown.Namesbasedonwheregatesleadto,for
exampleHerculaneumgate,Marinegate.
Towersatregularintervalsalongthewalls.
Fiorelli(1860)devisedanumberingsystemtoidentifyhousesmoreeasilyas
opposedtodubiousnamesthatarebasedonwhatisinsidethehouse,forexample
theHouseoftheFaun.
o Towndividedintonineregions[REG]Thiswasthe1stnumbernotedby
Romannumerals
o The2ndnumberisaHinduArabicnumberandidentifiestheinsulate
o The3rdnumberisalsoaHinduArabicnumberandidentifiesthespecific
building.
InPompeii,themainstreetsdecumaniintersectedwiththesidestreetscardini
Houseswerebuiltrightuptothestreet.
Steppingstonesonroadwereplacedperhapswhenitrainedtoprovideaccess
acrossstreets.Theyweredesignedtoallowcartstoeasilypass.
Herculaneum
AsHerculaneumislargelyunexcavated,itissmallanddoesnotuseregionnumbers,
justinsulaeandbuildingnumbers.
HousesarelargerperhapsduetobeingaporttownandmanyRomanSenators
owninghouseshere.Forexample,MarcusNoniusBalbus.
Moredoublestoryhousesperhapsduetotheviewsandtryingtocatchtheocean
breeze.
HerculaneumhadwallshowevertheywerentasextravagantasPompeii.
Similaritiestobothtowns:
Townslaidoutinrectangularblocksorinsulaegivingthemagridlikepattern.This
wasaphilHellenicinfluence.
Thereisnosenseofzoning,thatis,separateareasforindustry,commercial,
recreationalandresidentialareas.
Thereweregutters
Streetswerepavedandnotmadeofdirt.

2. Thenatureofsourcesandevidence

2.1 Therangeofavailablesources,bothwrittenandarchaeological,includingancient
writers,officialinscriptions,graffiti,wallpaintings,statues,mosaics,humanand
animalremains.

AncientWriters:
o PlinytheElderwroteaboutthephysicalattributesofCampania,fish,
medicinalplants,GardensofPompeiiandotherfacetsofcommerciallife.
o PlinytheYoungerwrotetoTacitusabouthisaccountoftheeruptionsof
Vesuviusandthereactionsandfatesofthepeople.Plinysaccounthowever
was25yearsaftertheeruptionanditisbiasedinthesensethatPlinytried
toglorifyhisuncle.Inthisregard,itmaynotbeentirelyaccuratethoughwe
havearchaeologicalevidencetosupport/refutewhathesays.
o StrabotalksaboutthegeographyandclimateofCampania.
o SenecatalksabouttheEarthquakeof62AD.
o DioCassius:HewritesabouttheeruptionofVesuviusbasedontheaccount
ofpeoplelivingaroundNaplesandothercitiesofVesuvius.Hisaccountwas
inMedievalGreekandhenceitstranslationmayleadtosomeambiguities.
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Nevertheless,someofthethingshesaysseemfarfetchedlikedpeople
gatheredinmassesinthetheatre.Thisdoesnotcomplywithwritten
evidence.
o Statius:ApoetwhoreferencedtheruinscausedbyMtVesuviusinSilvae.
o Tacitus:TellsusaboutthefightbetweenPompeianandNucerianspectators
inAD59thatpromptedNerotocancelgladiatorialcontestsfor10years.
OfficialInscriptions:
o Sourcesareevidenceforthestructureofgovernment,prominentfamilies,
financialcontributionstoconstructionofpublicbuildingsaswellas
economicandpoliticalaspectsofsociety.
o OneexampleistheriotbetweenthePompeiiansandNuceriansatthe
Pompeiiamphitheatre59ADwhereNerobannedgladiatorialcontestsfor10
years.
Graffiti
o Cameintwomaintypes,inscribedorpainted.
o Mostwerepropagandamessagestourgecitizenstovoteforaparticular
candidatethoughsomeweretopromotegladiators.Thereisanissuewith
theirinterpretationastheyappearfragmentaryandambiguous.
o Othertopicsincluded,love,Romanbars,recreationandadvertisingwomen
atbrothels.
o Byadvertising/promotingacandidateforofficeorwinasagladiator,a
clientpatronrelationshipwasdeveloped:PopidusNatalis,client,withthe
worshippersofIsis,proposesCuspiusPansaasaedile.
o Messageswerescratchedontothewallsofhouses.Itseemsitwasan
acceptedpracticeandcitizenswerenotannoyedatthisduetomany
positivemessagesbeingleftonthewalls.
o Wedohaveanissuewiththedatesofwhenthegraffitiwasinscribed
thoughinAncienttimes,perhapsthiscouldbedistinguishedbythe
freshnessoftheworkifitwasinscribedintothecement.
o Bythecountlessnumberofinscriptions,itisclearthatPompeiiwasa
literatesociety.
Statues/Sculptures
o Wereinbronzeormarble
o Usefulindicatorofsocialstatus
WallPaintings(Frescoes)
o CategorisedintoFourPompeianStylesdevisedbyAugustoMau.
o ItwasaHellenisticinfluence.
o DepictedmythologicalsceneslikeTheSacrificeofIphigeniafromtheHouse
oftheTragicPoet.
Mosaics
o Rangedfromgeometricpatternstocomplexdesignsandarecomposedof
thousandsoftesserae(tinychipsofcolouredglassorstone).
o Foundonfloors,rooves,columnsandwalls.
o DepictedmythologicalsceneslikeintheHouseoftheFaun(Alexandervs
DariusatIssus)
o AlsointheHouseofthetragicPoetintheVestibulumCaveCanum.
Humanandanimalremains
o Skeletalremains,bonesandcastsareavaluablesourceofinformationabout
victims.Wecaninquireintoavictimssex,age,appearance,height,health,
diet,occupationandcauseofdeath.
o Skeletonsarepreservedingoodconditionduetobeingcoveredby20mof
pumiceandash.
o Unearthedremainsarepreservedbyeitherepoxyresinorplastercasts.
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TheBiselsisters,namelySarahaveconductedresearchintovictimshowever
theymakespuriousconclusions.Manyoftheirconclusionsarebasedon
skeletalremainsfoundonthebeachatHerculaneumthoughtheirsample
sizeissmallandnotindicativeoftheentirepopulation.
Intermsofanimalremains,dogandpigcastshavebeenmadeindicating
perhapstheseanimalswerefarmedandconsumedbythepeopleof
Vesuvius.Alsohorses,mulesandgoats.

