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GENERAL
BIOLOGY 1
Development Team
Team Leader: Florencia G. Claveria, Ph.D.,
Dawn T. Crisologo
Writers: Doreen D. Domingo, Ph.D., Janet S.
Estacion, Ph.D., Mary Jane C. Flores, Ph.D.,
Aileen C. dela Cruz, Chuckie Fer Calsado,
Nolasco H. Sablan, Justin Ray M. Guce
Consultants
THIS PROJECT WAS DEVELOPED WITH THE PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY.
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 1: Cell
86
99
15
28
133
150
165
176
57
70
73
78
Introduction
As the Commission supports DepEds implementation of Senior High School (SHS), it upholds the vision
and mission of the K to 12 program, stated in Section 2 of Republic Act 10533, or the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, that every graduate of basic education be an empowered individual, through a
program rooted on...the competence to engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in
fruitful harmony with local and global communities, the capability to engage in creative and critical
thinking, and the capacity and willingness to transform others and oneself.
To accomplish this, the Commission partnered with the Philippine Normal University (PNU), the National
Center for Teacher Education, to develop Teaching Guides for Courses of SHS. Together with PNU, this
Teaching Guide was studied and reviewed by education and pedagogy experts, and was enhanced with
appropriate methodologies and strategies.
Furthermore, the Commission believes that teachers are the most important partners in attaining this
goal. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a framework that will guide them in creating lessons and
assessment tools, support them in facilitating activities and questions, and assist them towards deeper
content areas and competencies. Thus, the introduction of the SHS for SHS Framework.
The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for Saysay-Husay-Sarili for Senior High School, is at the
core of this book. The lessons, which combine high-quality content with flexible elements to
accommodate diversity of teachers and environments, promote these three fundamental concepts:
SAYSAY: MEANING
HUSAY: MASTERY
SARILI: OWNERSHIP
About this
Teaching Guide
Parts of the
Teaching Guide
This Teaching Guide is mapped and aligned to the DepEd SHS Curriculum, designed to be highly
usable for teachers. It contains classroom activities and pedagogical notes, and is integrated with
innovative pedagogies. All of these elements are presented in the following parts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction
Highlight key concepts and identify the essential questions
Show the big picture
Connect and/or review prerequisite knowledge
Clearly communicate learning competencies and objectives
Motivate through applications and connections to real-life
Motivation
Give local examples and applications
Engage in a game or movement activity
Provide a hands-on/laboratory activity
Connect to a real-life problem
Instruction/Delivery
Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation/hands-on activity
Show step-by-step solutions to sample problems
Give applications of the theory
Connect to a real-life problem if applicable
Practice
Discuss worked-out examples
Provide easy-medium-hard questions
Give time for hands-on unguided classroom work and discovery
Use formative assessment to give feedback
Enrichment
Provide additional examples and applications
Introduce extensions or generalisations of concepts
Engage in reflection questions
Encourage analysis through higher order thinking prompts
Evaluation
Supply a diverse question bank for written work and exercises
Provide alternative formats for student work: written homework, journal, portfolio, group/individual
projects, student-directed research project
Produce all forms of texts (written, oral, visual, digital) based on:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Systematically apply knowledge, understanding, theory, and skills for the development of
the self, local, and global communities using prior learning, inquiry, and experimentation
Work comfortably with relevant technologies and develop adaptations and innovations for
significant use in local and global communities
Communicate with local and global communities with proficiency, orally, in writing, and
through new technologies of communication
Interact meaningfully in a social setting and contribute to the fulfilment of individual and
shared goals, respecting the fundamental humanity of all persons and the diversity of
groups and communities
General Biology 1
60 MINS
illustrate the structure of the endomembrane system, label its parts, and
understand how the system works
illustrate the structure of the mitochondria, label its parts, and understand
the importance of the enfolding of the inner mitochondrial membrane
illustrate the structure of the chloroplast, label its parts, and relate these
parts to photosynthesis
understand the connection of the endomembrane system to other cell
parts such as the lysosomes, peroxisomes, endosomes, and cell membrane
understand how the extracellular components or matrix determine the
appearance and function of the tissues
LESSON OUTLINE
Introduction Review on the differences between
Motivation
40
Evaluation
Materials
5
5
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
Teacher Tip
1. Ask the learners to make a recap of the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
2. Discuss the learners responses to the pre-topic assignment on the functions of the following cell
parts:
Nucleus
Lysosomes
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
3. Present an overview of the cell membrane, its structure, and functions.
4. Define what an organelle is and differentiate membrane-bound organelles from non-membranebound organelles.
5. Explain that in eukaryotic cells, the machinery of the cell is compartmentalized into organelles. The
compartmentalization of the cell into membrane-bound organelles:
allows conflicting functions (i.e., synthesis vs. breakdown) and several cellular activities to occur
simultaneously without interference from each other
separates the DNA material of the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplast
increases the surface area-volume ratio of the cell
6. Encourage the learners to look at the cell as both a system and subsystem. They should develop an
understanding of how the parts of a cell interact with one another and how these parts help to do the
work of the cell (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from <http://sciencenetlinks.com/lessons/cells-2-the-cell-asa-system/>)
10
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
Briefly review the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells by asking questions to the
learners.
Sample question: What cell parts can be found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? Discuss
the function/s of each part.
Sample Responses:
DNA
Cell membrane
Ribosomes
Compare the cell to a big city. Ask the learners what the requirements of the city would be in order for
it to function. Relate these requirements to the parts of the cell. Relate the learners responses to the
functions of the different parts of a cell.
Sample responses:
The city will need power. What generates power for the city? Relate this to the function of
the mitochondria and the chloroplast.
The city generates waste. How does it minimize its waste? How does the city handle its
garbage? Relate this to the function of the lysosome.
The city requires raw materials to process into food, clothing, and housing materials. Where
are these raw materials processed? Relate this to the functions of the Golgi Apparatus.
Compare animal cells from plant cells. For the animal cells, scrape cheek cells using a toothpick. Ask
the learners to place the scrapings on a microscope slide and add a drop of water to the scrapings.
Tease the scrapings into a thin layer and cover with a slip. Examine under HPO. Instruct the learners to
draw the cells on their workbooks and to label the cell parts that they were able to observe under the
microscope.
For the plant cells, instruct the learners to obtain a Hydrilla leaf and place it on a microscope slide.
Examine under LPO. Ask the learners to draw the cells on their workbooks and to label the cell parts
that they were able to observe under the microscope.
