Group 2:

Maryann Andrews
Rebecca DeWit
Willem Jacobus Le Roux
Gloria Sarpong
Harold Whittington

First Wave: Correspondence / Independent Study 1800s-1970

Forces dominant in
the larger context
that drove
development of DE
(e.g., demand for
educational access,
government policies
that determined the
development and
shape of DE such as
funding and equity
policies)

Theories/Ways of
Understanding DE

Institutional and
organizational
development
(systems; ways of
operating)

Prevailing
teaching/learning
theories/methodolog
ies/Prevailing view
of role of teacher
and role of learner

Predominant
technologies

Key authors

Industrialisation,
Class reform
Colonialism (British
Empire, French
colonies)

Adult learner

Unisa
National Home Study
Council

One directional
Individual study
Cognitive-behaviorist
model

Print based, postal

service

Holmberg (2005)

Colonialism (British
Empire and French
colonies)Correspondence
colleges served
people across the
British Empire while
the Ecole Universelle

Industrial EraMaterials are able to

be mass produced
and distributed so
organizations took
advantage of the
effects of the industrial
revolution to profit

For profit
organizationsCompanies began
taking advantage of
the ability to disperse
materials and profiting
off the desire for
education in

Cognitive-behaviorist
model-Behaviorist
models defined early
distance education
and continue to be
used in North
American programs,
while the cognitive

Shipping and
navigation- This
technology was used
to distribute materials
to students across the
British Empire
(Peters, 2004, p. 15).

served French
colonies. (Peters,
2004, p. 15)
Education for rural
areas-Geographic
area limited resources
for remote locations,
so distance education
developed as a way to
serve underdeveloped
areas of places like
the Soviet Union and
Australia (Peters,
2004, p. 14).
Anna Elliot Tickner
developed monthly
correspondence with
guided readings and
frequents tests. Most
students were women
as they did not have
easy access to
traditional education
(Holmberg, 2004 p.
14).

(Garrison, D.R.,
previously
Cleveland-Innes, M.F., underserved areas
2010, p. 14).
(Peters, 2004, p. 14).
International Council
of Correspondence
Education- Held
international
conferences on
correspondence
education and
expanded as demand
grew for distance
education (Peters,
2004, p. 17).

model began to take

hold in the mid-1900s
which would
eventually lead to the
constructivist model in
the second wave of
distance education
(Holmberg, 2005, p.
24).
Independent studyInitially provided
access to education
for disadvantaged
people, but developed
into mass produced
curriculum later on
(Garrison, D.R.,
Cleveland-Innes, M.F.,
2010, p. 14).
Examination
Preparation modelStudents teach
themselves the
material while the
university only
supplies exam
regulations and
possibly a reading list.
Model was used in the
mid-nineteenth
century and continues
today. There is
debate as to whether
this qualifies as a
distance education
practice (Peters,
2004, p. 41)

Problems unique to
long distance
instruction

Adult learner requires

logic and experience
Teacher-pupil
relationship

William LightlyUniversity of
Wisconsin

Teacher provides
correction and
comments
Individualization
based on student's
maturity

Postal
correspondence or
any other

Holmberg, B. (2005).
The evolution,
principles, and
practice of distance
education (p. 21).
Oldenburg, Germany:
BIS-Verlag der Carl
von Ossietzky
Universitt Oldenburg.
Available from
http://www.box.com/sh
ared/y97qyc7m0t

Second Wave: Systems Approach to Education / Distance Teaching Institutions

Forces dominant in
the larger context
that drove
development of DE
(e.g., demand for
educational access,
government policies

Theories/Ways of
Understanding DE

Institutional and
organizational
development
(systems; ways of
operating)

Prevailing
teaching/learning
theories/methodolog
ies/Prevailing view
of of role of teacher
and role of learner

Predominant
technologies

Key authors

that determined the

development and
shape of DE such as
funding and equity
policies)
Open Universities
were established,
such as the British
Open University
(Bates, 2011)
Teachers used
distance education to
earn degrees and
increase their pay
(Bates, 2011)
Computer Aided
Instruction allowed for
evolution of distance
education design
(Jonassen, Davidson,
Collins, Campbell, &
Haag, 1995)
Rise of single-mode
distance education
institutions (GuriRosenblit, 2009)
Politicians and
educators were
petitioning for
Education for All
reforms (Peters,
2010)
Alternative education
methods were

Systems approach
(Peters, O., 2010).
The theory of the
"most industrialized
education".

Single-mode distance
teaching universities:
Open University(UK)

Dual mode
universities: Australia
Transactional distance and Canada (large
(Moore, M.G., 1997)
geographical areas)
front runners
Structure & dialog to
address the need for
Mixed mode
interaction (Moore,
universities: On
1991)
campus students
taking online courses

Transformation from
behaviourism to
constructivism
(Anderson,T. & Dron,
J., 2011)
Andragogy (focus on
adult learner - selfdirected, task oriented
etc). (Bullen, M.,
1995)

Distance learning
systems - Teaching
Collaboration between communication, design,
universities (Emanagement and
learning a method to
universities)
enhance learning
platform. (Moore &
Guri-Rosenblit, S
(2009)
Kearsley, 2012)

Radio, television,
audio, video,
teleconferencing,
telecourses

Miller (2010)

Mass media based:

print guides, radio and
TV- British Open
University (Bates,
2011)

Keegan, D. et.al.
(2007)

Juma (2003)
Mass media:satellite
television, shift to
online conferencingAfrican Virtual
University (Juma,
2003)
Radio, satellite and
television, use of
national network, local
area network (LAN)
and campus intranet
-China Central Radio
and TV University
AKA Open University
of China (Wang &
Crook, 2006)
Computer Mediated
Communication
(CMC): e-mail,
conferencing, online
databases

Wang, T., & Crook, C.