2.2 Thelimitations,reliabilityandevaluationofsources.

DuetothecarelessnessofthosewhohavetriedtoexcavatePompeiiand
Herculaneuminthepast,muchoftheevidencehasbeendestroyedorstolen,
leadingtomanygapsinourknowledgewhichprohibitsusfrommakingconclusive
deductionsonthelivesofpeopleinVesuvius.
Atsomepointsintime,therehasbeenlittledocumentation.Withtourismand
exposuretotheelements,artefacts/houses/remainshavebeenlost.
Wearelimitedbythelackofarchaeologicalwrittenevidenceintermsofletters,
poemsandstories.Ourconclusionsaremainlybasedonthetangibleevidencewhich
maybeonlypartiallytrue.
Herculaneumhasbeenpartiallyexcavatedandhencetherearegapsinour
understanding.Thismeansthattheconclusionswemakemaybefalse.
Manyoftheskeletalremainsaremixedtogethersoanalysisondemographicsmay
bemisleading.

2.3 TheevidenceprovidedbythesourcesfromPompeiiandHerculaneumfor:

2.3.1 Theeruption

Campaniawasanunstablevolcanicregion,pronetoearthtremorsandotherseismic
activity.Thepeoplehadnounderstandingofnatureorwarningsignsofthe
impendingdangerofVesuvius.
Noexactdatefortheeruptioncanbemadebythearchaeologicalevidenceduetoit
beingambiguous.Theeruptionhoweverwasin79AD.
PlinytoTacitus:Theappearanceoftheexplosionwaslikeapinetreeasitrosetoa
greatheightandthenspreadout.Itappearedwhite,dirtyandblotchyduetothe
mixtureofEarthandash.Buildingswerebeingblownawayfromtheirfoundations
andshakingviolently.
DioCassius:Peoplebelievedthattheworldwasbeingwastedawayintochaos.
Peoplefledthoughsomeremainedinthetheatre.Eruptiondestroyedallfishand
birds.TheashevenreachedSyriaandEgypt.
Sigurdsson:Inthe1980s,heexaminedthegrainsizesinthevolcanicstratato
reconstructthephasesoftheeruptions.Thetwophases,ThePlinianandNuee
Ardentearefromhiswork.Healsoconcludedthatmostpeoplediedofasphyxiation
(choking/suffocation).
Theeruptionhadtwophases:
o Plinianphase:Initialexplosion,greatthrustofcloudofash/pumice/gases
fromthecraterformedthe33kmhigheruptioncolumn.Itdepositedupon
Pompeiiandwas2.5mhigh.ForHerculaneum,onlylightashandpumice
feelduetoNWwindsblowingthecloudtowardsPompeii.Whilstsome
peopletriedtofleeatthistimeandwerestruckdownbylargerock

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fragmentsorcollapsingmasonry,thesepeoplewereaminority.The
majoritytookrefugewherevertheycould.
o Pyroclasticphase:PyroclasticflowscoveredPompeii.Theywereformed
afterthecollapseoftheeruptioncolumn.Thesewerehotavalanchesof
pumice,ashandgasesthatwereverydestructive.Herculaneumwas
overwhelmedbyaseriesofpyroclasticsurgesthatweretravellingatspeeds
upto200km/hfollowedbyflows.Thesehadfargreaterconsequencesto
Pompeii.
Causesofdeath:
o Baxtersaysofthe41bodiesheanalysed,abouthalfwereconsistentwith
asphyxiationandthermalshock.
o DeCarolisandPatricellisuggestthroughcollapsingbuildingsandthe
accumulationofash/debris.
o Forpeoplestruckbythepyroclasticsurges,theywerekilledinstantly.

2.3.2 Theeconomy:trade,commerce,industries,occupations

PompeiiandHerculaneumwererelativelysmallplacesandthereforehadsmalllocal
economies.
Trade:
o VitalaspectofbothPompeiiandHerculaneum
o PedlarscameallacrossCampaniaonmarketdaytoselltheirmanufactured
merchandiselikeshoesaswellasplants.Perfumes,dyesandclothesalso
sold.
o Mostwellknownexportswerewine,oliveoilandgarumsauce.
o PompeiiimportedlampsfromthenorthernpartsofItaly,potteryfromGaul,
oilfromsouthernSpain,winefromSpain,SicilyandCreteandfurniturefrom
Naples.
Commerce:
o 600excavatedprivatelyownedshops,workshops,bars,tavernsandinns.
o Basilicawasalawcourtandaplacewherebusinessmanmetclientsand
signedcontracts.MentionIucundus.
Markets:
o Onbothsidesoftheforumandwereregulatedbytwoaedilestoensurethe
marketsransmoothly,goodsmeasuredandpricedaccurately,quality
maintainedandcityregulationswereupheld.
o Macellum:NorthEastsideofforum.Specialisedinthesaleoffishandmeat.
CoinshavebeenfounddatingbacktoNerostimeindicatingthisisamarket.
Fishscalesfoundinundergroundchannelsindicatingthiswasafishmarket.
Therewasalsoasmalltempleforsacrificialbanquetsorasanauctionroom
andamoneychangingplace.
o Olitorium:Soldcerealandcropstoindividualsandbakeries.Mensaponderia
measuredfoodstuff.
o MarketdaywasonSaturnsDay.TravellingPedlarsacrossCampaniasold
manufacturedgoodslikeshoeswhilstlocalfarmerssoldagriculturaland
gardenproducts.
o Coinage:quadranlowestcoinage,Sestersiuswasthemostwidelyusedcoin
forshopping.
Industry:
o Centreoftextilesindustry.Fulloneswouldbleach,dye,spinandweave
wool.WoolwassoldfromtheBuildingofEumachiaintheForiCivili.

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[Moeller]Perhaps,asJongmannotes,thetextileindustrywasnotaslarge.
Example:FulleryofStephanus.
o Wine:VillassuchastheVillaReginahadatorculariumand18doliawere
foundforthestorageandfermentationofwine.
o GarumSauce:Curtissuggests28%ofallfishsaucecamefromAulus
UmbriciusScaurusshop.
o Thermopolia:200inPompeii.Foundingreatnumbersnearentrances
perhapstonourishfamishedtravellers.Largestthermopoliafoundin
Herculaenum.
o Cauponae:MostfamousisAsellinasInn.Cooleysaysthatcauponaeare
presentineveryinsulae.
o Bakeries:28inPompeii,2inHerculaneum.Ovensarelikemodernpizza
ovensthoughtheyaresmall.Evidence:carbonisedloaveshavebeenfound
inovens.BakeryofPopidiusPriscusatPompeiiandtheBakeryofSextus
PatulcusFelixatHerculaneum.
o Hotels:forvisitingtraders.Ownersprovidedguestswithentertainment
upstairs.Sometimesforeignwomen.Example:HoteloftheMuses
Occupations:
o Banking:WaxtabletsinhouseofCaecilliusIucunduswhichshowedrecordof
businesstransactions.
o Architects:namedoninscriptionsontheatresatPompeii,forexample
MarcusArtoriusPrimus.
o Otheroccupationsincludeddoorkeeper,engraver,farmer,goldsmith,
blacksmith,mason,musician,porter,signwriter,surgeon,teacherand
wagondriver.