Teacher tip
If the number of available microscopes is
limited, ask the learners to group
themselves according to the number of
microscopes available or set-up a
demonstration scope for the whole class
and facilitate the examination of cells so
that all the learners will get a chance to
observe the cells under the microscope.
Orient the learners on the proper use and
care of the microscopes, particularly on
focusing first on LPO before shifting to
HPO.
Cheek cells are very transparent. Adjust the
iris diaphragm or add a small amount of dye
(i.e., methylene blue) to the scrapings.
The learners will only see the cell membrane
and the nucleus. Remind the learners to
draw what they observe. Students may
observe cytoplasmic streaming in the plant
cell.
Teacher tip
Use chalk or white board markers with
different colors. Explain the structure and
function of each cell part as you draw them.
Explain to the learners that a more detailed
discussion of the structure and functions of
the cell membrane, mitochondria, and
chloroplast will be given in succeeding
lessons.
enfolding is a common structural strategy to increase surface area. As an example, you may draw a
cross-sectional structure of the small intestine.
16. Draw the chloroplast and label its parts. Explain the function that each part performs in the process
of photosynthesis.
17. Discuss the similarities of the mitochondria and chloroplast (e.g., both are involved in energy
transformation, both have DNA, high surface area, and double membranes).income accounts and
lastly, expenses accounts.
Group the learners into pairs. Ask one to draw the endomembrane system as he/she explains it to
his/her partner. Reshuffle the groupings and repeat until all learners have performed the exercise.
Facilitate a class discussion on why cells are generally small in size. Explain the relationship between
surface area and volume.
Ask questions to the learners. Sample questions can be found in the following electronic resources:
Teacher tip
RESOURCES (CONTINUED):
ASSESSMENT
Learning Competency
Assessment Tool
Exemplary
subcellular organelles
(STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-2)
Assignment
Learner submitted an
assignment beyond the
requirements
Satisfactory
Developing
Learner submitted a
comprehensive and wellwritten assignment
Learner submitted a
well written report
but some responses
lack details
Learner submitted
drawings that were
incomplete
Laboratory
(Examination of
Animal and Plant
Cells)
Learner submitted
drawings that were
beyond the requirements
Examination
Learner obtained
50% to 69.99%
correct answers in the
examination
Research
Assignment
Learner submitted a
research assignment
beyond the requirements
Learner submitted a
comprehensive and wellwritten research assignment
Learner submitted a
well written report
but some responses
lack details
14
Beginnning
General Biology 1
60 MINS
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to construct three-dimensional models of whole cells
using indigenous or recyclable materials. These models should show the
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Motivation
30
Learning Competencies
The learners describe the structure and function of major and subcellular
organelles (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-2) and distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells according to their distinguishing features (STEM_BIO11/12 -Ia-c-3)
Practice
10
Evaluation
illustrate the structure of the mitochondria, label its parts, and understand
the importance of the enfolding of the inner mitochondrial membrane
illustrate the structure of the chloroplast, label its parts, and relate these
parts to photosynthesis
(1) http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/biochemistry/atp.html
(2) http://www.britannica.com/list/6-cell-organelles)
(3) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590)
(4) http://www.britannica.com/list/6-cell-organelles
(5) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590)
(6) http://biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/chloroplasts.html
(7) ttp://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES
NON-MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Smooth ER
Centrioles
Rough ER
Cytoskeleton
Golgi Apparatus
Vacuoles and Vesicles
Mitochondria
Chloroplast and other plastids
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Explain that in eukaryotic cells, the machinery of the cell is compartmentalized into organelles. The compartmentalization of the cell into
membrane-bound organelles:
allows conflicting functions (i.e., synthesis vs. breakdown) and several cellular activities to occur simultaneously without interference from
each other
separates the DNA material of the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplast
increases the surface area-volume ratio of the cell
16
Encourage the learners to look at the cell as both a system and subsystem. They should develop an
understanding of how the parts of a cell interact with one another and how these parts help to do the
work of the cell (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from <http://sciencenetlinks.com/lessons/cells-2-the-cell-asa-system/>)
Emphasize to the learners that energy transformation is one of the characteristics of life. This refers to
the ability to obtain and use energy. This characterizes the main function of the mitochondria and the
chloroplasts.
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
Ask the learners how they understand the concept of compartmentalization. Relate the concept to how
the cell is compartmentalized into organelles.
Compare compartmentalization to the division of a house into a receiving room or sala, kitchen, dining
room, comfort rooms, bedrooms, etc.
Teacher tip
Ask the learners why they think a house is divided into several rooms.
A possible response is that partitioning of the house into different parts facilitates the simultaneous
occurrence of several activities without interfering with one another. Also, materials needed for each
activity can be stored at their specific areas. For example, pots and pans are being stored in the kitchen
and not in the bedroom. Beds and pillows are found in the bedroom and not in the toilet/bath.
Explain to the learners that the mitochondria and chloroplasts have a small amount of DNA. Although
most of the proteins of these organelles are imported from the cytosol and are thus programmed by
the nuclear DNA, their DNA programs the synthesis of the proteins made on the organelles ribosomes
(Source: Campbell et al). Compartmentalization separates the DNA material of the nucleus,
mitochondria, and chloroplast.
Ask the learners if they have experienced going to a city/municipal hall and if they have observed that
the Mayor, Vice-Mayor, and the City/Municipal Administrator have separate offices. You can use other
examples such as the University President, VP for Academic Affairs, VP for Finance; Philippine
President, Vice President, Senators, etc.
Compare the nuclear DNA to the Mayor and the mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA to the Vice
Mayor. The Mayor runs the city/municipality but the Vice Mayor also performs functions that are
specific to their positions. They need different offices (or compartments) to avoid conflict in their
functions.
Teacher tip
Select a fruit that can be easily peeled like
calamansi or dalandan
Introduce the concept of surface area-volume ratio/relationship to the learners. Show a fruit to the
learners and explain that the outer surface of the fruit is the surface area. Peel the fruit and show them
whats inside, explaining that the inside of the fruit is the volume.
Explain to the learners that surface area (SA) and volume (V) do not increase in the same manner. As an
object increases in size, its volume increases as the cube of its linear dimensions while surface area
increases as the square of its linear dimensions.
Example: If the initial starting point is the same: SA = 2; Volume = 2 (Ratio = 1:1)
A one-step increase will result to: SA = 22 = 4 while V = 23 = 8 (Ratio = 1:2)
Teacher tip
Ask questions to the learners while giving
the lecture.
