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AUTHORITY
USAMC ltr, 14 Jan 1972
ENIN
DIGN
ERINT
OO
CHAN
InI
OFATMATEIE
DEIG
ENIERN
a
b
uiaY
t2 ljgn rastL
Sa~
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Commandl
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tt
appr
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4a
't
et
SEPTEMBER 1963
BEST
AVAILABLE COPY
'0
245(C)
246
~acteristics
247(C)
248
249(C)
Title
Weapon System Effectiveness (U)
Propulsion and Propellants
Trajectories (U)
Structures
Ballistics Sries
Trajectories, Differential Effects, and Data
140
for Projectiles
Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part One,
160(5)
Introduction, Hill Mechanisms. and
Vulnerability (U)
Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Two,
161(S)
Collection and Analysis of Data Concerni=g Targets (U)
162(5-RD) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Three,
Application to Aissile and Space Targets(U)
(Xrriages and Mounts Series
Cradles
341
34,
Rectil Systems
343
Top Carriages
Bottom Car iages
344
Equilibrators
345
Elevating Mechanisms
346
Traversing Mechanisms
347
Materials Handbooks
301
302
303
305
306
3C7
308
309
310
311
______-
-*HEADQUARTERS
s
S
L.1,M
LuL
SlILUNITED) STATES
30 September 1963
Chief of Staff
')FFICIAL:
R. 0. DAYONC
Colonel,
..
qp
Chief, Adiistrative
DISTRIBUTION:
Office
Special
WOEACE
4!l
STRUCTURES
CONMEtTS
Page
Chapt7.-
1
1- . P urpcse and Scope ...................... .......................
2
1-2. Ballistic Missile Structural Considerations ----.........
1-3. Elevated Temperature Effeci ...-.....
.
2 Properties of Materia
..
..
.....
.......
..
...........--------..
2-1. Mechanical Behavior ...
ior
2-2. Creep e
2-3. Heat Transfer -...
................
11
13
.......
3 Stress Analysis- .. -
..
---
----
41
---
41
3-1. General Considerations ...............................................
3-2. Stresses and Deformations in Thin Shells Under Uniform Internal Pressure ............. ..................
...41
42
44
46
....
46
...
48
5i
55
57
57
.....................
4-1. General Comments ..............-.......
4-2. Aerodynamic Influence on External Configuration
..
57
11 7'
ndex ......
--_ _.
. . .............. 75
STRUCTURES
LST OF ILLUS1
Figure
T1ONS
T;tle
Page
2-1.
8
9
11
12
2-7.
..
...
29
.....----
..
...
.....
30
2-1.. Rupture Stress for 2024-T6 Aluminum Alloy as a Function of Time and Temperature ---.......---------------........ 30
2-14. Stress-Rupture and Creep Characteristics of X2020
Aluminum Alloy at 300F .........................................
31
2-15. Tension Creep Curves for 2024-T4 Aluminum Alloy..
32
2-16. Creep Rate and Time to Rupture Curves for 3S-H18
Aluminum Alloy .................... _.............................
.... 33
2-17. Master Creep Curves for 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy
Clad Sheet Stock ..............................
........................ . 34
2-18. Fatigue Properties of 2024-T4 Aluminum Alloy (Extruded Bar) at Elevated Temperatures ..... ------......
34
2-19. Thermal Conductivity of Selected Materials .................. 35
2-20. Specific Heat of Selected Materials................................... 36
2-21. Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for Several
M aterials.....................................................
.... ......... 37
Qt
Vf
$VflUCTIJRES
...
3-10. Tensile Creep Curve
3-11. Deflected Column
3-12. Stress-Strain Curve at Elevated Temperature ...
4-1. Effects of Aerodynamic Heating on Model Nose Cone,
Stagnation Temperature 1995OR ------4-2. Effects of Aerodynamic Heating on Model Nose Cone,
Stagnation Temperature 2030'R -................
-3, Tank Section, Jupiter Missile ....-.................-----------.
4-4. Top Section, Redstone Missile ...................-..................
51
53
54
59
59
4
65
STR UCTURES
LST OF TABLES
Tabie
Title
Page
____I__1
2-3. Mechanical Properties of Some Typical Alloys of Magnesium, MlyJbeenum, and Niobium
2-4. Mechanical Pioperties of Titanium and Some of its Typical AllIoIyb
2-5. Mechanical Propertien of Some Typical Cermets, Metallic
.21
Refractorie and Ceramics
2-6. Physical Properties of Some Typical Materials -----2-7. Approximate Costs of Structural Materials (1955)______
2-8. Mechanical Properties of 2024-T6 Aluminum Alloy Products at Varicus Temperatures and after Heating .-.......
4-1. Weight Breakdown for Redstone A Missile ---------.
vii
20
21
22
23
24
72
U'
I
~A'
(9
'fifE
C)
tapter I~
INTROD UCTICN
14. PURPOSE AND SCOPE
'TABLE 1-1.
PRlCli(zL O y.k-mJ
)
-
book has been selected to convey ,an appreciation of the problens -whicai face the missile
sLructural design 4pecialist and to provide
a basis Vir understanding the considexations
-which leal to the final sttuctural coafiguraion. Since a complete o'itline ,ofthe theory
and a-ractice of tructm'al lesign.and analysis
can(, be included in a single volume, the
more elementary coniderations have been
omitted. It is a.sumed that the reader has
a technical background .and a reasonable
knowledge of the fundamentals of the
strength of materials and structural principes. However, the 'book has been designed
for the use of graduate engineers -ixth little
or no direct experience in this field -ather
than for the experienced structural design
engineer or structural analyst.
Some of the problems facing the ballistic
missile structual design engineer are outlined in this introductory chapter. In Chapter 2, Properties of Materials, elementary and
basic considerations in the behavior of materials are introduced, mechanical, creep and
thermal properties are discussed, and data
on physical properties are presented. Chapter 3, Stress Analysis, gives formulas of
stress and strain for basic structural elements under selected lo-ds and boundary
conditions. Preliminary stress calculations
can be made by the use of the information
presented in these two chapters. In the final
chapter, Design C(.nsiderations, some of the
problem- facing the ballistic missile design
engineer are presented and various possible
a
A
B
Btu
c
C
C
D
E
E,
E,
Em,
F
F1.
Q
GC
h
I
k
k j , k2
K
L
Constant
Lngdn.
Bending moment
STRUCIURES
Critical pressure
End load on column
Rate of cooling
Rate of heat generation in elemental volume
Rate ,.f het-t flow
Cornstant, creep laws
Quantity of heat
Q
Muliiplying factor
r
Rockwell hardness
R
Radius
Rc,, R~, R, Stress ratios, interaction formulas
PTemperature, Rankine scale
Room temperature
R.T.
Thickness
t
Time
t~,Critical
time
T
Temperature
u, v, w
Displacements in x, y, z directions
respectively
VVolume
Shear force
wSpecific weight
x, y, z
Space variables
yDsncfrm
euriaiina
GREEK VITTTERS
Thermal diffusivity
a
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Normal strain
e
Emissivity
Half ape;: angle of cone
ly
Constant, creep Jaws
vPoicson's Ratio
Rate of radiant energy emissiop or
absorption
Radius of gyration
p
stress
a'Normal
Stpfaii-Boltzmann constant
Criti&. normal stress
Shear st;-ess
TlCritical shear stress
-external
P
q
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURES
difference is that in creep buckling one cannot utilize the concept of a efriical load.
Buckling takes place under any compressive
load however small if one waits long enough
after the Application of the load. On the other
hand, jL.St as in the case of tension, a new
concept must be introduced, namely that of a
critical ime. An explanation of this phenornenon can be givea without ditlhcuity.
Every practicai column, as distinguished
from the 'dealized ones underlying some
theoretical calculations, is imperfect. This
means that the column's axis is never coinpletely straight and the load is never applied
the time
-_
necessary for creep buckling to occur is eways finite (not infinitely long). Consequently we can properly talk of a criticP'1* - e .