2.3.3 Socialstructure:men,women,freedmen,slaves

Men:
o SenatorialElite:RomanswhovisitedPompeiiandHerculaenumastheyhad
villashere.CicerotheoratorhadavillaatPompeiiwhilstCaesarsfatherin
lawLuciusCalpurniusPisoandproconsulMarcusNoniusBalbushadvillasin
Herculaneum.
o LocalElite:thesewerewealthylandownersandtraderswhodominated
localgovernment.
o Themiddleclass:Thisincludedallfreebornmalesthatwereartisans,
shopkeepersandbusinessman.Moneywasearnedalsobylibertinithat
stayedintheshopsoftheirowners.AnexampleistheslavesoftheGarum
saucemerchantAulusUmbriciusScaurus.
Women
o SocialStatusofwomeninthefamily[CantarellaandJacobelli]
Womencouldnotmarryunlesstheyhadtheconsentoftheirfather
paterfamilias
Upontheirfathersdeath,daughterscouldinherittheirshareofthe
estateofequaltermswithsonsupperclasswomenbecamerich
andpsychologicallyandsociallyemancipated.
Womencouldnotdisposeoftheirproperty.
o SocialStatusofwomeninsociety[CantarellaandJacobelli]:
Womenbecamerichduetoinheritingpropertyfromtheirfamily
membersthatweremaleanddiedinwars.E.g.JuliaFelix
Oftenwomenweresoldasslavestoearnsomemoneyandavoid
dowries.

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SomereceivedpublichonoursfortheirlifelikethetombofMamia.
Inregardtoeducation,20%couldread/write.Forexamplethepoet
Sappho.
Womenwerenotconfinedtotheirhouses
o Marriage[CantarellaandJacobelli]:
Thoughalifetimeunionmanyendedindivorcewithuptothree
subsequentmarriagesperhapstofurtherafamilyswealthand
politicalposition.
Womenwereabletomarriedat12,men14
Ceremonystartedinmorningwithinterpretationofomensand
sacrificeshighlysuperstitioussociety
Thereisabanquetheldatthebrideshouse
Walnutsarethrownoverthecoupletowishthemfertility.
o Occupations[Zarmati]:
PublicofficelikebeingapriestessasMamiaandEumachiawere.
BusinesswomeninTavernslikeAsellinaandJuliaFelixwhowasthe
ownerofprivatebaths.
Prostituteswhoworkedinalupanania.
Tradeswomenwhospunwool
Slavesfunctioningaswetnurses,personalattendants,household
slavesandcleaners
Somewomenwereinpartnershipswiththeirhusbandsasdepicted
inthefrescooftheBakerTerentiusNeoandhiswife.Hiswifeis
showntobeholdinganaccountsbook.
o RoleinPolitics[CantarellaandJacobelli]:
Couldnotvotethoughtheycouldparticipateinelectoralcampaigns
AsselinasgirlsvoteforF.Lolliusfuscusasduumvir.
Freedmenlibertini
o Thesewereslaveswhohavebeenmanumitted.
o Manymaintainedaconnectiontotheiroriginalownerswhichwasduetoa
patronclientrelationship.E.g.UmbriciusAbascantus.
o Manytookthenamesoftheirmasters,forexampleUmbriciousAbascantus.
o Whilsttheycouldnotbecomesenators,manybecamequitewealthy.The
Vettiibrothershavealuxurioushouse.AlsoPompeiianwaxtabletsdescribe
thatPoppaeaNotehadslaves,beingonceaslaveherself.
Slaves
o Bradleystatesthatslavesthroughcaptureandauctionorasanoffspringofa
slavemotherbelongedtotheirmasters.
o Cameronsaysthat40%ofthepopulationwasslaves.
o Workedintheirmastersbusinesses,seefreedmen
o Somehadtohavebeenpaidotherwisetheywouldnotbeabletobuytheir
freedom.Thevastminorityhowevercouldnotaffordtodothis.
o Jobsincludedchildcarers,tutors,wetnursesandadministrationdutiesif
theywereeducated.

2.3.4 Localpoliticallife

Selfadministeringmunicipalitiesmuchlikemodernlocalgovernments.
WhilstPompeiiwasgenerallyaselfgoverningtown,theyweresubjecttoimperial
decreebyRome.ThiswasthecasewhenNerobannedgladiatorcontestsin59ADfor
10years.
Onlymalecitizenscouldvote

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Womencouldnotholdanypositioninpoliticaloffice.
Peopleinpositionsofpoweroftenhadgreatwealth.
Thewealthyandpowerfulusedtheirpositiontodevelopstrongpatronclient
relationshipswithcitizenstogainforboth,politicalandeconomicpower.
o PopidiusNatalis,client,withtheworshippersofIsis,proposeCuspiusPonsa
asaedile.
Whilstmuchgraffitiisfoundinregardtopotentialcandidatesforoffice,wedonot
knowforsurewhethercertaincandidatesweresuccessful.[JamesFranklin]
Apartfromthestatusofdictator,theComitiavotedannuallyonthefollowing
positions:
o Aediles:thesewerethetwojuniormagistrates
Thiswasaprerequisiteofficefortheduumvirshipandprovided
peoplewithexperiencebeforetheyreachedmoreimportantroles.
Supervisedthemarkets,templesandstreets
Madepublicofferings.
Providedpublicgameswhichwouldhavemadethempopular.
o Duumvir:Twochiefmagistrates
Presidedovercuriaandcourts
Oversawrevenueandtaxation
Exercisedpotestas
Supervisedpublicprojectsandprovidedpublicgameswhichwould
haveearnedthemGloriaanddignitas.MNoniusBalbuspaidforthe
basilicawallsanddoors.
Hadnomilitaryrole/powerunliketheconsulsinRomewhomof
whichtheycanotherwisebecomparedto.
Worepurpleborderedwhitetogatogapraetexta
o Quinquennales:
Thesewereduumvirelectedevery5years.
Theyhadcensorialpowertorevisecitizenshiprollsandmembership
ofthecuria(appointanddismiss).TheydidthiswhenTown
Councillorshaddied,theirwealthhadfallenbelow10000sesterces
ortheyhadcommittedsomecriminalorimmoralaction.
o TownCouncil:
Theypresidedinthecuria.
Minimumageofpeoplewas25andtheyweremembersforlife
unlessdismissedbyQuinquennales
TheymadelocallawsandweretheequivalentoftheSenatein
Rome.
o PraefectusIureDicundo:
AppointedbytheCuriatoassumecontrolofthetowninan
emergencylikeaftertheEarthquakeof62AD
EssentiallyadictatorasinRome.
Outrankedduumvirs

2.3.5 Everydaylife:leisureactivities,foodanddining,clothing,health,baths,water
supplyandsanitation

LeisureActivities
o TheEmperorClaudiusdesignated159daysyearlyforholidays
o Latinwordforleisureisotium
o Activitiesincludedgambling,dining,partying.OthersenjoyedGreek/Latin
literature,exercisinginthepalaestra,swimmingpools.Alsopublicbaths,
theatresandgladiatorcontests.