18
Illustration 2: Chemical Energy and ATP (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from http://winklebiology.weebly.com/chemical-energyatp.html)
Synthesis of ATP
ADP + Pi ATP + H2O
requires energy: 7.3 kcal/mole
occurs in the cytosol by glycolysis
Consumption of ATP
ATP powers most energy-consuming activities of cells, such as:
addition of phosphate groups (phosphorylation) to different proteins (e.g., to alter their activity incell
signaling)
muscle contraction
beating of cilia and flagella (including sperm)
bioluminescence
Extracellular ATP
In mammals, ATP also functions outside of cells. ATP is released in the following examples:
In eukaryotic cells, the mitochondria and chloroplasts are the organelles that convert energy to other
forms which cells can use for their functions.
Discuss the function and structure of the mitochondria.
20
Outer membraneis a selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the mitochondria. It is the
site of attachment for the respiratory assembly of the electron transport chain and ATP Synthase. It
has integral proteins and pores for transporting molecules just like the cell membrane
Inner membranefolds inward (called cristae) to increase surfaces for cellular metabolism. It
contains ribosomes and the DNA of the mitochondria. The inner membrane creates two enclosed
spaces within the mitochondria:
intermembrane space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane; and
matrix that is enclosed within the inner membrane.
Ask questions to the learners on the structure of the mitochondria. A sample question could be: What
is the importance of the enfolding of the mitochondria? The response would be to increase the surface
area that can be packed into such a small space.
Discuss the purpose of the mitochondrial membranes.
22
As mentioned, the mitochondria has two membranes: the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes.
Outer Membrane
fully surrounds the inner membrane, with a small intermembrane spacein between
has many protein-based pores that are big enough to allow the passage of ions and
molecules as large as a small protein
Inner membrane
has restricted permeability like the plasma membrane
is loaded with proteins involved in electron transport and ATP synthesis
surrounds the mitochondrial matrix, where the citric acid cycle produces the electrons that
travel from one protein complex to the next in the inner membrane. At the end of this
electron transport chain, the final electron acceptor is oxygen, and this ultimately forms
water (H20). At the same time, the electron transport chain produces ATP in a process called
oxidative phosphorylation
During electron transport, the participating protein complexes push protons from the matrix out to the
intermembrane space. This creates a concentration gradient of protons that another protein complex,
calledATP synthase, uses to power synthesis of the energy carrier molecule ATP.
Figure 4: The Electrochemical Proton Gradient and the ATP Synthase (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590)
Explain and discuss the structure and functions of the Chloroplasts.
ChloroplastsChloroplasts, which are found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis. This
process converts solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the
synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek word chloros which means green and plastes which
means the one who forms. The chloroplasts are cellular organelles of green plants and some
eukaryotic organisms. These organelles conduct photosynthesis. They absorb sunlight andconvert it
into sugar molecules. They also produce free energy stored in the form of ATP and NADPHthrough
photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles and are the sites of photosynthesis. The
22
Teacher tip
chloroplast has a system of three membranes: the outer membrane, the inner membrane, and the
thylakoid system.The outer and the inner membranes of the chloroplast enclose a semi-gel-like fluid
known as the stroma. The stroma makes up much of the volume of the chloroplast. The thylakoid
system floats in the stroma.
Structure of the Chloroplast
Outer membraneThis is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small molecules and ions
which diffuse easily. The outer membrane is not permeable to larger proteins.
Intermembrane SpaceThis is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20 nanometers and is
present between the outer and the inner membrane of the chloroplast.
Inner membraneThe inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma. It
regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. In addition to the regulation activity,
fatty acids, lipids and carotenoids are synthesized in the inner chloroplast membrane.
StromaThis is an alkaline, aqueous fluid that is protein-rich and is present within the inner
membrane of the chloroplast. It is the space outside the thylakoid space. The chloroplast DNA,
chloroplast ribosomes, thylakoid system, starch granules, and other proteins are found floating
around the stroma.
Thylakoid System
The thylakoid system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacks called
thylakoids. Thylakoids are small sacks that are interconnected. The membranes of these thylakoids are
the sites for the light reactions of the photosynthesis to take place. The chlorophyll is found in the
thylakoids. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana. Each granum contains around 10-20
thylakoids.
The wordthylakoid is derived from the Greek word thylakos which means 'sack'.
Important protein complexes which carry out the light reaction of photosynthesis are embedded in the
membranes of the thylakoids.
Teacher tip
If an LCD projector is not available, draw
the structure of the chloroplast on the
board.
Group the learners into pairs. Ask one to draw the mitochondria and
label its parts while the other does the same for chloroplast. Once
done, the partners exchange tasks (i.e., the learner that drew the
mitochondria now does the same for the chloroplast).
Reproduce these diagrams without the labels and use these for the
class activity.
To demonstrate how folding increases surface area, ask the learners
to trace the edges of the outer membrane with a thread and
measure the length of the thread afterwards. Repeat the same for
the inner membrane. Compare the results and discuss how the
enfolding of the inner membrane increases surface area through
folding.
24
1. Using the figure below, ask learners to compute surface area vs. volume.
2. Draw the table on the board and instruct the learners to write their measurements.
Teacher tip
Ask the learners to answer practice questions on the following electronic resources:
http://www.mcqbiology.com/2013/03/multiple-choice-questions-on_25.html#.Vl7Uq3YrLrc
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/summer2004/samples02.htm
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-i/fundamental-unit-life/question-answers-1.php
http://www.buzzfeed.com/kellyoakes/the-mitochondria-is-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell#.fajAl0b6o
http://global.oup.com/uk/orc/biosciences/cellbiology/wang/student/mcqs/ch10/
What are the characteristics shared by these two energy transforming organelles?
Instruct the learners to write an essay on probable reasons for these the shared characteristics of the
mitochondria and the chloroplast. Learners shall submit a handwritten essay on the Endosymbiotic Theory
and how it explains the similarity between the mitochondria and chloroplast.