Depending upon the material, the 1oda, . 4nd
the temperature, this critical time may be a
few years, a few months, a few days, a few
minutes or even a few seconds. It is therefore
most important that the engineer be conversant with the facts of creep buckling
when designing missile structure-.
1-3.4. Melting and Ablation. Other phenomena which must be treated, if a complete
picture of the problems of ballistic missile
structures is to be give,, are even farther removed from conventional structural analysis.
The heating rates experienced by ballistic
missiles on re-entry are so large that the
surface of the material may melt, sublime or
even burn. The designer of the missile must
-'
INTRODUCTION
_)
I5
--
--.-
-~--.,
I
K)
a
'WI
I.
I
II
(_I
~-
---
----
~-----------
.~-------
-- ~
------ -
--
- -
I
I
Chapter 2
PROPERTIES OF MATERtALS
!!of
As a genera) rule, it may be said that elevated temperatures have a deleterious effect
on the mechanical properties of materials,
For example, the modulus of elasticity, yield
stress, and the ultimate stress usually decrease with increasing temperature. It will
also be se, n that the rupture stress in
fatigue. or the number of cycles to failure
generally decreases with an increase in
temperature.
STRUCTURES
]1
iW
/-PROPORTIONAL
0 I
MAXIMUM STRESS
YL
YIELD STRESS
IT
STRAIN
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
VEELD STRESS
UJ
'ROPOW'1ONAL
MAXIMUM STRESS
LIMIT
a:
//
,STRAIN
STEELS
FiSu.,e 2-1. Typical Tensile Stjss-Strnin Dogrumzl
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
~~dx
dx
du
-[d-
dyj
(a)
NORMAL STRAIN
du
SHE.A
dx
STRAIN
-.
=dx
specield.
im limit
ite to
specimen
loaded Conde
beyond the aelastic
a s r s
o r -p n i g t
on
n F g
a stress corresponding to point B in Fiure 2-1a. Upon the reo d of the load, the
rial remains elastic, i.e., it assumes its origidecr;ses approximately linearly with
stress
load.
the
of
removal
the
upon
nal shape
line BC because
by deformations
as illustrated
strain
It
Furter,
he
mteril
i
linarlyelasic.i
elastic.
ne
elastic
part of the
canonly
be
linearly
is
Further, the material
might be well to point out that in reality, t
nereaic par t
e
tiosc
n e
material canmateialcanbe
be stressed
the r-oporsresed above
bovethe~i~orregained. A permanent set is observed when
tionai limit and still remain elastic. However,
the load is completely removed. The unloadfor most engineering materials, the proporing line BC is approxi.: ely parallel to the
straight
linelus.OA
whose
slope is equal
to
tional and elastic limits are frequently
relatively
close
s
O If
f he
e pr
per.
miaterial were
the sltei
Modulus.
Young's
used
-o each other and are in fact
interchangeably by engineers.
fectly elastic, it would have unloaded along
the original loading line OAB. For materials
2-1.3.. Young's Modulus. The slope of the
stress-strain curve, that is the rate of change
of the stress with increasing strain in the
linear region is calied Young's Modulus.
Physically, it may be considered a spring
constant because Young's Moduius is proportional to the force per unit elongation.
Although the stress-strain curve gives the
value of the spring constant in only ornu direction, most engineering material, Are fairly
whose stress-strain curve has the charocteristics shown in part (a) of tne figure, t:p
yield strpss ii defined a$ that value of the
stress c.arre.ipwndirg to an offnet, c,, of 0.002
-ur materials whose -tress-strain curves are
similar to that shown in part (b) of the figure, the first point of horizontal tangency is
taken as the yield point.
2-1.5. Ultimate Stress. The maximum value
STRUCTURES
which the number of cycles to failure is recorded. Part (a) of Figure 2-3 shows a periodic variation of stress to which a fatiguc
specimen may be subjected and defines the
important stress parameters affecting fatigut
life. In part (b) of The figure, a characteristic
curve is presented which gives results of
fatigue tests on a specimen. The curve is
drawn for a mean stress value of zero, and
relates the stress to the number of cycles to
oh
suctuall nirner, then the ultimate
10
f
-a
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
4"failure. Curves of
-with
OTrEAN
U)
ENDURANCE LI MIT
TIME
Figure 2-3. Fatigue Loading and Typical Strevs. Cycles to Failure (S-N) Curve
Ican
STRUC URES
~-EL
I____________
STRAIN
JPRIMAR\
-
sectionl area of the specimen. Thie instantaneous value of the strain, t. corresponds to
the elastic deformation calculable from the
load. original cross-sectional area and
Young's Modulus. With the passage of tLime,J
the strain increasts; the strain rate is high
at first and gradually decreases to a constant
value. The portion of this creep curve inI
RGE
__
STAGV
SEODR
STNAE
TERTIARY STAGE
RtP7URE
of
creep
PROPERT'SES OF MATERIALS
I!
ion hil
th
iectu
=rate
a ~tefan-13olt?mann
ongl th
constant
0.174 x 10-4 Btu1 ( ir)(Wt)(F')
radiating area, ft"
T =absolute temperature, F
13
4"
STRUCTURES
-,k
("r,
where
L = total path length (x2
T7 = temperature at x2
T, = temperature at x,
T
(2 6)
14
xi)
/
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Cniefor example, a r~rd of unfo01rm
crm-settional area A and length L~. F r a
equation reda-es to
.--
)amount
again assuming that other material propertes were equal. The equation of continuity
fr the heat flow thrcugh a volume element
(2 8)
where the effect of the heat input q, Btu/fthr, has been added. In the most general case,
c, w and q are functions of x, y, z and T;
q may also be time dependent. As written,
Equation (2-8) is valid for an inhomogeneous, but isotropic solid. Moreover, the equation is non-linear if k, c, or w depend on T.
d
( 0
where
acoefficient of thermal expansiop I F
per unit length
~
Engineers find it more convenient to define a
mean coefficient of thermal expansion as
j
follows:
aTl
T
0
ax (k ax)+ -a.(ka
O
+ ew
rk,
+ q
OT
oz (I+
(I
Man caes ar
f pactcalintres
coere
-elongation
a
-
~dT(2
iI'l.
STRUCTURES
where T. is a reference temperature. The
thermal expansion for some engineering materials are given in the tables and graphs at
the end of this chapter.
Consider the case of a slender rod of original length 4.,, heated to a temperature T,
from a reference temperature value T., The
increase in the length of the rod due to the
effects of thermal expansion is required.
Taking T, - T,. = T = 100 0F as the ternperature rise, L,, = 1 ft, and assuming L,
for the material ha i value of 10 - 7-,the unit
elongation from (2-12) is
The ea
of
rod'~)
10-~
is
1material
The elongation of the rod is
-he
(2-14)
AL
L. = 10 - 2 ft
stress
stresseqire
rodcesanpeqondi
top-oprequiredteto produce
an equal and
tion w
nd s avoryth th m isilces
signer and stress analyst. in many instances
datc
of a particular kind are shown only for
one alloy
of one material. This is particularly
true in the graphical presentation of creep
data, and stress-strain and tangent modulus
curves as functions of temperature.
Tables 2-1 through 2-5 cover several alloys
each of steel, aluminum, titanium, magnesium, and a few ceramics. In this compilation
the room temperature mechanical properties
are given for each alloy and for a selected
form and condition. Young's Modulus, yield
and ultimate strengths are presented on the
basis of tensile test data. The yield stress is
based upon a 0.2%. permanent offset condition. The elongation is the percent change in
length measured over 2 inches of a test
specimen.
Table 2-6 summarizes the physical properties of various materials: density, melting
a = Ee
(2-15)
Hence if Young's Modulus for t1be rod used
in the above example is 107 psi, the stress
can easily be calculated:
= 101(10 - 1) = 10,000 psi
Partial restraints at the ends of the rod produce thermal stresses which are between the
Values of zero thermal stress for unrestrained ends and the thermal stress calculated above for fully restrained ends.