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Food
o
o
o

18DoliafoundintheVillaReginaforholdingwine.
Generalfoodfoundincludes,breadthatiscarbonised,oil,wine,cheese,
nuts,figs,seafood,grapes,barley,honey,eggsandfruit.
Biselsaysthattheirdietswerelackinginredmeatperhapsduetothe
amountofseafoodtheywouldhaveconsumed.Throughdentalworkon
excavatedbodies,peoplelackedsugarintheirdietwhichkepttheirteeth
healthy.Theywerewellnourishedpeopledespitetheirdeficiencyinmeat.
PlinytheEldertellsusofGarumsaucemadefromfishgutsthatwas
dominatedbyAulusUmbriciousScaurus.Thisisevidentthroughmosaics
foundinhishouse.

Dining
o FromthenumberofthermopoliafoundinPompeiiandHerculaneum,itis
clearthatVesuviancitizensoftenateout.Thisisalsosupportedbythelack
ofculinainhouses.
o Hotfoodprovidedbythermopolia
o Peopleatebystandingupduetolimitedseating
o Theyate3mealsadaybreakfastientaculum,lunchprandiumand
dinnercena
o Cenawasthebiggestmealandwaseatenoverthreecoursesi.e.wasa
banquet.
o BanquetingwasperhapsintroducedbytheEtruscansthatshowed
Pompeiianshowtoenjoyfoodanddrink.
o SweetsweremadeforthemoreextravagantbanquetsliketheSatyriconby
Petronius.
Clothing
o Mostclothingitemshaveperishedthroughtherearepiecesoffabric,shoe
leatherandpinsfound.
o Clothesdenotedrankandstatus
o TheRomantogaonthestatueofNoniusBalbuswaswornonformal
occasions.
o CuirasswornbyHolconiusRufussignifieshewasamilitarytribune.
o Menofhighrankinthearmywouldwearaloosetunicdowntotheknee
andabelt.Theyhadparallelpurplestripesonfrontandback.
Widerstripelaticlaviusforhigherranks
Narrowstripeangusticlaviusforlowerranks.
o Womanworestola,depictedbyNoniusBalbusmother.Theyalsowore
woollenheadbandsvittaeandpallatoviewheadwhengoingout.
symbolisedchastityandhonesty
Health
o Itiseasytodeterminetheageofinfantsduetotheirtoothdevelopment
o Thebonesshowthat2630yearsand4050yearsarethecommonage
groupsinthetownswhichisnottypicalofancientpopulationswhichtend
tohavemoreinfantsandyoungadults.
o Basedonancientwritersandtheirowndata,theBiselsistersattributethe
lowbirthrateswithsuccessfulcontraceptionandabortiontechniques:
Soranusremarksthatthecervixwascloggedbeforeintercoursewith
woollenspongestreatedwithhoneytopreventseminal
penetration.
Othersenduredstrenuousexercisesandlaxatives.
o Dentalhealthbetterthantodayperhapsduetolesssugarindiet,seafood
thatprovidedfluorineandtheabrasivenatureoffoodsconsumedhowever
onlyafewhundredskeletonshavebeenanalysed.SEE3.2
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o
o

Slightperiodontaldiseaseamongstolderpopulation.
Lackofredmeatmeant1/3ofpopulationhadanaemia,thoughthisisstill
speculative.
Leadlevelsinbodyhighduetowaterpipesmadeoutoflead.

o
Baths
o Thosewithtimevisitedthebathsregularlytomeetfriends,politicalallies
andbusinessassociates.
o Hotbathsthermaedevelopedhere.
o EstablishmentsincludetheStabian,Forum,CentralandSarnobaths.For
Herculaneum,theSurburbanandCentralbathsoverlookedthesea.
o Menweredesignated4dayswhilstwomen3daysoftheweektogotothe
baths.Gendersdidnotmix.
o JuliaFelixhadherownprivatebathsforelegantandrespectablepeople
o Foodandprostitutesbroughtforpleasure.
o Threetypesofbaths:thecaladarium(hotroom),thetrepidarium(warm
room)andthefridgedarium(coolroom).
o Therewasacentralchangingroom.
o Astrigilwasusedtocleanseskinbyscrapingdirtoff.
o Oilswereappliedandmassagesweregiven.
o Thebathsfunctionedbyahypocaustwherehotairfromunderground
heatedfurnaceswouldcirculateinthebathingarea.
WaterSupply
o AqueductsranthroughPompeiiandHerculaneum.E.g.AquaAugustus
o Waterenteredawatertowercastellumaquaeandflowedtodifferent
pipesbygravity.
o Itfedinto42publicfountainsimpluviumatPompeiiand3atHerculaenum.
Alsoseveralbaths,latrinesandprivatehouseswealthyenoughtoafforda
directconnection.
o Pipesweremadefromleadwhichconnectedtotheaqueduct.
o DrainagesomewhatbetterinHerculaneumduetoasmallerpopulationand
thegradientbeingslightlysteeperthanatHerculaneumsowatercouldpast
throughmorerapidly.
Sanitation
o Generallyhealthyplacetolive
o PublicLatrinesinforum,bathsandpalaestra.
o Normallyoneortoiletsarefoundinhouseshoweverinahouse,therehas
beenplaceforsixpeople.
o Notoiletpaper,justspongeonstickforcleaning.

2.3.6 Publicbuildingsbasilica,temples,fora,theatres,palaestra,amphitheatres.

TheCuria
o TownCouncilassembledhereassembledof80100influentialmenover25.
o Rectangularhallwithanapseintheendwall.
o Ascitizenscouldvoicetheircomplaints,heavygateswereusedtocontrol
crowds.
Tabularium:
o Oppositethecuria,thiswaswhereallthegovernmentbusinesswas
recordedandfiled,includingtaxrecords.
TheBasilica
o Consistedoflawcourtsandaplacewherecontractsweresigned
o Thereweretwofloors.