26
Teacher tip
Check the electronic resources on
Endosymbiotic Theory:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bBjD4A7R2xU (Endosymbiotic
Theory in plain English)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQmAnmLZtE
EVALUATION
Learning Competency
Assessment Tool
Learner
participation
(during lecture)
1. structure and
function of major and
subcellular organelles
(STEM_BIO11/12-Iac-2)
Assignment
Examination
Exemplary
Satisfactory
Developing
Learner submitted an
assignment beyond the
requirements
Learner submitted a
comprehensive and wellwritten assignment
Learner submitted a
well written report
but some responses
lack details
Learner obtained
50% to 69.99%
correct answers in
the examination
Learner obtained
less that 50% correct
answers in the
examination
Learner submitted an
essay that was
comprehensive and wellwritten
Learner submitted a
well-written essay
some details are
lacking
Beginnning
(2) Learner
submitted a
partially-finished
assignment
(2) Learner
submitted a
partially-finished
essay
General Biology 1
60 MINS
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to construct three-dimensional models of whole cells
using indigenous or recyclable materials. These models should show the
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Motivation
30
Learning Competencies
The learners describe the structure and function of major and subcellular
organelles (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-2) and distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells according to their distinguishing features (STEM_BIO11/12 -Ia-c-3)
Practice
10
Evaluation
illustrate the structure of the mitochondria, label its parts, and understand
the importance of the enfolding of the inner mitochondrial membrane
illustrate the structure of the chloroplast, label its parts, and relate these
parts to photosynthesis
(1) http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/biochemistry/atp.html
(2) http://www.britannica.com/list/6-cell-organelles)
(3) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590)
(4) http://www.britannica.com/list/6-cell-organelles
(5) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590)
(6) http://biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/chloroplasts.html
(7) ttp://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES
NON-MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Smooth ER
Centrioles
Rough ER
Cytoskeleton
Golgi Apparatus
Vacuoles and Vesicles
Mitochondria
Chloroplast and other plastids
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Explain that in eukaryotic cells, the machinery of the cell is compartmentalized into organelles. The compartmentalization of the cell into
membrane-bound organelles:
allows conflicting functions (i.e., synthesis vs. breakdown) and several cellular activities to occur simultaneously without interference from
each other
separates the DNA material of the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplast
increases the surface area-volume ratio of the cell
16
Encourage the learners to look at the cell as both a system and subsystem. They should develop an
understanding of how the parts of a cell interact with one another and how these parts help to do the
work of the cell (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from <http://sciencenetlinks.com/lessons/cells-2-the-cell-asa-system/>)
Emphasize to the learners that energy transformation is one of the characteristics of life. This refers to
the ability to obtain and use energy. This characterizes the main function of the mitochondria and the
chloroplasts.
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
Ask the learners how they understand the concept of compartmentalization. Relate the concept to how
the cell is compartmentalized into organelles.
Compare compartmentalization to the division of a house into a receiving room or sala, kitchen, dining
room, comfort rooms, bedrooms, etc.
Teacher tip
Ask the learners why they think a house is divided into several rooms.
A possible response is that partitioning of the house into different parts facilitates the simultaneous
occurrence of several activities without interfering with one another. Also, materials needed for each
activity can be stored at their specific areas. For example, pots and pans are being stored in the kitchen
and not in the bedroom. Beds and pillows are found in the bedroom and not in the toilet/bath.
Explain to the learners that the mitochondria and chloroplasts have a small amount of DNA. Although
most of the proteins of these organelles are imported from the cytosol and are thus programmed by
the nuclear DNA, their DNA programs the synthesis of the proteins made on the organelles ribosomes
(Source: Campbell et al). Compartmentalization separates the DNA material of the nucleus,
mitochondria, and chloroplast.
Ask the learners if they have experienced going to a city/municipal hall and if they have observed that
the Mayor, Vice-Mayor, and the City/Municipal Administrator have separate offices. You can use other
examples such as the University President, VP for Academic Affairs, VP for Finance; Philippine
President, Vice President, Senators, etc.
Compare the nuclear DNA to the Mayor and the mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA to the Vice
Mayor. The Mayor runs the city/municipality but the Vice Mayor also performs functions that are
specific to their positions. They need different offices (or compartments) to avoid conflict in their
functions.
Teacher tip
Select a fruit that can be easily peeled like
calamansi or dalandan
Introduce the concept of surface area-volume ratio/relationship to the learners. Show a fruit to the
learners and explain that the outer surface of the fruit is the surface area. Peel the fruit and show them
whats inside, explaining that the inside of the fruit is the volume.
Explain to the learners that surface area (SA) and volume (V) do not increase in the same manner. As an
object increases in size, its volume increases as the cube of its linear dimensions while surface area
increases as the square of its linear dimensions.
Example: If the initial starting point is the same: SA = 2; Volume = 2 (Ratio = 1:1)
A one-step increase will result to: SA = 22 = 4 while V = 23 = 8 (Ratio = 1:2)
Teacher tip
Ask questions to the learners while giving
the lecture.
18
Illustration 2: Chemical Energy and ATP (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from http://winklebiology.weebly.com/chemical-energyatp.html)
Synthesis of ATP
ADP + Pi ATP + H2O
requires energy: 7.3 kcal/mole
occurs in the cytosol by glycolysis
Consumption of ATP
ATP powers most energy-consuming activities of cells, such as:
addition of phosphate groups (phosphorylation) to different proteins (e.g., to alter their activity incell
signaling)
muscle contraction
beating of cilia and flagella (including sperm)
bioluminescence
Extracellular ATP
In mammals, ATP also functions outside of cells. ATP is released in the following examples:
In eukaryotic cells, the mitochondria and chloroplasts are the organelles that convert energy to other
forms which cells can use for their functions.
Discuss the function and structure of the mitochondria.
20
Outer membraneis a selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the mitochondria. It is the
site of attachment for the respiratory assembly of the electron transport chain and ATP Synthase. It
has integral proteins and pores for transporting molecules just like the cell membrane
Inner membranefolds inward (called cristae) to increase surfaces for cellular metabolism. It
contains ribosomes and the DNA of the mitochondria. The inner membrane creates two enclosed
spaces within the mitochondria:
intermembrane space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane; and
matrix that is enclosed within the inner membrane.
Ask questions to the learners on the structure of the mitochondria. A sample question could be: What
is the importance of the enfolding of the mitochondria? The response would be to increase the surface
area that can be packed into such a small space.
Discuss the purpose of the mitochondrial membranes.
22
As mentioned, the mitochondria has two membranes: the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes.