Expansion of the rod in the lateral directions may be calculated in a similar manner.
The coefficient of thermal expansion is usually assumed to be independent of direction.
Since most engineering material3 can be considered isotropic, the assumption is fairly
good. The quantity a is also called the co-
16
PROPERTIFS OF MATERIALS
tion with the interpretation of the curves
point, specific heat, thermal conductivity and
shown in these Pi/ures. The stress-strain
-coefficientof thermal expansion. In this corncurves shown P -e obtained at a:constant ternpilatijn, only one or two alloys of steel,
are
perat.me given by the intersection of the
magnesium, aluminum and titanium
curve with the temperature axis. The stresssuch
of
materials
listed, but thi. properties
strain curves are spread in their correct
as copper, tungsten, molybdenum, oxides,
posti*;t on the temperature axis (abscipsa)
carbides and borides are presented because
in order that curves at intermediate ternof the attractiveness of one or more of their
Mean
peratures; m'fy be interpolated. For an.y given
elevated
tcrmperatures.
properties at
stress-strain curve, the strain at any stress
values of the thermal properties are given
level may ;ie obtained by interpolation betogether with the temperature range within
tween constant strain lines or by using the
which they are applicable. For a number of
strain smle (shown only in Figure 2-9) and
materials, the, thermal properties are plotted
measurinr .from the point of zero stress. An
as a function of temperature and a reference
illustrativ3 example :s given in Figure 2-9
to the corresponding figure is given.
fo further clarifi-a;. n.
In Figure,, 2-5 and 2-6 the modulus of
ata at various stresses
nio4u
elasticity anSi the yield stress are plotted aangent
J . _niinum alloy in Figure
are shown fot"
are shoTh valuf . nninum as io F
functions of the temperature for a selected
T e value, ,xe 4,owp s Mos of
number of typical materials. As alreAdy menMaulus, of
, b
A
Moulus
at
tioned, the principal purpose is not only to
of
A tabulation
various pronerties
ternper.'n
at
a room
and elevated
mechanical
show the variation of these properties for a
temperatres fir an aluminum alloy is given
material, but: also to indicate the relative
a s
e
Creep aalu iue
.
t-r
magnitudes and the behavior between differincluded.
ent materials. It is significant to point out
incle
that these properties are affected by the rate
by
F pres
inh
ree
Th
of heating, soaking time at test temperature,
through 2-17 are in the forms preferred by
asthe ctrain rate. Most of the mechanical
structural designers and analysts. In Figure
properties shown are for moderate heating
reader should note that the elastic
2-15,
and strain rate, and are soaked for one-half
strainthe
is subtracted
from the total strain to
hour or more at the test temperature. Short
time test results, which are not quite as plenobtain the curves. The log-log plot of minitiful, indicate an increase in the modulus of
mum creep rate as a function of stress in
elsticityl,
dyiedstress with an increase
Figure 2-16 is particularly useful in the
elasticity end yield srswihainese
formulr'~nn of creep laws for engineering
he master
aster creerves
mtr ina
rate
and
with
and
strain
heating
rate
in
the
creep curves
in the
Finally, in
materiai..
time.
soaking
the
in
a decrease
are total
parameters
the
2-17,
of Figure
strain, and a so-called Larson-Miller parameter which includes both the time and temperature effect. The comments made in connection with Figures 2-9 and 2-10 also hold
for this figure except that temperature is
replaced by the Larson-Miller parameter.
Inasmuch as fatigue considerations are
relatively unimportant in missile type structures, only one set of curves is given for an
alloy of aluminum in Figure 2-18.
The final set of figures, 2-19 through 2-21,
show the thermal properties of a wide variety of materials as functions of temperature. To enable a comparison between the
various materials, each figure shows the
variation of a particular thermal property.
I.
SIPRUCTURES
421
co
I.
c:1
to
=t
to
<
1 41
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00
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01
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to
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40
m
00
0oMCI0
I*
- W
0,
C4?
40
CI
00t
oo
-t E
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
)z. 1
ci
oz
10
COO'i~
0-
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30
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-
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4s
a,0.
ej A
V2 a,a.
If
co,
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q.
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19
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;
IN
wo
STRUCTURES
03
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03
co.4
Ir
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cq
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ME
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to
wt toO
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PRO)PERTIES OF MATERIALS
L-G
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to
nm in co
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eq
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to
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STRUCTURES
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PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
'[I
co
tor4 C3C3o
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STRUCTURES
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24
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t-'--00
,0
PRO-PERTIES OF MATERALS
ALLOYS
MOLYBDENUM-BASE
30
I'
-INCONFL XI
IQ
I
17-7PR(THJ050)
28L,,
SIAINLESS STEEL
P112 HARD-TYPE 30i
0
0:
IIr-
TITANIUM ALLOY'
U.
\i
TIYANIUM
ALUMIN
I"JJ
4
4~~
TITANIUM ALLOY
IN"'\1 '1
AL
75-Y
RAUINUM
AIIO-AT
2014 -T6
1t 0Lz
*-MAGNESIUM
400
V 00
1200
1600
2000
TEMPE.RATURE , OF
Figure 2-5. Effect of Temperature on Modulus of Elasticity for Severa) Typical Materials
25
STRUCT%&'.ES
--i---I----
...
,\$INCONEL
MOLYBDENUM
112% T;
STAINLESS STEEL
HARD TYPE,301
,12
0)
-
i
6C,
ALUMINUM
_ LLOY
,TITANIUM
ALLOY
5% A -2.5% Sn
'-
20
T
COMM ANNFALED
TITANIUMl
o0
400
1200
800
TEMPERATURE, 0 7
1600
2000
Fisq*re 2-6. Effect of Temperature on Yield Stress for Several Typical Maieri as
26
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
... L
KKKWK7
f,
,8
_t
14
.I
bO
Fr
w
STAINLESS STEEL
12/ HARD-TYPE 301
'
-i
INCO14EL X
__TITANIUM
25%
ALLOY
Al, 2.5% Sn-
0'-----------------------1600
1200
800
400
TEMPERATURE,
2000
0F
Figure 2-7. Effect of temperature on Weight-Strength Ratio for Several Typical Materials
27
STRUCTURES
sFit
wt
TITANIUM ALLOY
!,
SI
5%A 1, 2.5% Sn
Typical Materials
IR.ONEL X
0[
-A30
oo
U-ALUMiNUM
STEEL
#A~~
1200
1606
]STAINLESS
Various Temperalure3
2000
TEMPERATURE , F
50
STR~AN RATE0.002/MiN.--
.004
.0
-. o0*.
0.0018
ISSTRAIN(
28
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
'120C
STRAIN RATE O.002/MIN
RATE OF
00
2/min
00
IL
0
-
00.3
001
200
400
Aluinu
PT3
Allo)SAiclad Stehoot
n mpreso
4).
T M E ATU E Y U GS
-O-D29S
STRUCTURES
0
0
01
00
0l
cf.,
!0
40
:3
*1
o
5)-
0c
0
.0
E
,,
Cl
.0
(n
-0
-o
I/d
'I5/o
SS3U.
/,I/
o )(0
0
i
o0
0.
I 0
II
.
0j
0
/ 0
NO 00
00
0
C4
00m
!I
i
'
cm
iL00
co
00
ISd F,01
SS'3NIS
30
1
)0
I
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
N_
__
__
__
__
__
CRE_
RUTR
o_
_
_
I.
__s
_IN,
30-
c3O
ao0
*10
z0t
0.1
1.0
10
TIMEHOURS
100
1000
Figure 2-74. Stress-Rupture and Creep Characteristics of X2020 Aluminum Alloy at 300'F
31
STRUCTURES
0
10"
jo
0-
00
-I
IL
00
d-U:
1-S
---00001
320
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
20
2-
241
z'a
____
01110
0.000001
e8
100
1000
TIME TO RUPTURE, HOURS
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
CREEP RATE, IN ./iN./HR.