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o Hadaraisedtribunal(platform)wheretheduumvirpresidedasjudges.
o ConsistedofCorinthianandIoniccolumns
Temples
o TempleofJupiter:
ThereismoreflutinginthecolumnsthatinGreekTemples.
Inthecentreofeachofthedrumsthatispartofcolumnsisarecess
andpintoholdtheminplace.
o TempleoftheCapitolineTriads:
HasCorinthianCapitals
Flutedcolumns
Dedicatedstaircase,brickcoveredwithmarble
Analterstoneisontheoutsideofthetemple.Thiswasfromprayer
andlibationstobemade.
o TempleofFortunaAugusta:
BuiltbyMarcusFullius
Builtontoanelevatedplatform.
o TempleofIsis:
HadGreekFlutedcolumns
Hadalararium
Onlybuildingcompletelyrestoredafterthe62ADearthquake
o TempleofVenus:
Corinthiancapital.
Hertempleoverlooksthesea.
o TempleofApollo:
Constructed2ndcenturyBC
CombinedHelllenisticandItalianstyles.Italianarchitectureis
apparentinthestaircase.
TheFora
o Thereweretwoforums,theForiCivililocatedneartheMarineGateandthe
TriangularForum
o CivicForum
40mwide,150mlongsurroundedbydoublecolonnadedportico
Contained40statuesofleadingfamiliesandimperialfamily
ForumofHercualenumyettobeexcavatedasitisstillburied
underneathResina.
MainBuildingeitherwithinoradjoiningforum:TempleofJupiter,
TempleofApollo,TempleoftheLares,TempleoftheGeniusof
Augustus,TheBasilica,TheCuria,theMacellum,TheEumachia
building.
o TriangularForum:
95Doriccolumnssurroundingthreesideswhilsttheothersidefaced
thesea.
TherewasatempleherethatdatedbacktothesixthcenturyBCdue
toSamniteinfluences.
Olderoftwoforums.
Theatre:
o InPompeiibuiltin2ndcenturyBCbytheHolconii.Ithoused5000people
o InHerculaneum,wasbuiltinthe1stcenturyAD.Ithoused2000people
o TheSmalltheatre(Odeon)wasbuiltbyC.Q.ValgusandMPorciusin70BC.It
housed1300peopleandwasformusicrecitalsoratoryandmeetings.
o Therewassectionalseating.Lowerrowswereformagistratesandtherich,
middlerowsforthemiddleclassandaveragecitizenswhilstthetopwasfor
women.
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Entertainmentwasfreebutrequiredtokens.Patronswouldoftenpurchase
tokensfortheirclients.
o ThewealthylikeNoniusBalbusdecoratedpartsofthetheatre.Hedecorated
themasonrywall.
o Peoplewitnessedfiresandotherspecialeffects.
o Twotypesofplays,AtellanFarceswhichwerelikeGreekComedywith
masksandexaggeratedstereotypicalcostumes.ExamplesincludeThe
CastratedBoarandThePregnantVirgin.ThesecondwasPantomimewhich
combineddance,mimeandmusic.Movementswereexaggerated.One
performerwasPylades.
Palaestra
o Thisiswherethesoldiersandgladiatorsexercised.
o Greektraditionsoitconsistedofacolonnadedareathatprovidedshadeand
anopenspaceforathletics
o InregionsVIIIandII.TheoneinIIhadaswimmingpoolandlargetrees.
o TherewasoneinHerculaneumthathadapoolandfountaincentrepiece.
Amphitheatre:
o (Pompeii)Beganin70BCbyduumvirC.QuintusValgus.
o Accomodatedalmost20000people.
o AttractedforeignerslikeNuceriansasevidentbythefrescoofthe59ADfight
betweenthePompeiiansandNucerians.
o Stallssetupoutside
o Gamesmunera,includedbeasthunts,gladiatorialcontestsandathletic
displaysasevidentbypaintednotices.Oftenmenwerearmeddifferently,
onewithashortsword,shieldandhelmetwhilsttheotherhadatridentand
anet.Thismadethebattlesmoreinterestingduetotheadvantagesand
disadvantagesofagladiatorsweapon.
o Awningsprovidedshadewhilstscentedwatersprinkledtokeepaudience
cool.

2.3.7 Privatebuildingsvilla,houses,shops

Villas:100havebeenfoundacrosstheSarnoPlain.
o Otium:
Builtpurelyforleisure
Mainfeatures:Roomsbuiltondifferentlevelswithterraces,a
subterraneanportico,expansivegardens,grovesandgrottoes,
waterdisplays,thermalbaths,largerswimmingpools.
EVIDENCE:TheVillaofthePapyri.
245x137metres
Consistedofperistylesurroundedby36columns,a
continuousportico,andgrandgardenswithwaterfeatures.
Alsohaditsownbath.
87statuesofbronzeormarblefeatureanimals,gods,
athletes.
1800papyrusrollsfeaturingPhilodemusthe
poet/philosopher.
o VillaRusticae:
Villasbuildonlandforagriculturalandpastoralproductionlike
vineyards
Parsurbanaweretheresidentialquartersfortheownertostay
whenhevisited.Hadheatedbath.
Mostofthesevillasarepartiallyexcavated.
o

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EVIDENCE:TheVillaRegina.AlsotheVillaofPisanellacontainedrich
hoardofsilverware,jewelsandcoinsthatwerefoundinthe
torcularium.
Courtyardsurroundedonthreesidesbyporticoes.
Centreofthevillafeaturedlargekitchen.

Houses:
o Manyhousesincorporatedbothresidentialandmanufacturingfacilities,e.g.
HouseofStephanus.
o MostcommonstyleofHousesfortherichwastheatriumperistylehouse
withaformalentranceareaandcolonnadedgardenarea.Larariawerealso
common.
o Lightingdependantonlampsandcandles.Fortherich,naturallightcould
illuminatetherooms.
o Largerhouseshadaformalculinawhilstsmallerhomeseitherhadportable
stovesorateout.Perhapsnotmanyculinaduetosafetyreasons.
o Windowswerebuiltwellinsidetheblockduetohousesbuiltsoclose
together
o HouseoftheFaun
Built2ndCenturyBCduringSamnitePeriod
Namedafterbronzestatueofthedancingfaunoriginallyonthe
impluvium.
FamousforAlexanderVsDariusatIssusmosaic.Madefromtiles
ratherthangravel,stoneorterracotta.
FrescofoundthatrepresentsfloraandfaunafoundalongtheNile
River.
Occupiesentireinsulae(3000squaremetres)
HadTuscanatrium,tetrastyleatrium,serviceroomsandcorridors.
Hadprivatebath,culina,tablinum,cubicula,tricliniaandperistyle
Hadtabernae.
o HouseoftheTragicPoet
Namederivedfrommosaicintablinumdepictingactorsperforming
aGreekdrama.
Vestibulumfloordepictscavecanumthoughitisdamagedby
waterandisfading
OnsouthwallofatriumwasanimageofZeusandHeraonMount
Idacelebratingawomanslossofvirginity.Theotherimagewasone
ofAphroditepossiblynudebutitisalmostdestroyed.
Peristylefeaturedimaginarygardenscenetoblendinwithactual
garden.
TotheleftoftheperistyleisafrescoofthesacrificeofIphigenia.
o HouseoftheVetti
NameaftertheVettiibrothersAulusVettiusConivaandRestitutus
whowerewealthylibertini.
HasperistylewithflutedDoriccolumns
IntheatriumisafrescoofthefertilityGodPriapus.
Hasawellpreservedlararium.
o HouseoftheSurgeon
o HouseofMeander
o HouseofCaeciliusJucundus
Shops(tabernae):
o FulleryofStephanusexampleofshopcombinedwithahouse.
o AsselinasInn
o BakeryofPopidiusPriscus
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2.3.8 TheInfluenceofGreekandEgyptiancultures:art,architecture,religion