Outer Membrane
fully surrounds the inner membrane, with a small intermembrane spacein between
has many protein-based pores that are big enough to allow the passage of ions and
molecules as large as a small protein
Inner membrane
has restricted permeability like the plasma membrane
is loaded with proteins involved in electron transport and ATP synthesis
surrounds the mitochondrial matrix, where the citric acid cycle produces the electrons that
travel from one protein complex to the next in the inner membrane. At the end of this
electron transport chain, the final electron acceptor is oxygen, and this ultimately forms
water (H20). At the same time, the electron transport chain produces ATP in a process called
oxidative phosphorylation
During electron transport, the participating protein complexes push protons from the matrix out to the
intermembrane space. This creates a concentration gradient of protons that another protein complex,
calledATP synthase, uses to power synthesis of the energy carrier molecule ATP.
Figure 4: The Electrochemical Proton Gradient and the ATP Synthase (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590)
Explain and discuss the structure and functions of the Chloroplasts.
ChloroplastsChloroplasts, which are found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis. This
process converts solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the
synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek word chloros which means green and plastes which
means the one who forms. The chloroplasts are cellular organelles of green plants and some
eukaryotic organisms. These organelles conduct photosynthesis. They absorb sunlight andconvert it
into sugar molecules. They also produce free energy stored in the form of ATP and NADPHthrough
photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles and are the sites of photosynthesis. The
22
Teacher tip
chloroplast has a system of three membranes: the outer membrane, the inner membrane, and the
thylakoid system.The outer and the inner membranes of the chloroplast enclose a semi-gel-like fluid
known as the stroma. The stroma makes up much of the volume of the chloroplast. The thylakoid
system floats in the stroma.
Structure of the Chloroplast
Outer membraneThis is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small molecules and ions
which diffuse easily. The outer membrane is not permeable to larger proteins.
Intermembrane SpaceThis is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20 nanometers and is
present between the outer and the inner membrane of the chloroplast.
Inner membraneThe inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma. It
regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. In addition to the regulation activity,
fatty acids, lipids and carotenoids are synthesized in the inner chloroplast membrane.
StromaThis is an alkaline, aqueous fluid that is protein-rich and is present within the inner
membrane of the chloroplast. It is the space outside the thylakoid space. The chloroplast DNA,
chloroplast ribosomes, thylakoid system, starch granules, and other proteins are found floating
around the stroma.
Thylakoid System
The thylakoid system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacks called
thylakoids. Thylakoids are small sacks that are interconnected. The membranes of these thylakoids are
the sites for the light reactions of the photosynthesis to take place. The chlorophyll is found in the
thylakoids. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana. Each granum contains around 10-20
thylakoids.
The wordthylakoid is derived from the Greek word thylakos which means 'sack'.
Important protein complexes which carry out the light reaction of photosynthesis are embedded in the
membranes of the thylakoids.
Teacher tip
If an LCD projector is not available, draw
the structure of the chloroplast on the
board.
Group the learners into pairs. Ask one to draw the mitochondria and
label its parts while the other does the same for chloroplast. Once
done, the partners exchange tasks (i.e., the learner that drew the
mitochondria now does the same for the chloroplast).
Reproduce these diagrams without the labels and use these for the
class activity.
To demonstrate how folding increases surface area, ask the learners
to trace the edges of the outer membrane with a thread and
measure the length of the thread afterwards. Repeat the same for
the inner membrane. Compare the results and discuss how the
enfolding of the inner membrane increases surface area through
folding.
24
1. Using the figure below, ask learners to compute surface area vs. volume.
2. Draw the table on the board and instruct the learners to write their measurements.
Teacher tip
Ask the learners to answer practice questions on the following electronic resources:
http://www.mcqbiology.com/2013/03/multiple-choice-questions-on_25.html#.Vl7Uq3YrLrc
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/summer2004/samples02.htm
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-i/fundamental-unit-life/question-answers-1.php
http://www.buzzfeed.com/kellyoakes/the-mitochondria-is-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell#.fajAl0b6o
http://global.oup.com/uk/orc/biosciences/cellbiology/wang/student/mcqs/ch10/
What are the characteristics shared by these two energy transforming organelles?
Instruct the learners to write an essay on probable reasons for these the shared characteristics of the
mitochondria and the chloroplast. Learners shall submit a handwritten essay on the Endosymbiotic Theory
and how it explains the similarity between the mitochondria and chloroplast.
26
Teacher tip
Check the electronic resources on
Endosymbiotic Theory:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bBjD4A7R2xU (Endosymbiotic
Theory in plain English)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQmAnmLZtE
EVALUATION
Learning Competency
Assessment Tool
Learner
participation
(during lecture)
1. structure and
function of major and
subcellular organelles
(STEM_BIO11/12-Iac-2)
Assignment
Examination
Exemplary
Satisfactory
Developing
Learner submitted an
assignment beyond the
requirements
Learner submitted a
comprehensive and wellwritten assignment
Learner submitted a
well written report
but some responses
lack details
Learner obtained
50% to 69.99%
correct answers in
the examination
Learner obtained
less that 50% correct
answers in the
examination
Learner submitted an
essay that was
comprehensive and wellwritten
Learner submitted a
well-written essay
some details are
lacking
Beginnning
(2) Learner
submitted a
partially-finished
assignment
(2) Learner
submitted a
partially-finished
essay
General Biology 1
180 MINS
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of animal tissues and cell
modification.
Performance Standard
Motivation
The learners shall be able to construct a three-dimensional model of the animal
tissue by using recyclable or indigenous materials.
Learning Competencies
The learners:
10
95
Practice
60
Evaluation
Class Quiz
10
classify different cell types (plant/animal tissue) and specify the functions of
each (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-4)
describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out
specialized functions (e.g., microvilli, root hair) (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-5)
Materials
(1) Reece JB, U. L., (2010). Campbell Biology 10th. San Francisco (CA).
28
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
classify different cell types (plant/animal tissue) and specify the functions of each (STEM_BIO11/12Ia-c-4)
describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions (e.g.,
microvilli, root hair) (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-5)
Ask the learners to work in pairs and write the learning objectives using their own words.
Teacher tip
For this particular lesson, start with the
Motivation first (i.e., class activity on Pinoy
Henyo Classroom Edition). After the game,
proceed to the Introduction by
communicating the learning objectives to
the learners.
For the part when the learners have to state
the learning objectives using their own
words, ask the learners to face their
seatmates and work in pairs. If the learners
are more comfortable in stating the learning
objectives in Tagalog or In their local
dialect, ask them to do so.
Teacher tip
Prior to this lesson, assign a reading
material or chapter for this topic. This shall
aid in the facilitation of the class activity.