10000
0.1
2-16. Creep Rate an~d Time to Rupture Curves for 3S-H18 Afuminum Alloy
Ii
STRUCTURES
S120
YIELD STRESS=40000 PSI
DWI
=EPEAURO
0-
frg
,IEaOR
it
W
),.
r_
02
moso
wz
TORELR
4034
00)
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
3200
t
2800
siOPPER
'V
z
2000-
1.600
z0
<-.
BERYLLIUM
2oo
'-"
SAGNESIUM
ALLOY
-MOLYE LYBE!,1
FSI-H24
400
800
1200
1600
2000
TEMPERATURE
A LF
4 0 0
[
,'
~I~ilL
35
2400
STRUCTURES-j
kJ
0.80
B.RIUM/
0.30
MAGNESIUM ALLOY
FSI- 24
0.30
. .-
-1
ALUMINUM ALLOY
ALUMINUM OXIDEI
TITANIUM ALLOY
0.20
--
400
:F CoPPER
0.0 ----
-MOLYBDENUM
1600
1200
800
TEMPERATRE, OF
36
2000
2400
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
114Ai
_
16
..
J_"COPPER
STAINLESS STEEL
XO""-
I/""
"q
INCONEL X
ALLOY STEEL
-."-
-JJ
...
,ALM
"
ALLOY FI-H24
'/
14
MAGNESIUM
,_
A'3408630
/"KTiTANIUM
ALLOY
--
z"'
VA'LUMINUI
J4
M----BDENUM
_...-.,
OWIPE
0=
00
400
800
!200
TEMPERATURE,
1600
2000
2400
OF
37
ri
STRUCTURES
k.
'G.Prny
38
~i1
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
2Wright
"Tensile
l
Properties of Aircraft Structural Metals at Various Rates of Loading After Rapid Heating," Wright Air
Development Center, WADC TR 55-199,
September 1957, ASTIA Document No
AD 142003.
29. Shinn, D. A., "Selected Properties of
Structural Materials at Elevated Ternperatures," Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development, Report 104, April 1957.
30. andven, 0. A., "Cermets as Potential
Mlaterials for High-Temperature Service," Advisory Grov;p for Aeronautical
Research and De,e!opment, Report 99,
April 1957.
31. Schwarzkopf, Paul and Kieffer, Richard,
34, Westerholm, R. J., et al.. St U:on I-"Some Aspects o;f the Development and
Performance of Pure Oxide Coatings,"
Section Il-"Appication of ROKIDE:
A Coating Lo Ramjet Engine Combustion
Components," papers presented a'ARSASME Aviation Division Conference.,
Los Angeles , a
35.
Sully,,
A.
H.
"Specia'{l
March 1956.
/'3.-ti
",,
for
39
*1
Al
1!
ii
*1*4
I
II.
40
Chapter 3
STRESS ANALYSIS
*
=pR
arise as
ing; for
tance to
account
(3 6)
= E
whpre t is the strain (elongation per unit
length) and E Young's Modulus of elasticity,
the mean radius of tie cylinder inicreases by
the amount
p"
R,
(3 7)
3-2.1. Circular Cylindrical Shell. The tangential or hoop stress, n. and the stress i
the longitudinalor axial direction, ,, within
circular cylindrical shells under a uniform
internal pressure are
pR
_=
h(3 1)
ax= pR
2h
(3 5)
2h
3-2.4. Thin Shell. All of the stresses given
heretofore are membrane stresses. These are
stresses distributed uniformly through the
thickness of the wad. Under their action the
shell change. its size slightly. When the material is perfectly slastic and when it follows
Hooke's uniaxial law
a consequence of aerodynamic heatthis reason they are o. great imporvery-high-speed missiles but of little
in conventional airplanes.
(3 2)
AR,),,
= (1 -
(3 9)
41
itt
STRUCTURES
VR)
(R
=
Eh
+
The positive directions of M, V and w are as
shown in the figure. The slope of the deforwed shape of the shell is
(dw/dx). =
3(1 -
(2MoK + VoR)
(3-1)
(3-11) yields a negative slope when
M,, and V., are positive; correspondingly the
radial dispiacement w decreases with increasing x in Figure 3-2, that is the slope
shown in the figure is negative.
X--oo-X
M = e-Kx/
[mcos -R + sin Kx
+i
+
V. t
Mo
xR
V,.R
.K
sirlK1c
(313)
The location of the maximum bending moment can be computed from the formula
oX _
R -- 1 2+VtR
o Kcot
(3-14)
The connection between the maximum bending stress and the bending moment is
6M/h2
(3-15)is
The'attenuafion of =the
bending stresses
2MK
Kx
Mo
i,,
42
R/K
(3-16)
STRESS ANALYSIS
Modulus of elasticity
E = 29 x 106 psi
Poisson's ratio
= 0.3
Internal pressure
p = 100 psi
From Equations (3-1), (3-2) and Z3-5) one
obtains
accuracy is obtained for, engineering purposes if the actual shell configurations are
imagined to be replaced by equivalent circular cylindrical shells in the calculation of the
disturbance stresses. In the case of the spher-
10,000 psi
tionally symmetric shell which joins the cylinder with a continuous tangent, the radius
of the equivalent shell is
(3-17)
R, = R(r/R)2
where R is the radius of the cylinder and r
is the radius of the meridian of the rotationally symmetsc shell at the junction with the
cylinder. Equations (3-10) to (3-16) retain
their validity for the general rotationally
symmetric shell joining the cylinder with a
Equation (3-16).
V,hen the head of the pressure vessel has
a taagent which changes discontinuously
from the tangent of the cylinder, the equiva..
lent cylinder concept is still valid, but the
forces and displacements must be resolved in
the proper directions.
For illustrative purposes the numerical values
characterizing the pressure vessel of Figure 3-1
may be taken as
Radius of median surface of cylinder
R,= 25 fn
Radius of med.an 3urface of hemisphere
R,,,h,.r = 2 in
quantities are applied to the cylinder replacing the hemisphere. The conditions must now
be enforced that under the action of M,, and
V. the ;relative displacement of the two shell
wails is 0.863 X 10- in., and that the slope of
the gene.ators remains continuous. The l.tter condi&;:ion is fulfilled if M,, = 0 because
the wall thicknesses are the same in cylinder
and hemisphere. As the real and the equivalent cylinder are eqaal in size, under the
action of the same shear force V,, each one
shows the same numerical value of change
in the length of the radius. Hence Equation
(3-10) becomes
Length of cylinder
L =100 in
Wall thickness of cylinder and fiemisphere
h 0.125 in
- EK
3(1
hv:)
R
R
(J 18)
43
!I
STRUCTURES
From Equation (3-12) K =-182 and substitation of the numerical values in Equation
(3-18) yields
h V7liv
p. 0.92E0-1
R(3Here r7 is Young's Modulus, h the wall th.ckness, R the radius of the median surface of
the cyiinier, and L the length of the cylinder
between s, pports; Poisson's ratio v is taken
-ps0.3. Thi- equation is valid only if
0.763 ,
7i
1
(3-23)
The meaning of this restriction should be
understood from a numerical example. When
R = 25 in. ant' h h g in., the inequality
reduces to 0.4321 1. If L = 10 in., the ;efthand member is 4.32; with this value one can
expect a reasonabit approximat.on. The accuracy increases wikh increasing L.
sure is
p,, =E 14(1 -- -2)]1(h,'RJ
fomlI
where
0.0465
-E
(, -24)
h AR%I - ARp,:
1
(3-40)
414
X
',
STRESS ANALYSIS
stress
T,
in pure torsion is :-
7, = E(hiL)213.08 + J3._5
(3 27
+ 0.557(L-'/hR)"I,-1
if Poisson's raiio is taken as 0.3.'.5
For very
long cylinders the fohlowing
formula
applies:
E'(h,;R/ "- 2
(32)
(328
3-4.5. Hydrostatic Pressure. In the hydro=0.25
3-4.8. Stabiization Through Internal Pressure. Thin shells can be partially, or fully,
stabilizedI through application of an internal pressure p. The stabilizing effect in the
case of a circular cylindrical shell subjected
to a uniformly distributed axial compressive
)0.92
0.24 x 29 X i0/500
4nen
o,, =
45
STRUCTURES
pressive
'
CE 5s
-E
shell is
= 0.2E(h/R)
(3- 35)
The correspondiog value of the critical pressure is
pl
(3 37)
AL = a(T - T,)L
expanof
thermal
a is the coefficient
whereusually
r, asured in inchies per inch per
sion,
degree Fahrenheit.