TheRomanswerenevermerelyimitatorsandratherassimilatedvariouscultures,
techniquesandideastoproducesomethingvibrantandunique.
Art
o InfluencedbyGreek,Etruscan,ItalianandEgyptianworks.
o Greek:MosaicofthebattleofAlexanderandDariusatIssusintheHouseof
theFaun.
o Egyptian:FrescofoundintheHouseoftheFaunrepresentsfloraandfauna
foundalongtheNileRiver.
o Inconsideringartssuchaspoetryandphilosophy,theVillaofthePapyrihas
manypapyrusscrollswritteninGreek.
o GreekpoetryfoundwithlinesfromHomer.
Architecture:
o Columns:
Doric:HouseoftheTragicPoet
Ionic:AroundtheTempleofApollo,
Corinthian:PeristylecourtyardsinprivatehomesofPompeii,
TempleofFortunaAugusta.
o ThetriangularforumhadtheshapeoftheGreekAcropolis.
o ThereisaSamniteHouseatHerculaneum.
Religion
o ThepeopleofPompeiiandHerculaneumwerepolytheistic.
o TheCapitolineTriadwasworshippedJupiter,JunoandMinerva.
o EgyptiangoddessIsiswasworshipped.Shehadatemplededicatedjustto
herwhichcontainedfrescoesanddecorations,askingforherguidance.
AfrescoofIsisattheCeremonyofWatershowsthatshewasalso
worshippedatHerculaneum.
o GreekgodDionysuswasworshipped.
BacchicsceneintheHouseoftheDioscuriinPompeii
FrescoesfoundinHerculaneum.
o OConnormentionsthatofficialreligiouspracticestendedtobeimpersonal
andthosewhoseekamoreemotionalinvolvementwereattractedtothese
cultsandwerepromisedhappinessandsalvation.

2.3.9 Religion:temples,householdgods,foreigncults,tombs.

Generalstuffonreligion:
o ReligionbondedpeopletotheGods
o Itwasalsoameansofunitingtheentirecommunity
TemplesReferto2.3.6
StateGods:
o Jupiterprotectorofthestate
o JunoProtectorofwomen
o Minervapatronessofcraftsmen.
o ApolloGodoforaclesandlight
o VenusGodofloveandpatrongoddessofPompeii.Alsoforsailors.
o Collectively,JupiterJunoandMinervawereworshippedastheCapitoline
TriadintheTempleofJupiter.

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HouseholdGods:
o Wereworshippedinhouseholdsaretheirmainrolewastoprotectit
o ThelarariumwasthehouseholdshrinewheretheLareswereworshipped.
AnichewasdugouttoplacestatuesofhouseholdsGodshere.TheHouseof
theVettiihadawellpreservedlararium.
o SometimesfrescoesweresubstitutesforstatuesofGods.
o Thestatuesweredressedincountrystyleastheywereoriginallyprotectors
offarms.
o Thepenateswereprotectorsofstoresandfood
o Offeringsweremadesuchaswheat,portionofmealslikefruitandeggs.
Evencrumbdroppings.Onspecialoccasions,lambmaybesacrificed.
o Ritualswereconductedbythepaterfamilias.
ForeignCults:
o Bacchus/Dionsysis:
GreekGodofwineandfertility
OfferedmysticcommunionwithGodandapromiseofablessedlife
afterdeath
CultincorporatedtherescueofAriadnebyDionysusandtheir
sacredmarriage.EvidenceforthisisintheHouseoftheVettiiand
alsotheVillaofMysteriesinfrescoes.
Livysaysthatthecultspreadlikeacontagiousdiseaseindicatingit
wasquitepopular.
Thecultcouldbecomparedtoanonstopparty/festival.
Thegovernmentdidnotapproveofthiscultandcrackeddownon
thebroadergroupofDionysians.
o Isis:
Egyptianinfluence,Zarmatisaysthroughforeignwomenwhich
wereperhapsprostitutes.
HerworshipcanbeseenduetoashrinefoundinJuliaFelixs
garden.
Appealedtowomenduetotheirroleasamotherandwife.
Yearlyfestivals:NavigationofIsisandIsra
Tombs:
o Itwasillegaltoburythedeadwithinthepomeriumsothatiswhyalarge
numberoftombshavebeenuncoveredalongroadsleadingto
Herculaneum,NucerianandNolanGates.
o NotombsuncoveredatPompeii.
o Normallybodieswerecremated,somewereburials.Asheswerecollectedin
terracotta/glassurnsandburied.Apiperandowntotheurntoallowforthe
provisionoflibationstotheremains.
o Paterfamiliasensureddeceasedreceivedproperburialrites.Beinga
superstitioussociety,itwasbelievedthatfailuretoreceiveproperburial
riteswouldcauseonetospendeternityasamalevolentidentity.People
withoutfamiliespaidtowardsafuneralfundwhilstalive.
o FuneralRites:
Conclamatio:relativesgatheredandcalledoutthenameofthe
deceasedperson.
Womenpreparedbodyforburial/cremation,washingandrubbingit
withoils.
AcoinplacedonthetonguetopayCharontheferrymanwhowould
carrythesoultotheafterlife.
Thebodyisthenplacedintheatriumfornonrelativestopaytheir
respects.
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o
o

Funeralprocessionsincludedmusiciansandprofessionalmourners
praeficae.Professionalmournersmadethedeceasedseemmorepopular.
Familymembersworewaxmasksoftheancestorsmaiores,sothatthe
protectorsofthefamilylinewerepresent,thusretainingalinkbetween
pastandpresent.
Notabletombs:
theIstacidiifamilywhoweretheownersoftheVillaofthe
Mysteries.Ithadalargefunerarychambersurmountedbyacircular
templefeaturingstatuesofprominentfamilymembers.
Mamia,thepriestessofVenushadasemicirculartombintheform
ofaseatwhichwasfundedbythetowncouncil.