In choosing the mystery words for the
game, do not limit yourself with the four
types of animal tissues. You may choose
terms that describe the tissue type or even
body parts wherein the tissues are located.
You may also include diseases that are
caused by certain malfunctions on the
tissues.
Make sure to mention the chosen mystery
words in the discussion. This shall help the
learners to understand the connection of
the game with the lesson.
Check how the class behaves during the
activity. If the learners get rowdy, you may
choose to stop the game. Make sure to
warn the learners of the consequences first
before the start of the activity.
1. Discuss that new properties arise with each step upward the hierarchy of life. These are called
emergent properties.
2. Ask the class what the levels of biological organization are. The learners should be able to answer
this since this is just a review. In case the class does not respond to the question, you may facilitate
the discussion by mentioning the first level of the hierarchy.
3. Start with the cell since it is the most basic unit of life that shows all life properties.
cells
tissue organ
organ system
multicellular organism
Illustrate this by showing photos of the actual hierarchy using animals that are endemic in the
Philippines (e.g., pilandok, dugong, and cloud rat).
Review on the unifying theme in Biology: form fits function
1. Ask the class what the relation of form (structure) to function and vice versa is
2. Ask for examples of versaingit of life that shows all life properthe torpedo shape of the body of
dolphins (mammals with fishlike characteristics) and the bone structure and wing shape of birds in
relation to flying.
30
Teacher tip
For the review on form fits function, if the
class does not respond well, start giving
your own examples for the students to
figure out this unifying theme.
Make sure to relate structure to function.
Mention the role of fossils in determining
the habits of extinct animals. By doing this,
it shall establish a strong connection
between form and function and shall give
relevance on the study of this connection in
Biology. After this, you may now proceed to
the new topic on animal tissues.
Facilitate a class activity (i.e., observation of cells under a microscope) to illustrate that animals are
made up of cells. This shall be the foundation of the definition of and discussion on animal tissues. The
whole activity and discussion shall last for 90 minutes.
If microscopes are available for this activity, set up the equipment and the slides that were prepared
prior to the activity. Each slide should show one type of tissue (i.e., epithelial tissue, connective tissue,
muscle tissue, and nervous tissue). Make sure that the labels are covered because the learners will be
asked to name the tissues based on their observations during the discussion.
If there are no microscopes available for the activity, prepare cut-out images, photos, or illustrations
that show the different types of tissues (i.e., epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and
nervous tissue). Make sure that the images, photos, or illustrations are not labeled because the learners
will be asked to name them.
Also, do not immediately identify the type of tissue based on the descriptions that you will be
presenting to the class. The learners will be asked to identify which among the slides under the
microscope or which image, photo, or illustration matches the description of the structure and function
that will be given during the discussion.
After the class activity, proceed with the actual lecture. If a computer, laptop, or projector is available,
show a PowerPoint presentation that shows the description and function of tissues. If there is no
available equipment, you may use flash cards or manila paper where description of structure and
function of the different tissue types are written down. Ask the learners which among the microscope
slides, image, photo, or illustration fits the given information on description and function. After the
learners responses, you can flash or show the next slide which shall reveal the image of the specimen
with the corresponding label or type of tissue.
Epithelial TissueThis type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as coverings or as linings of
organs and cavities. Epithelial tissues are characterized by closely-joined cells with tight junctions (i.e., a
type of cell modification). Being tightly packed, tight junctions serve as barriers for pathogens,
mechanical injuries, and fluid loss.
Teacher tip
If microscopes are available for this activity,
allot 20-30 minutes for the observation of
cells. If microscopes are not available, allot
only 10-15 minutes.
Prior to the activity, prepare the slides that
will be put under the microscopes. The
slides shall contain the different types of
tissue. Make sure to focus the slides so that
the learners can observe them clearly.
Give the learners enough time to observe
the specimens and then ask them to draw
on their notebooks what they were able to
observe under the microscopes. Encourage
the learners to write down the description
and function of the specific tissue type as
you go through the discussion.
If microscopes are not available and you
have shown photos, images, or illustrations
instead, ask the learners to draw them on
their notebooks and encourage them to
write down the description and function of
the specific tissue type as you go through
the discussion.
Teacher tip
Prepare the lecture in such a way that you
do not immediately reveal the label of the
images or the terms that are being
described. The learners should first be
asked to identify the images or slides that fit
the description of the structures and
functions. This will make the students more
engaged in the discussion. Always remind
the learners to take down notes while you
flash information for each tissue type.
Teacher tip
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:
cuboidalfor secretion
simple columnarbrick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption
simple squamousplate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffusion
stratified squamousmultilayered and regenerates quickly; for protection
pseudo-stratified columnarsingle layer of cells; may just look stacked because of varying height;
for lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification that sweeps the
mucus).
Figure 1: Epithelial Tissue (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology 10th. San Francisco (CA):.)
32
Ask the learners to group themselves in pairs or in groups of threes. This will allow the learners to
discuss and decide among themselves. However, if a learner chooses to do this activity on his or her
own, he or she should be allowed to do so.
Ask the learners to briefly and clearly answer the following questions:
What is the importance of having a tissue level in the hierarchy of biological organization? (2 points)
What do the varying shapes and arrangement of epithelial tissue suggests? (2 points)
What is the general function of connective tissues? What function is common to all types of
connective tissues? (1 point)
Why are there voluntary and involuntary muscle tissue functions? (2 points)
What is the importance of glial cells in nervous tissues? (1 point)
Identify two cell modifications and describe their respective functions. (2 points)
Teacher tip
Group the learners before starting the
lesson. The reporting may be done the day
after finishing the discussion on Animal
Tissue Structure, Function, and Cell
Modification.
The reports may be presented using a table
which contains columns for tissue type, cell
structures that characterize the tissue, part
of the body where the tissue is located,
function, and importance.
Teacher tip
Assess if the learners are ready to answer
this individually. If they are not yet ready,
this activity can be done in pairs or in
groups of threes. Make sure that you
provide enough time for the group to
discuss their responses. Remind the learners
to answer briefly and clearly.
If you are not comfortable with this time of
exam, a multiple-choice type of evaluation
may also be prepared.
After getting the responses, you may get
feedback from the learners to see if all
members of each group helped or
participated in their small discussions to
answer the short quiz. You may ask learners
to rate the members of their group.
General Biology 1
90 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Introduction Presentation of a simplified life cycle of a
human being or plant
Motivation
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to construct a three-dimensional model of the stages
or phases involved in the cell cycle using indigenous or recyclable materials.