If, however, the bar is held between insulated walls as shown in Figure 3-4, the insuthis
'expansion
prevent
wallsup
lated
magnitude
of a completely
stresses
thermal
setting
by
a= - E(T - T)
(3 38)
where E is Young's Modulus and the negative sign indicates that the thermal stress is
46
41
(3
3-6. THERMAL STRESSES
STRESS ANALYSIS
L
L
/
-
d,
i/
where
3-S.2. Flat Plate. If a long rectangular flat
plate ,)f constant thickness h is heated from
a uniform initial temperature T, to a final
variable
temperature
is
symmetric
with respect
T, whose
to the distribution
x axis (see
.5
(T - Ti). ,
aE[(T
T.)
Cb =yd
(31/-42Tb)J
"
and A is the
ctn aeotep e
formulas y must be measured from
In thesh
the ceftroidal axis of the section; be and b
are the distances of the lower and upper extreme fibers from the centroidal axis; and I
isthe moment of inertia of the section with
resuect to the neutral axis:
b.
I__y'dA
-
(T
T,),]
(T - Tj)hdy
(3-42a)
by
-
(I/A)f
,-
aEj(T - T) - (T - Ti)., - Cy
(3-41)
(3-39)
hy2dy
-b,
(3-43)
Ti
_______________0
L
r
47
'p
h]
-"
STRUCTURES
3-f.A. Circular Cylindrical Shell. The thinwalled circular cylindrical shell of Figure 3-7
T, AT
is uniformly heated to a temperature exceeding by AT the uniform temperature of the
ring frame. If the wall thickness of the shell
is h and the cross-sectional area of the ring
frame is A, the hoop compressive stress in
the shell at the location of the ring is
. .= raET
(3-45)
and the maximum axial bending stress is
A. A
H
c,, = 1.82rfET
(3-46)
I-provided
that Poisson's ratio is 0.3. The
[,
SECTION A-A
value of the multiplying factor is
r = 1/[1 + (2,'K)(Rh,-A)j
(3-47)
with
K = 1.29.v/R-/i
(3-48)
It can be seen from these equations that
the value of r is always between 0 and 1.
Figure 3-6. Ring Frame with Temperature
When the area of the ring is very small, r is
Varying Linearly Through Depth
very small, and the small amount of constraint provided by the ring does not give
in the curvature is restrained by the contirise to large thermal stresses. When A is
nuity of the structure. When the temperature
very large, r is not much smaller than unity,
increase from the initial uniform temperaand the hoop compressive stress corresponds
to almost perfect constraint.
ture is a linear function of the depth of the
section, but is uniferm along the circumference and at the same time the ring frame has
3.7. THERMAL BUCKLING
two axes of symmetry
asbndig
shown in
the figure,
theheral
axium
sres
!s3-7.1.
Columns. The column does not know
th
awhether
the compressive stress in it was
I,.
(1 2)aEAT
(3 44)
In the derivation of this formula the additional assumptions were made that the cross
section of the ring was doubly symmetric
and that one axis of symmetry was in the
plane of the ring.
48
STRESS ANALYSIS
A.....
.1
"~
'
A'
SI0
X1
Figure 3-8. Simply Supporled Pla',e Subjected to Thermal Stresses in One Direction
VI
The following
meaning of this
(3-51)
(y
o and y =
acin i 3.6E(h,
h
b)2
(.q 50)
where a
is a uniform compressive stress
acting in the x direction.
The complication arising from the thermal
nature of the stiesser, is that the distribution
is usuaily not uniform. For a :igorous evaluation of the conditions of buckling, reference
should then be made to the literature. When
the distribution can be approximated by the
formula
or= ao1 + p cos (2iry/b))
(3-51)
(y
b 2) it is zero. Equation (3-52) yields
in this case a...... - 2a.,.. Hece the shifting
of the compression toward the supported
edges and the consequent reliel of the unsupported niiddle portion increases the critical value of the average stress by a factor
of 2. On the other hand, p = -I increases
the compressive stress in the middle to 2 a..
and decreases it along the edges; the result
is a decrease of the critical value of the
average stress by a factor of 2,3.
0,0..
49
(p 2)1
(3 52)
I'
7-
STRUCTURES
(3 53)
Thin integral can always be evalua;teJ graphically or numerically without difficulty. When
the plate thickness is constant,
= (2 3)h~b( (3 56)
GC. .
and G is the shear modulus of the material.
1~PPI
COMPIRESSION
TENS10 O
b-
cYf(y)
Figure 3-9. Assumed Stress Distibulion in Reciangular Flat Plafe with Free Edges
can vary through the wall thickness, but remain constant along the axis of the cylinder
and around the circumference. In this case
thermal buckling does not occur.
independent of
When the temperature i..
the circumferential cocrdinate and is constant through the wall thickness but varies
with the axial coordinate, the resulting hoop
compression can, in principle, cause buckling,
Investigations have shown," ' however,
that under the practical conditions'of ballistic missile design the danger of elastic buckling isvery remote and that at most some
localized inelastic dimpling may occur near
restraining ring frames when the tempera-
50
,/N
ST RESS ANALYSIS
ISTRAIN
)'
SECONDARY
INSTANTANEOUSAR
I
V
h
T RY
TIME
r.,o
kSTRUCTURES
s.
(Y4 X)',
.
".
i
-
(2ylh);"'
(3-64)
where ,,,,,.
is the stress in the extreme fiber
and n isthe exponent in the creep law. The
maximum stress in turn is given by the
formula
(3-65)
2n+1 Mh
n
61
where M is the applied moment and I the
moment of inertia of the cross section.
It the case of linear creep or linear elasticity
o/c,
= p--"-,,--(3-63)
-,herethe constants have the same values as
in Equation (3-62).
As the value of p is usually between 2 and
3, the strain rate decreases with increasing
strain, that is with increasing time. For this
reason materials whose creep behavior can
be expressed by Equation (3-63) are often
referred to as strain-hardening materials.
Again, tivs creep law is more reliable in
applications in which the load hicreases than
in which it decreases.
3-8.3. Stress Distribution Accompanying
Creep. The presence of creep -'hange- the
stress distribution in a structure from the
one calculated from the linear theory of elasticity. The only exception to this statement
is the stress (li:itribution accompanying linear
2y h
(3-66)
S...=Mh, 21
(3-67)
The stress distribution is linear only when
creep deformations are absent, or when they
are governed by a linear law as is the case
with some high polymers. With metals the
final stress distribution is non-linear since
the creep law is non-ln,ar.
,
52
STE~ANALYSIS
~.
(38
2n + 1
91L
0.704~ 0.6I
li
1/
- .DsetdClm
. fte}trln
o h ounfo,
h
o h etrl'e
fteclm
ri
h
line of load application. The small leve'
arms y., upon which the load "' is atn ~
equally be cau.,ed by inaccuracies in the manufacture (if the column and in its centering
in the loading machine. Ur',er these bending
moments the small initial curvatire of the
Column increases in conse~quence c.J bending
creep. The increased curvature, in turn,
leads to increased bending momtnts because
of the increases in the lever arm , y. As creep
in metals is non-linear, the Jncre.sps in curvatr
n
elcintk
lc eysol
tit the beginning, but they are accelerated in
atraildeecinak
aevrysoy
the later phases, of the creep column testI
unercsttlod
Probably the mo. ;nteresting fact about
the
buckling of a cojumn in the istae
presence
ofcepithtwlehecum
i t nta
lgtycre
tti
e
coeustbew
nthcrppoesicurvature ufciety.oThis increaes intbl
be shown
with the aid of the stressri
dagmofte
aeraesblhd
theeece2
temperature oftecolumn test
Figure (3 '2)..