3. Investigating,reconstructingandpreservingthepast

3.1 Changingmethodsandcontributionsofnineteenthandtwentiethcentury
archaeologiststoourunderstandingofPompeiiandHerculaneum

NOTE:Ifthisisanassessquestionandsayssomethingabouthowcontributionsby
archaeologistshaveimprovedourunderstandingofthesitesoraidedinthe
investigation/reconstructionofthepast,thatyouactuallymentionthesekeywords
attheendoftheparagraphtoASSESS
Overtime,avarietyofarchaeologistshaveinvestigatedPompeiiandHerculaneum,
somedrivenbynationalismwhilstothersbyexternalinfluencesandputtingself
interestsbeforethesiteswelfarethathasleftthetownsinafragilestate,requiring
promptattentioninregardtopreservationandconservation.Nevertheless,they
haveallcontributedtoourimprovedunderstandingofPompeiiandHerculaneum.
Priorto1860,Bourbonrulerstunnelledthroughthesitesinsearchoftreasureto
adorntheirhouses.Theyhadnorespectfortheancientcultureanddestroyed
thousandsofartefactsandbuildings,leavingthesitesinafragilestate.
Fiorelli,drivenbynationalism,broughtbeneficiarychangestothetowns.
o ForPompeii,hedevelopedascientificnumberingsystemtoidentify
buildingsbyregion,insulaeandbuildingnumbertoremoveambiguitiesof
previousnamesthatreliedonthecontentsofbuildingsliketheHouseofthe
Faun
o Publishedfindingsthatincreasedglobalawareness.
o Conductedmeticulousexcavationwhilstconservingthesiteshoweverthe
conservationtechniqueswerenottailoredtoexposurebytheelements.
o Developedplastercaststopreservehuman/animalremainsthataidedinour
understandingofhowtheeruptionofVesuviuswasreceivedthroughfacial
expressionsandposesaswellasclothingandfootwear.
o ASSESSMENT:Hisworkwaspivotalinsystematicallyandcarefully
uncoveringPompeiitoensureexcavationdidnotcompromiseitsfuturebut
ultimatelymorewasrequired.
SpinazzolasawtheneedforrestorationashighlightedbyFiorelli.
o Reconstructedthestreetscapesandfacadesofbuildingsandinparticular
thecrushedupperstoriesofhouses.Thisallowedtouriststounderstandthe
pastbygettingaglimpseofwhathouseslookedlike.
o Reliedoninterpretationofpaintingsandgraffititoreconstructunusual
buildingsforwhichhehasbeencriticised
o ReconstructedtheFullonicaofStephanusandtheInnofAsellina.

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Alsoleftfrescoesandgraffitiinsituwithglasscoveringshoweverthis
createddestructivemoistmicroclimatesthatfurtherdegradedtheworks.
o ASSESSMENT:Despitebeingcriticisedforsomeofhisrestorationofhouses
andconservationtechniques,Spinazzolahadapositivecontributionto
uncoveringthesites.
MaiurisworkwasdrivenbyaneedtoreestablishItalyseconomyafterbeingleft
devastatedbyWW2.
o ExcavatedinsulaeonbothsidesoftheViadellAbbondanzaanddiscovered
Greek(e.g.Palaestra),EtruscanandSamniteinfluencesonart,architecture
andreligion
o Workcompletedwithmusthasteandthusdidnotcontaindetailand
scientificprecision.Didnotdocumentfindingsnorconservewhichleadto
thedecayandlossofmanyartefacts.
o ExaminedstratigraphyoferuptionandnoteditcoincidedwithPlinythe
Youngersaccount.
o ASSESSMENT:Whilstcontributinggreatlytoourunderstanding,Mariuris
methodsareamajorcontributingfactortothealarmingstateoffindings
today.
FaustoZevisuspendedallexcavationtoplacemoreemphasisondocumentationand
conservationofthecitiesduetoexposuretotheelementsandtheevergrowing
tourismindustry.
Excavation/conservationhasbecomemoreprojectsbased.Oneexampleisthe
AngloAmericanProjectinregionVI.
o Aimedatincreasingunderstandingofthesocialandeconomiclifeof
Pompeii
o HouseoftheSurgeonandVestalsexcavated.
o Biologists,graphicexpertsandceramicandpaintingsspecialistshaveall
collaboratedinanefforttoexcavateefficientlywhilstmaintainingthesites.
o Evidencefordiethasbeenuncoveredthroughfish,animalbonesandegg
shells.
WhilstavarietyofmethodshavebeenusedtoexcavatePompeiiandHerculaneum,
muchdestructionanddisintegrationhasalreadyoccurredduetorecklessdigging
andtheconservationofthesitesnotbeingaprimaryfocusofarchaeologists.These
issuesmustbeaddressedtoensurebothcitiesarearoundinthefuture.

3.2 Changinginterpretations:impactofnewresearchandtechnologies
o

NOTE:Ifthisisanassessquestion,makesureyoutieeverythingbacktowhatthese
techniquestellusandthefacttheygiveusabetterinsightintothepast
NewresearchandtechnologieshelpusthebetterunderstandPompeiiand
Herculaneumaswecanmoreeasilydecipherpapyriaswellasstudyskeletaland
plantremains.Italsoallowsusaglimpseofthepastthatmightotherwisebedifficult
toappreciate.
Digitalmultispectralimagingincollaborationwithothernondestructivetechniques
isbeingusedinthePhilodemusProjectattheVillaofthePapyri.Carbonisedpapyri
thathavebeencrushedandfusedtogetherbyvolcanicmaterialcanallow
archaeologiststonotdamagethefragilepapyriandgaugephilosophicalworksthat
influencedRomesculture.
CTscanshavebeenusedontheladyofOplontis,acastmadefromepoxyresin.
Throughthisadvancement,EstelleLazerhasbeenabletodeterminethewomanwas
inher30sandhasanirregularhealingfracture.

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Architectonicalsurveysallow3Dlaserreconstructionsthathavebeentakingplaced
intheForiCiviliofPompeii.Itisalsoaimedatthepreservationofthewallpaintings
oftheViadellAbbondanza.
PolymerasechainreactionsenablesmallamountsofDNAinbonestobeamplified.
Thisenablessex,hereditaryconditionsandillnessestobedetermined.
AdvancementsinforensicmedicinehaveallowedpeoplelikeLazerandBiselto
determinetrendsamongstcitizensbasedonskeletalremains.
o Inregardtogeneralhealth,therewerelowlevelsofporotichyperostosis
highhygieneandsanitationpractices
o Brucellosisin10%ofpeople,respiratorydiseasein11%andtwoinstancesof
tuberculosis.
o Victimsequallymaleandfemale.
Jashemskihasusedawaterfloatingtechniquethathasallowedhertoseparate
carbonisedseedsfromdirttoidentify184differentspeciesofplants.Thishas
enabledthereconstructionofseveralorchardsandvineyardsthroughoutthecity.
MicroscopetechnologyasusedbyJayPontinexaminingthecompositionofredclay
bricksshowsthatthebrickoriginatedfromtheBayofNaplesandreflectsthattrade
wasanintegralpartofsociety.