Instruction/
The learners shall put emphasis on the identification of possible errors that may Delivery
happen during these stages.
Learning Competencies
The learners:
characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points (STEM_BIO11/12Id-f-6)
describe the stages of mitosis and meiosis given 2n=6 (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-7)
discuss crossing over and recombination in meiosis (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-8)
explain the significance or applications of mitosis/meiosis (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-9)
identify disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during
the cell cycle (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-10)
Practice
60
10
Materials
36
Evaluation
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
Teacher tip
Introduce a simplified life cycle of a human being or plant. Let the learners identify the changes
throughout the different stages and how these organisms grow and develop.
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Man and Higher Plants (Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from http://
www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtuallessons/cellcycle/postmeio/)
MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
1. Play the video on Cell Cycle and Cell Division. This video can be accessed at http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6ucKWIIFmg.Divide the class into two groups.
2. Show diagrams of cell division in multicellular or eukaryotic organisms to the class.
38
Teacher tip
You can download the video prior to this
session or if internet connection is available
during class, you can just make use of the
hyperlink to play the video. To access the
video through the hyperlink, simply hold the
Control (Ctrl) Key on the keyboard and click
on the hyperlink.
You should ask the learners thoughtprovoking questions about the video and
relate it to the lesson.
Teacher tip
The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by external stimuli (i.e.,
chemical messages).
Checkpointa critical control point in the Cell Cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate
the cell cycle.
Animal cells have built-in stop signals that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints until
overridden by go-ahead signals.
Three major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases of the Cell Cycle.
38
The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and that enough nutrients are available to support the
resulting daughter cells.
If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually continue with the Cell Cycle.
If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the Cell Cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
The G2 Checkpointensures that DNA replication in S phase has been successfully completed.
The Metaphase Checkpointensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
Kinasea protein which activates or deactivates another protein by phosphorylating them. Kinases give the go-ahead signals at the
G1 and G2 checkpoints. The kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves be activated.
The activating molecule is acyclin,a protein that derives its name from its cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell.
Because of this requirement, these kinases are calledcyclin-dependent kinases orCDKs.
Cyclins accumulateduring the G1, S, and G2 phases of the Cell Cycle.
By theG2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is available to form MPF complexes (aggregations of CDK and cyclin) which initiate
mitosis.
MPF functions by phosphorylating key proteins in the mitotic sequence.
Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by initiating a process which leads to the destruction of cyclin.
CDK, the non-cyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell as an inactive form until it associates with new cyclin molecules
synthesized during the interphase of the next round of the Cell Cycle.
Metaphaseis when chromosomes become arranged so that their centromeres become aligned in
one place, halfway between the two spindle poles. The long axes of the chromosomes are 90 degrees
to the spindle axis. The plane of alignment is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphaseis initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their junction point at the centromere.
The daughter chromosomes then move toward the poles.
Telophaseis when daughter chromosomes complete their migration to the poles. The two sets of
progeny chromosomes are assembled into two-groups at opposite ends of the cell. The chromosomes
uncoil and assume their extended form during interphase. A nuclear membrane then forms around
each chromosome group and the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the nucleolus reforms.
Meiosisreduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells produces
daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces haploid gametes or spores with only
one set of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, gametes combine in fertilization to reconstitute
the diploid complement found in parental cells. The process involves two successive divisions of a
diploid nucleus.
First Meiotic Division
The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of chromosomes (reduction division). In most
cases, the division is accompanied by cytokinesis.
40
Teacher tip
You may show diagrams or a video
demonstrating animal and plant mitosis. The
video can be accessed at http://
www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtuallessons/
mitostage/
Prophase Ihas been subdivided into five substages: leptonema, zygonema, pachynema, diplonema, and diakinesis.
LeptonemaReplicated chromosomes have coiled and are already visible. The number of chromosomes present is the same
as the number in the diploid cell.
ZygonemaHomologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around each other in a highly specific manner. The pairing is
called synapsis. And because the pair consists of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent tetrad.
PachynemaChromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A form of physical exchange between homologues takes
place at specific regions. The process of physical exchange of a chromosome region is called crossing-over. Through the
mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the homologous chromosomes are recombined (genetic recombination).
DiplonemaThe two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from each other. It is at this point where crossing-over is
shown to have taken place. The area of contact between two non-sister chromatids, called chiasma, become evident.
DiakinesisThe four chromatids of each tetrad are even more condensed and the chiasma often terminalize or move down
the chromatids to the ends. This delays the separation of homologous chromosomes.
In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to break down.
Metaphase IThe spindle apparatus is completely formed and the microtubules are attached to the centromere regions of the homologues.
The synapsed tetrads are found aligned at the metaphase plate (the equatorial plane of the cell) instead of only replicated chromosomes.
Anaphase IChromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the opposite poles. The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached at
their respective centromere regions.
Telophase IThe dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear membranes may form. In most species, cytokinesis follows,
producing two daughter cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid level) in a replicated form.
Second Meiotic Division
The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to mitotic division. The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes that
each daughter cell receives. While the original chromosome number is maintained in mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.
Prophase IIThe dyads contract.
Metaphase IIThe centromeres are directed to the equatorial plate and then divide.
Anaphase IIThe sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle fiber.
Telophase IIThe monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes. A nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
and cytokinesis follows. The chromosomes uncoil and extend.
CytokinesisThe telophase stage of mitosis is accompanied by cytokinesis. The two nuclei are
compartmentalized into separate daughter cells and complete the mitotic cell division process. In
animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of a constriction in the middle of the cell until two
daughter cells are formed. The constriction is often called cleavage, or cell furrow. However, in most
plant cells this constriction is not evident. Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are assembled
between the two nuclei to form a cell plate. Each side of the cell plate is coated with a cell wall that
eventually forms the two progeny cells.
Meiosis
Teacher tip
You can show a tabular comparison
between mitosis and meiosis to point the
significance of the two types of division.
Divide the class into two groups and ask
them about their opinions on the
applications of mitosis and meiosis.