At the --omen, of load applicaldon the
deviation
is so small that virtually the
same stres.s (;,, prevails throughout the cross
section. But as the curvature increases iii
STRUCTURES
formula
0'-radius
2EE.
(T
EE
(3-73)
For'other sections Equation (3.72) represents a satisfactory approximation.
The buckling load of the column is
_
L)
and the critical stress can be given as
-L
(75)
where L is the length of the column, p, the
Eqf is simply
of gyration of its cross section, and
E2.t= (EI)a./I = 2EE,/(E + E,)
a2
V
/
o
wConsequently,
#
ostrain
EO
IN
a Elevated
(54l
454
STRESS ANALYSIS
3.9. RrEiZEFCESAND BBLOGRAPHY
Y.., 1936.
Bo
.,NwYr,
4Cylindrical
-~Hydrostatic
*852,
Shell,."
1934.
4. Fung. Y. C. and Schier, E. E., "Buckling of Thin-Wal!ed Circular Cyliniders
under Axial Compression and Jiiternal
Pressure," Jau-Wn of the Aeronawtical
Scienes, Vol. 24, No. 5, pp. 351-56, May
L.. H.Rtbltyo.Ti-ale
i5.
ochnWle
5 Donneffl, L.H,"tblt
Tubes under Torsion," National Advisory
Commnittee for AerQnautics, NACA Report No. 479, 1933.
6. Bijilaard, P. P., "Buckling Stress of Thin
Clamped Shella Subject to
pressure," Journal of the
Aeronautb-o'Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 12, p.
December 1954.
'7. isatdori, S. B., et a, "Critical Combina..
National
',"
Dimsertation, Polytechnic
Institute of
J.
and Prager,
STRUCTURES
JI
._
41
24
Chapter 4
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
and analysis portion of the closed loop outlined above. Some of the inost important
aspects of the environment, mission, or design criteria of the missile are considered,
one at a time. and their effects on the design
are noted. While the treatment is qualitative
in nature, the discussion will point up the
manner in which the selection of materials,
structural configuration, and cross-sectional
areas are affected by the environment, mission and design criteria.
The radically different environments and
mibsions of the many varieties of missiles
precludes the possibility of establishing one
set of desi.4n criteria. A particularly good
example is the importance of the thermal
environment, especially it the case of long
rarge ballistic mL;ziles. For these missiles,
high speeds are obtained -' high altitudes
and a whole array of pro- .em., arise when
the missile enters the lower, denser atmosphere at the end of its trajectory. These
are usually called re.entry problems and involve all aspects of the structural design.
De..ign criteria must be intelligently set up
for each missilc desigii from a carefA! study
of all the information available on the envir.inment, mission, requixement., of rigidity,
deformation, weight and balanc,, and others.
4-2. AERODYNAMIC 1NFLUENC! ON
ERODNAM. ONFURATION
57
*1F
STRUCTURES
''
10" Btu/ft"/hr. The qualitative and quantitative aspects of thi3 phenomenoai are coyered in another volume of this series,
The effects of aerodynamic heating on nose
cone models are shown in Figores 4-1 and
4-2. These tests were run in the hypersonic
tunnel at the Polytechnic Institute of Brook-
!o
58
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Temperature 2030"R
59
LJ
STRUCTURES
L,
eqaipi ant. The unprotected design should
that minii.:v.s the thermal stresses caused
of course be compared with insuleted and
by uneven distribution of material and varicooled designs in order tr arrive at an opiiations in the heat transfer coefficient. For
mum of r:;,fig4:ation.
wing-like structures, trussed and corrugated
Unprotected structures ha~e been classiwebs and ribr have been investigated. Confled - into three categories depending on the
sideration has also been give, to sandwich
manner N which the effects of aerodynamic
construction of the surface to surfate and
heating are handied: (a) heat-sustainlng,
individual surface types, and the z-e of shal(b) beat sink, and (c) thermal stre.-s reduclow, closely spaced s.ringers. In e-ch of the
ing types. On the heat susaining type of
configurations mentioned thb. basic idea is to
structure t.e most complex problems arise
avoid concentrations of material which give
from the effects of th3rrmal expansion which
rise to temperature differences, and hence
cause structural growth, structural distorthermal stresses, in a structural component.
tion, and theri.ai stresses. Structural growth,
The ::losely spaced shallow stringer configfor example, q:ves rise to detail design prob.
them down into a numIser of smaller heat
lemni in the Ltachment of internal equipment
sinks. The shallow depth keeps the average
to the missile body and of surface control
stringer temperature close to the skin tmwhich compensates for growth of the struc.
perature, thus reducing the thermal stresses.
ture. Structural distortions are unavoidable
Introducing a flexible connection or support
in the unprotected type of strnture. Even
between components avoids a build up of inif equilibrim temperatures are attained, temteral stresses due to constraints.
peratures are not uniform over the surface
of the structure due to variations in heat
4-3.2. Insulated Structures The insukto
structure introduces the conccpt of one structransfe" co-efficients and local concentrations
ture to absorb the primary loads and a second
of material which serve as heat sinks. As
structure to cope with the thermal input.
mentioned in the early part of this chapter,
Consider, for example, a cor---ntional strucvariations in temperature from an average
tura configuration of a material which may
temperature give rise to thermal stresses and
attention must be given to the possibility of
iais A fair oinsulatg mater
stress concentrations or thermal bitckling.
be
In the h -?at s ink ap pr o a ch , ex tr,- n at~ -' a l
k eapplied
p t e to
e mther surface
a u e o ofththel structure
ad c ry to
n
is added to the external surface of the miskeep the temperature of the load carrying
sile. Tbis addition of material has the effect
posite type of structure, however, requires
of reducing temperatures, increasing mateeite
reior
stc
h
r re
rf
rial strength and reducing structural growth
the insulating material in order to compare
and distortions. The thermal stresses, howfavorably with the double wall solution.
ever, di.sy not be changed significantly. This
Moreover, the insulatitig material has strinsolution to the aerodynamic heating problem
soltio
adiabatic wall tmpera e gent mechanical and thermal requirements.
whentotheaerdynmicheaingprolem
is most efficient
It should be erosion and beat resistant, and
tures and flight times are such that additional
characteradhesive and
good ceramics
possess some
mustAlthough
it
strucalloy of
a lightheats
added to
canisbebecause
material
refracistics.
the
specific
ture. This
light alloys are considerably higher than the
specific heats of alloys of steel and titanium.
For very short exposure times, the mechanical properties of this configuration are far
one-half 2hour
-superior
to thosetimes
shown
mayinbe Chapter
for
wh ich exposure
c eo
ue
or more.
60
4~
"
"
Hi
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
61
fQ
STRUCTUPES
fluid material into the boundary layer, and
in the large heat required 1or sublimation.
It is also reported that uneven heating or
local hot spots are absent Moreover there is
a built-in stability in the system; local high
heating increases the sublimation rate at that
location, thus affecting a reduction in- heat
transfer. A possible defect in this approach
exists in connection with the use of low heat
of sublimation materials which may blow so
much material that the characteristics of the
boundary layer could be altered. This could
lead to large scale turbulence phenomena
with attendant higher heating rates. It has
also been reported that burning accompanyinkf sublimati-o d,-o rno-t seem t;.
be a serious
matter.
Another method for protecting the structure consists of the application of surface
4-3.3. Cooled Structures. Under certain conditions of the missile mission and expected
thermal environment, a cooled structure may
be necessary or desirable. It appears desirable to consider direct cooling of the primary
structure for small missiles where space is
not available for insulation or for very short
flight times.