(2006)

Jonassen (1995) p 16

Jonassen (1995) p 17

trending specifically
geared towards adults
(Peters, 2010)

Computer Supported
Collaborative Work
(CSCW): project
management, shared
editors, electronic
conferencing, video
transmission

DoD replaced USAFI

with Dantes to
outsource the delivery
of correspondence
offering independent
study programs &
courses (Moore &
Kearsley, 2011)

Third Wave: Internet / Web-based

Forces dominant in
the larger context
that drove
development of DE
(e.g., demand for
educational access,
government policies
that determined the
development and
shape of DE such as
funding and equity
policies)

Theories/Ways of
Understanding DE

Net generation and

the use of interactive
technologies
(Anderson, 2011)

Community of Inquiry
(Garrison, Anderson &
Archer, 2000)

Investment in
technology in higher
education, society,

Interaction
Equivalency
(Anderson, 2003)

Institutional and
organizational
development
(systems; ways of
operating)

Open Educational
Resources
Search engine
algorithms
Network based

Prevailing
teaching/learning
theories/methodolog
ies/Prevailing view
of of role of teacher
and role of learner

Predominant
technologies

Cognitive-Behaviorist
Theory-build
knowledge on
experience through
structured processes
and interest
stimulation, student
has individualized

The third wave of

distance education
made way for as
Peters points out.
communication,
transmission, display,
search, access,
analysis, storage,

Key authors

Anderson (2003,
2010)
Anderson & Dron
(2011)
Garrison (2009)

and industry
(Garrison, 2009)
Online learning
initiatives within
higher education
(Garrison, 2009)
Connectivity culture
with an emphasis on
community,
interaction, and
collaboration
(Garrison, 2009)

Constructivism (Swan, learning

2010)
(Anderson, 2010)

learning with little

social interaction,
teacher role is
Learning through
reduced or
virtual communication: restructured
Computer supported
discussion i.e.
Social Constructivist
seminars,
Theory-learner
teleconferencing
constructs knowledge
through active
Self-directed learning learning, used
technology as more
Hypertext
than a knowledge
transfer tool and
Use of teaching
incorporated many-tosoftware
many communication
(Peters, 2010)
applications, student
builds knowledge
Adoption of online
through authentic
learning (OLL)
context and social
(Garrison, 2009)
interaction, teacher
facilitates and guides
learning activities and
evaluates summative
tasks
Connectivism-learner
finds and applies
knowledge through
networked technology,
students are expected
to literate in
databases and
networks and builds
knowledge through
connections with
learners, artifacts, and
multimedia such as
blogs and twitter,
teacher facilitates and

virtual reality and

management (Peters,
2010, pg 121)
Platforms used:
*Learning
Management Systems
* Blackboard
*Webtycho

Garrison, Anderson &

Archer (2000)
Peters (2010, 2012)
Swan (2010)

guides the learning

with an emphasis on
scaffolding and
constructing artifacts
(Anderson & Dron,
2011)

Current Trends: New theories, new roles, new applications of technology

Forces dominant in
the larger context
that drove
development of DE
(e.g., demand for
educational access,
government policies
that determined the
development and
shape of DE such as
funding and equity
policies)

Theories/Ways of
Understanding DE

Institutional and
organizational
development
(systems; ways of
operating)

Prevailing
teaching/learning
theories/methodolog
ies/Prevailing view
of of role of teacher
and role of learner

Predominant
technologies

Key authors

Information is
accessible and
changes rapidly and
workplaces require
flexible and immediate
learning (Hase &
Kenyon, 2000)

Heutagogy (Hase &

Kenyon, 2000)

Self determined
Learning Environment
Blended learning
designs
(Blaschke, 2012)

Heutagogy-self
determined learning,
flexible, student
directs learning path
and are capable,
teacher provides the
learning resources
(Hase & Kenyon,
2000)

Third wave emerging

technologies in
distance education
include:
* Web 2.0
*Cloud Computing
*Smartphones
*Tablets
*Laptops
*Social Media Outlets
such as, Twitter, Diigo,
Facebook, Instagram,
Pintrest ( Used for

Hase (2000)

New technology and

tools are available,
employers looking
towards skills needed
in the future, not just

Connectivism
(Siemens, 2004)
Pedagogy of mlearning (Kearney,
et.al, 2012)
Net-aware theories of
learning (Anderson,
2010)

Open online
resources (Ex. Khan
Academy)
(Clark, 2011)
Open online courses:
MOOCs: Massive

Open teaching-open,
collaborative, and
social learning

Blascke (2012)
Anderson (2003-2010)
Swan (2010)
Garrison (2000)
Garrison, Anderson &
Archer (2000)

the present (Siemens,

2004)

Online Open Courses

(Schwier, 2011)

Another notable
trend is towards
more object-based,
contextual, or
activity-based
models of learning.
(Anderson & Dron,
2011)

environment, student
creates a learning
network and actively
participates in
learning, teacher
facilitates and
scaffolds learning and
develops reflective
learning environments
(Anderson, 2010)
Connectivism-will
continue to develop
as the social and
information networks
develop to meet the
needs of the digital
society (Siemens,
2004)

sharing and
Siemens (2004)
documenting content
and images)
*Game based learning
* Learning analytics
*Open content
*Electronic Books
* Semantic
Applications
*Brian Computer
Interfaces
*Gesture-Based
Computing
*Analytical framework
Chat
(Ngambi, 2013)

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