3.3 Issuesofconservationandreconstruction:Italianandinternationalcontributions
andresponsibilities;impactoftourism

Issuesofconservationandreconstruction:
o Poorrestorationwork
Muchreconstructionworkhasbeendonebylocalfirmsthatlack
specialisedknowledge.Thishasbeenthecasewithatimberroomat
theHouseofMeleagerwhichwaspoorlydesignedandcollapsed.
Coveringfrescoesandmosaicswithglasshascreatedamoist
microclimatethatdeterioratestheworks.Spinazzoladidthis.
o Damagefromvegetation
Weedshaveinvadedtheruinsandarehasteningdecaybycausing
crackingofartefacts
o Environmentalfactors
Sunlightandrainhascausedthefrescoestofade,particularlyinthe
last40years.Roofshavebeenreconstructed.
Earthquakesasin1980andfrequentEarthtremorscausesdamage
tobothexcavatedandunexcavatedruins.
Pigeondroppingsareacidicandtheycontinuallypeckatbeamsand
doors.Contractedfalconershavebeenusedtopreventthisfrom
occurring.
o Poorsiteprotection/management
Bothsitessubjecttolootingsuchasthefrescoesfoundelsewherein
ItalyfromtheHouseoftheChasteLovers.
Themafiahasbeenanissueperhapscorruptingguardsintodoing
theirbidding.
Bagsarenotcheckeduponenteringandleavingthesiteswhichonly
promotestheft.
Therearealsoaninsufficientnumberofguardstofacilitatethelarge
crowdsthatenterthesites.
o Otherissues:
Animalslikestraydogsareroamingtheareahowevermosthave
beenremoved.
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Peopleareallowedtoeatwithinthehousesandbuildingsleadingto
thebuildofrubbish.
ItalianandInternationalcontributionsandresponsibilities
ItalianContributions
o In1997,theItaliangovernmentintroducedapolicythatalladmissionfees
andtouristrevenuewouldbepartofthesuperintendantsbudgettoput
backintothesite.
o OnJuly4th2008,ItalydeclaredastateofemergenceattheruinsofPompeii
toallowauthoritiestoappointaspecialcommissionertooverseethesites
preservationandmanagement.
o VeniceCharter:Outlinesthemainprinciplesbywhichthesitesandartefacts
shouldbeconservedandrestored.
Internationalcontributions
o TheAngloAmericanProjectundertheguidanceofthePompeiiTrusthas
madeprogressinexcavatinginregionVIbyemployingtechniquessuchas
architectonical3Dsurveyingandusingtheservicesofbiologists,graphics
expertsandpaintingspecialiststomoremeticulouslyexcavateandspread
thetaskofconservationandreconstruction.
o TheHerculaneumConservationProjectisaninitiativebythePackard
instituteandHadrilltopreventfurtherdamagetothesites.Thework
involvestheconsolidationofstructures,improvingdrainagefacilitiesto
preventwaterdamageandusingcontractedfalconerstoaddresstheissue
ofacidicpigeondroppingsandpecking.Thisprogramwillbeeventually
replacedbyanongoingmaintenanceprogram
o In1997,UNESCOhasdeclaredPompeiiandHerculaneumWorldHeritage
Sites.
CollaborativeEfforts
o Ajointeffortbetweenthesuperintendant,thecentreDIAPREM,the
sponsoringfromthefirmFassaBortoloandtheAmericanFoundationKacyra
Familyhasrestoredsomeofthewallpaintingsoftabernaesuchasat
AsellinasThermopolium.
ImpactofTourism
Negativeimpacts:
o Flashphotographyisdamagingmosaicsandfrescoes.
o 2.5millionPeoplevisitPompeiiandHerculaneumonaregularbasis
howeverPompeiiandHerculaneumhadonlyabout2000030000residents
whichhascauseddetrimentaleffectstobothtowns.
o TheeffectsonbothtownsparticularlyPompeiihaspromptedthe
superintendantGuzzotodeclareaStateofEmergencyin2008.
o ChartershavebeendevelopedlinetheVeniceChartertooutlinethestepsin
conservation.
o Theftisbecomingissuewithfrescoesandartefacts.Forexample,frescoes
havebeenhackedfromthewallsoftheHouseoftheChasteLoversthatis
notalwaysopen.Thisalsoleadstoanotherissuewithcorruptionofsecurity.
o Continuedtouchingofartefactscancausethemtocorrodeorhave
fragmentstobechippedoffbeyondthepointofrestoration.Onalarger
scale,theHouseoftheVettiihastobeclosedoffforthisreasonwhilst
othersarenotopenatalltothepublic.
Positiveimpacts:
o Increasedglobalawarenessofthestateofthesesitesthatislaterspread
throughwordofmouth.

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FamouspeoplelikeCharlesDickensandMarkTwainhaveboth
visitedthesitesandhavedocumentedtheirexperienceswhichhave
beenreleasedtothepublictogaugethesituationathand.
InternationalprojectshavebeendevelopedliketheAngloAmerican
ProjectthatworksinregionVI.Thishelpstodivideconservationinto
differentareasandensuresthejobhasbeendoneeffectively.
Tourismsgeneratesrevenueforthesitewhichisputbackinfor
conservationhoweverinmostinstances,thedestructionasaresultof
tourismexceedstherevenuegained.

3.4 Ethicalissues:studyanddisplayofhumanremains.

ThestudyanddisplayofhumanremainsiscoveredbytheVermillionandTamaki
MakaurauAccords.
TheAccordstrytoshowrespectandcompassionfortheremainswhilsttryingto
continuescientificresearchastheyareofgreatvaluetoarchaeologistsand
historians.Wecangaininsightsintodiets,demographicpatternsandanalysehow
theyhavechangedovertime,comparelifeexpectancyandpredictfuturepopulation
trends.
ScholarssuchasBaxter,DeCarolis,PatricelliandMastrolorenzohaveshownthat
thereweredifferencesinthewayvictimsdieddependingonwheretheywereat
theirtimeofdeath.
ItmustbenotedthatvictimsofVesuviusdidnotreceiveculturalfuneraryrightsbut
wereburiedbyanaturaldisaster.Inessence,weareretrievingbodiesmuchlikea
postmortemwithoutdisturbingculturalpractices.
Inregardtothedisplayofremains,theygivevisitorsanunderstandingofwhat
peoplelookedlikeatthetimeoftheirdeaths.Theissuehoweveristhatthereisno
warningforvisitorsabouttowitnesstheseremainswhichcancreatesensitivitiesfor
certaincultures.
Astimeinhibitsconsultingtherelativesofthedead,theVermillionandTamakiAccordsgrant
thepermissionofdisplayuptotheSuperintendant.Thistoohowevercausesaconflictin
interests.Perhapsthelocalpeopleshouldhaveagreatersayinthedisplayofremainsas
underlinedbytheTamakiMakaurauAccord.Thatbeingsaid,tourismisgeneratedwhichis
fundedbackintothesitewhichisoftheessenceatthemoment.

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