Cooling of the primary structure may be
accomplished by an internal cooling system
or by porous coolirPg. In the internal cooling
system, a fluid is circulated through the
structure to effect a transfer of heat from
the structural material to the fluid. The
coolant may be circulated in channels which
are an integral part of the structure or otherwise in separate ducts which are in intimate
contact with the structure. For long range
missiles or where there is a re-entry problem,
it appears that the high heat capacity of the
low atomic number metals is an attractive
property. These metals would be used in the
molten state. Some of the undesirdable characteristics mentioned have been their poor
thermal conductivities and difficulties of fabrication and handling.
In a porous cooling solution, the structural
k-'
62
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
F.
properties
a.lithods
of materials, and
stress analyss.
of
6
63
5TRUCTURES
ff
Vo-vo0
~,II
r
DES!GN CO?'JSIDERAVONS
K'
LI)
I
I
J.
4,'-
***
?*/
2'
N-
K
-&
~
1/
'~
St~
-~'.-~
)
65
2~~
0l
STIZ4CW1RF
()
arEi Atastructm-e
very es'Jj
stage)ein
design
a
tentative
must
laitheout,
or it
would o be possible to cYculate preliminary
MC/I formula.
It is to be noted that considerations of
bukling, concenttated loads, edge effects and
others have been disregarded.
Normal pressures acting over the surface
of the cylindrical shell are conveniently re-
the material of construction. In order to simplify the calculations, the analyst generally
investigate. the most critical conditions and
the most critical portions of the structure.
If the maximum stresses are below the yield
stress of the material, then the structure has
66
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
sumcient yield strength. To check the vltimate strength, the analyst multiplies the
limit loads by a factoi- of safety and goes
through the stress calculation. The maximum
str&sses must c=erywhere be less than the
ultimate stress of %he material
Should the yield stress of the material be
exceeded under limit loads, or the ultimate
stress exceeded under ulfiPate loads, then
the structure is obviously too w-Pak and the
design must be strengthened. One of the
most straight-forward measures that can he
taken by the designer is to increase the crosssectional arsa suffici nly that the maximum
stresses are reduced below the yield or ultimate strength criterion, depending upon
which one is critical. In the case of tic thinwalled circular cylinder, the designer iamy
increase the wall thickness. This solution, of
course, adds weight to the structure which
may well be intolerable. The designer may
then consider another alloy of the same
material with higher yield and ult;mate
strengths. This may give a satisfactory soluion, prcvided that no trouble is anticipated
due to increased cust. manufacturing difficulties, the possibility that the material is toe
brittle, and other considerations. The designer may also investigate the desirability
of altering the structuralconfiguration or the
surface does not have suif ;ient torsional stiffAnes. The important point that -mustbe borne
in mind is that rigidity requirements are important conisiderat.ans in the design of a mis-
material and the geometry of the cross-section, namely the moment of inertia. This product, EI, is called the bending rigidity. Torsional rigidity, GC, is also the product of a
material elastic constant and the cross-section. G is the Modulus of Rigidity and C is
a property only of the cross-section. For
solid or tubular cross-sections, C is the polar
moment of ineria of the section. The stiffnecs of a structural element is also affected
by.the magnitude and type of load to which
it is subjected. Compressive loads tend to
decrease the effective stiffness of a structural
element, whereas tensile loads have the opposite effect.
.21RU ICTU
4-5L
. TI1ES$
67
STRUCTURES
flutter are the control surfaces. Individual
panels of a structure may also flutter under
the proper conditions.
The above considerations are very important and the aeroalastician must calculate
the flutter speed to insure that it is well above
the speeds expected to be encountered. The
analytical compatations cannot be performed
until the design has progressed sufficiently to
enable the analyst to determine the elastic
resistace and mass distribution of the structur& Aerodynamis and structural damping
are usually included in the analytical formulation of the problem. Once the missile has
been constructed, an experimental chec1& can
be made of the structural stiffness by
statically loading the member or missile and
observing the deflections a.d slopes, or by
forced vibration tehnique bv which the
stiffness can be deduced from the amplitude
and frequency response of the structure.
it may also be worthwhile to mention that
liquid sloshing and liquid impact against
bulkheads P.t thrust cut-off may affect rigidity requdrements of certain structul cornponents.
68
A
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
but one bar of a redundant framework, because the other bars in the framework can
absorb additional loads. A flat or curved twodimensional element in edgew-.e compression in one direction will buckle a, a relatively Jow load, especially if the thickness is
small. This does not correspond to the maximum load or failure if the unloaded sides are
supported. The material near the supports
is constrained against transverse deflection
and can absorb loads beyond those corresponding to the bu'kling load.
69
STRUCTURES
yield tres at an appropriate design temperacause the differential pressure wil! cause
high -hoop stresses in the ,hot skin of the
ture as a yield strength criterion. While
comparvment, significant creeping can occur
this procedure may appear logical and exi: a period of time corresponding to a few
pedient, the time parameter cannot be
minutes.
ignored.
Similar remarks can be made in connecA ballitc missile may be subject to significant thermal inputs and temperdtures for tion" with temperatur-tide-load eIfects on
other structuralstre'agth equiremnimt. The
relatively short time periods, i.e., of the
immediate objecive of the :preceding disorder of several minutes. Thf- temperaturecussion was to show the significnt effects
time -nistory is generally transient during
that the thermal environment -ad in the
this period. Even if u design temper.ture
tia the
esign
str al -design
tiate
could be established for this period, the ultimate
structural
criteia that were
elevated temperature mechanical data at the
r.1,
same temperature may not be strictly app- pl established.
t-is importntt-potit
out-that the detercable because these data are usually obtained
rIination of the loads on -a n-issile. ac l-:
establishment -of th. associated deign ciiafter the specimens have been -soaked at the
it
test -temperature 'for 1 hour or -more. It
conditions
teria are not confined t o diz.
the
leaves
'ftnr
iss-the
occur
which
temperature
is well known that'the elevated
-r t Maso
launching,platform. -The
properties of a material are .affected by -the
-which iy be
-obtaipirormationonmh1
tinie element as well es by .other time deimposed on the iniissile from the time of
pendent factors such as -th, strain rate.
fib-ication to the time of launching -and
Mechanical data for very short times are
establih appropriate :eoigncriterand
xelatively scarce. Hence, a ,missile designer
l
f
,ar- important and not to be
flight
loads
may have no recourse but to use the data
that is available with the risk of being
overlooked. They may be critical in the
design of a structural detail or even in a
over-conservative,
major :portion of -the structure. Fre-flight
A -final consideration is 'the possibiiit- of
loads may ha-,e to be investigated during
the occurence of creep of the structural ,maproduction, handling,.tran3portation, or while
terial. The yield ntrength criterion in this
case could be taken as -the stress required to
poised in the launcher. A ,particularly intereating
is that requires
of a missile
of thininpositive
design which
walled example
a
also
is
stress
of
this
value
The
perature.
ternal pressure to stabilize the skin against
functiun of the time; the longer the time
the
required to produtce the C.27, creep-set,
buckling, even while it is in production!
higher the allowable stress value (see Figure
MISCELLANEOVS -ACTORS AFFECTING
4
at
requirements
short-time
2-12). For the
DESIGN
STRUCTURAL
missiles,
for
ballistic
and
temperature
load
a
maior
is
not
creep
that
it
appears
however,
A number s miscellaneous considEi-ations
design problem. Nevertheless, there are
in one way or another the final missile
affect
may
creep
that
feel
who
designers
some
structsra: design. The considczaT.is should
become a major design problem. For examnot be assumed secondary or unimportant
ple, a missile compartment must ma.ntain
solely on the basis of space allocation in this
bealtitudes
high
at
pressure
atmospheric
discussion. Maintenance considerations, for
cauce some of the components within the
example, are not separately discussed, yet a
compartment would not function at lower
poor design would result if the designer
pressures. The skin of this compartment is
neglected t make provision for replacement,
the
during
temperature
high
a
to
heated
rep,.t, adjistment, access, etc., of various
ascending phase of the uight due to aeroLomponents of the missile. Indeed, some dedynamic heating and cools slowly while
signers can point to one or more of the items
coasting outside the denser at.nosphere. Be-
70
CA
i
v
Ais
___A
'-J
DESIGN CONSrOERATIONS
to b . mentioned as the consideration that
pervaded an entire design. Most of the following factors entering and influencing -the
missile structural design are -not peculiar to
the missile field, but rather to the general
field of design of flight structures. Thi is
While material A may be -superior in a particular ap ,icatioL material B may nevertheless be called -.ut fer the materfid of
constrvcten becausa of lower cost. A structural component can be made lighter and
stronger by choosingsolution Aover-solution
presented.
th4-7;1. Time chedule. As a firt item,
as a-posis takenstructural
sch,dule
of atime
sileeffect
factor
influencing
a risile
71
STRUCTURES
quired to transmiit. Further complication is
plained by the relative infancy an -ail
Introduced by the variation of ally weightchanging characteristic of the missile destrength criterion with temp~erature.
sign fild. In addition. ready access to weight
The effort~s of structural designers to save
data has been curtailed by security- considweight also manifests itself in '1selection
erations. H~owever, a coarse weight break-A
of the mo.-t efficient structural configuration
down for the Redstonp A missile, wha'ch has
consistent with the physical properties of
a range of 200-250 miles, is available. This
materials that are available. The remnforced
information is presentee ir Table 4-1.
monocoque construction is -a r.om~worthy
Depending upon the range. mission, and
example. In weig'lt-eonscious designs, facoflier parameters, the gross weight of mistors, of safety are kept as !ow as possible andi
siles will vary widely. The portion of the
the most powerful methods ot stress-analysis
total weight chaigeable to payload, fuel,
methods are used. Needless to say, the
engine, structure and so forth will also vary
structural designer carries his n~eight-saving
for different missiles. Hlence, no general
philosophy down to the most minute strucconclusions should be drawn based on the
tural detail,
weight data given for thle Redeto.ne.
It is not to be implied, howerer, that
missile struc-tural designers consider weightle-[
4.1
sa-:ir, if paramount importance. Changes
WEIGHT VIREAKDOWN FOR
in one design feature invariably affect other
characteristics of tha missile system. -Figures
REWSTONE A 44ISSILE
of merit are assigned as: inteiligeniy and
rationally as possible, and tcompropises trustAprime
be made. In rziaking dec sions. an whether
Wyeight
to change weigh$4 or fixing weight objectives,
(lbs)
~
many factor'- r.xsL be considered by the
Tpni
226
designer. So~ne of these factoi s have dlready
Booster'Unit
6,757
been mentioned. such as cost, e~Teet on schedEngineo
1,50)
ule, manufacturing ease, and -ffect on perPayload
6,400
formance. There are other considerations
Totaln
tha-t can be mentioned such as questions
Em-pty
19,053
re6-tug to the importance of the design
FVl
C2,1
f' acoon of the structural element, structural
Length
820 inches
integrity', safety and reliability, effects on
Diameter 70 inches
bandli-,ig and launching equipmert. 'Conplete weight optimization, in short, is expen4-7.A. Reliability. The ouestic-i of reliability, treated in greater detail in another
sive, time consuming, and gencrally not
warranted. One may consider having reached
volume of this series, may enter into and
a point of diminishing return in trying to
affect the choice of the material of consirucsay a 90 percent weight-optimized
t~oii, structural configuration, and crossrnissfle, ip view of the excessihc cost and
seetional area. A simplified examnple can be
time requirements to achieve the additional
Laken to show the effect that reli-tUity cor10 peent weij,,t optimization.
siderations may have on either tne seteetion
of m'aterial or the cross-section area. Ever.
.In the ai-pl_416 design field, the wealth of
wheni a strL~ctura! material having wellweight dat'a accawt'&d ed over the years has
rrau&, it p *.ible to obtnin p:eI~minary strueestablished mechanical p Dperties iAs en'tural weight estimates by Aatistical ard
ployed in a design, it i.3 necessary to estabanalytical me~'iods. Tinfortuo ately, the data
lish the u-.iiformity of the material pr,)perties
available and applicable to mi.-'les is relaby staiA'sticni testing of various I-),tch and
tively meager. This may ;.P partially exloL. Consider', on the ctber
I~
use
trefine
DESIGN CONSIDIERATIONS
of a material of inconsistent physical properties. The scatter of tests about the sample
mean or median of a strength characteristic
would dictate a lower design allowable, and
hence a larger cross-sectional area for a
given applied stress. In a preliminary design
evaluation this may well lead to the structural designei" to choose a material of more
November 1957.
7
ii
"
73
STRUCTUPES
INDEX
A
AbIati . 4
Design considerations, 57
aerodynamic heating, 58
buckling,
cost, 71 68
external configuration, 57
fatigue, 68
loads, 63
miscellaneous, 71
reliability, 72
safety, 63, 72
structural failure, 66
structural stiffness, 67
thin-walled circular cylinder structures, 63
time schedule, 71
time-temperature dependence, 69
ultimate strength, 66
weight, 71
Direct stress, 7
Discontinuity stresses, 42
Ductility, 11
Elasticity, 9
Elevated temperature effects, 3, 7, 69
Endurance limit, 11
External configuration, 57
F
Factor of safety, 63
Fatigue, 68
failure, 10
strength, 10
Flutter, 67
Fourier's equation, 14
Fouriers law, 14
Growth factor, 2
Hardnes, 11
Ht sink, 4, 15, 61
Heal transfer, 13
conduction, 14
convection, 13
radiation, 13
Hooke's uniaxial law, 41
Hoop stress, 41
Hydrostatic pressure, 45
L
Laplace equation, 15
Larson-Miller parameter, 17
Limit loads, 63
Load-carrying capacity, 3
M
Materials, 7
creep behavior, 11
ductility, 11
elasticity, 9
hardness, 11
load-carrying capacity, 3
mechanical behavior. 7
melting pcint, h
plasticity, 11
75
[I
*1.
-ri
STRUCTURES
Mechanical behavior, 7
Melting point, 16
Modulus of elasticity, 17
Modulus of rigidity, 10
N
Normal strain, 8
Normal stress, 7
P
Plasticity, 11
Poisswn's equation, 15
Poisson's ratio, 10
Primary creep, 12, 52
Proportional limit, 9
Radiation, 13
Radial displacement, 42
Re-rei~ry problems, 2,4
Reliability, 72
S
Safety, 72
Secant modulus, 10
Secondary crerp, 12. 51
Section modulus, 66
Shear-strain, g
Shear-stress, 7
Shel analysis, 41
Specific heat, 4
.tet'an-Boltzmann law, 13
Stress,?7
analysis,
direct,'l 41
disontinuity, 42
hoop, 41
normal, 7
shear, 7
tangential, 41
ultimate, 9
uniaxial, 7
yie-l, 17
Siress-strain curves, 7
Structural failure, 66
Structural Oiffness, 67
T
T!
Tangent modulus, 10
Tangential stress, 41
Temperature distribution, 13
Temperature stresses, 3
Tensile strength, 11
Thermal buckling, 3
columns, 48
rectangular plates with free edges, 50
simply supported plates, 49
thin circular cylindrical shells. 50
Thermal conductivity, 4, 17
Thermal diffusivity, 4, 15
Thermal expansion, 15
Thermal
protection, 4, 58
cooled structures,
62
insulated structures, 60
unprotected structures, 58
Thermal stresses, 3, 41,43
circular cylindrical shell, 48
flat plate, 47
ring frame, 48
straight bar, 46
Thin-walled circular cylindrical structures, 63
lime shedle, 71
Time-temperature dependence, 60
Torsional rigidity, 67
Twisting rizidity, 66
0 1
U
Ultimate load, 63
Ultimate strengi, 6(6
Ultimat -!ress, 9
Unixial stress, 7
W
Weight, -'
Y
YWed poiYt, 9
Yield strength, 61, 59
Yield s .re,17
Younes Modulua,
t--
GPO C65-365
01