The following could be possible responses:
Mitosis
Meiosis I
Mitosis
Meiosis II
Mitosis
Prophase I
Prophase
Prophase II
Prophase
Pairing of homologous
chromosomes
No pairing of
chromosomes
No pairing of
chromosomes
No pairing of
chromosomes
Metaphase I
Metaphase
Metaphase II
Metaphase
Bivalents at metaphase
plate
Duplicated
chromosomes at
metaphase plate
Haploid number of
duplicated
chromosomes at
metaphase plate
Diploid number
of duplicated
chromosomes at
metaphase plate
Anaphase I
Anaphase
Anaphase II
Anaphase
Homologues of each
bivalent separate and
duplicated
chromosomes move to
poles
Sister chromatids
separate, becoming
daughter
chromosomes that
move to the poles
Sister chromatids
separate, becoming
daughter
chromosomes that
move to the poles
Sister chromatids
separate
becoming
daughter
chromosomes
that move to the
poles
Telophase I
Telophase
Telophase II
Telophase
Two diploid
daughter cells,
identical to the
parent cell
Four haploid
daughter cells not
genetically identical
Two diploid
daughter cells,
identical to the
parent cell
Teacher tip
Significance of Meiosis for Diversity:
One of the benefits of sexual reproduction
is the diversity it produces within a
population. That variety is a direct product
of meiosis. Every sex cell made from meiosis
has a unique combination of chromosomes.
This means that no two sperm or egg cells
are genetically identical. Every fertilization
event produces new combinations of traits.
This is why siblings share DNA with parents
and each other, but are not identical to one
another.
Teacher tip
You may show a video that demonstrates
how crossing over and recombination of
chromosomes occur. The video can be
accessed at http://
highered.mheducation.com/sites/
9834092339/student_view0/chapter11/
meiosis_with_crossing_over.html.s
Teacher tip
2. The groups will race to accomplish the tasks in five stations. In each station, the learners will assemble
given materials to illustrate stages or phases of events in the specific process (i.e., interphase, mitosis,
or meiosis).
ENRICHMENT (5 MINS)
EVALUATION (5 MINS)
44
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
Books:
1. Raven, P. a. (2001). Biology 6th Ed. The McGraw Hill Company, USA
2. Reece, J. B. (2013). Campbell Biology, 10th Ed. Pearson Education, Inc. United States of America.
Electronic Resources:
3. (n.d.). Retrieved from Bright Hub Education: http://www.brighthubeducation.com/middle-school-science-lessons/94267-three-activities-forteaching-cell-cycles/#
4. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/lect16.htm
5. (n.d.). Retrieved from MH Education: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/9834092339/student_view0/chapter11/
meiosis_with_crossing_over.html
6. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtuallessons/meiostage/
7. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://csls-text.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/active/12_05.html
8. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://education.seattlepi.com/biological-significance-mitosis-meiosis-sexual-reproduction-5259.htm
General Biology 1
480 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Transport Mechanisms:
Motivation
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to construct a cell membrane model from indigenous Instruction/ Discussion and lecture proper
Delivery
or recyclable materials.
Learning Competencies
The learners:
Practice
30
functions
60
120
45
45
180
Materials
46
Resources
1. Before this lesson, ask the learners to read about the topic on transport of materials across
membranes.
2. Introduce the topic by providing the learners with background information.
In order for the cell to stay alive, it must meet the characteristics of life which include taking
nutrients in and eliminating wastes and other by-products of metabolism. Several mechanisms allow
cells to carry out these processes. All of the cells activities are in one way or another tied to the
membrane that separates its interior from the environment.
3. Ask the learners how they understand and visualize a plasma membrane and what characteristics
are essential for it to perform its function.
4. Ask the learners to identify the different mechanisms on how materials are transported in and out of
the cell.
1. Divide the learners into groups and ask them the following question: What comes to your mind
when you see a 20 year old man who is 7.5 ft. tall and 3.5 ft. tall man of the same age? Among
their respective groups, let the learners discuss the similarities and differences between the two.
(Hint: Give students a clue by giving them the giant and pygmy as examples).
2. Ask a representative from each group to report the result of their discussion to the whole class.
3. Before the start of the lesson on diffusion, spray an air freshener in one corner of the room and ask
the learners to raise their hands if they have smelled the scent of the spray.
4. Ask the learners what they have observed. Who smelled the scent first? Who are the last ones to
smell the scent? How would you explain the phenomenon wherein learners in the same classroom
smelled the spray at different times?
Teacher tip
Different responses to the question will be
drawn from students. Their responses will
depend on what aspect they are looking
into.
Acknowledge the responses of the learners.
Point out and explain that the two men are
both abnormal. Their growths are abnormal
such that one is too big in size and the
other one is too small. Both men have
defective membranes. Insufficient amount
of growth hormones pass through a
pygmys body while an excessive amount of
growth hormones is released in a giant.
Phospholipids are the foundation of all known biological membranes. The lipid bilayer forms as a result of the interaction between the
nonpolar phospholipid tails, the polar phospholipid heads, and the surrounding water. The nonpolar tails face toward the water.
Transmembrane proteins float within the bilayer and serve as channels through which various molecules can pass.
7. Ask the learners to enumerate the different transport
mechanisms.
11. Describe solution and solute movement in and out of the cell
under hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic conditions.
12. Explain the effects of the different solutions to the cells. Ask
which among the three solutions is the best for plants? How
about for animals? Explain to the learners the water requirement
in plants.
48
General Biology 1
240 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Content Standard
Introduction Presentation of objectives and important terms;
Discussion on the structure of the plasma
The learners shall be able to construct a cell membrane model from indigenous
membrane; Brief discussion on the different
or recyclable materials.
15
transport mechanisms
Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to construct a cell membrane model from indigenous Motivation
or recyclable materials.
Learning Competencies
The learners:
15
Instruction/
Delivery
60
Practice
30
Enrichment
60
Evaluation
60
Materials
projector, laptop (if available), visual aids, school supplies, recycled or
indigenous materials
Resources
(1) Campbell, N.A. et. al. (2008). Biology 8th Edition Pearson International.
Pearson/Benjamin Cummings Publishing.
(2) Campbell, N. J. (2010). Biology 9th edition Pearson International Edition.
Benjamin Cummings Publishing.
(3) Freeman, S. (2011). Biological Science. 4th edition. International Edition.
Benjamin Cummings Publishing.
(4) Hickman, C. L. (2011). Integrated Principles of Zoology. 15th edition. McGraw
Hill Co., Inc.
50
Teacher tip
Prior to this lesson, instruct the learners to read up on the transport of materials across membranes. Ask
the learners to identify the different mechanisms on how materials are transported in and out of the
cell.
Introduce the topic by providing the learners with background information.
In order for the cell to stay alive, it must meet the characteristics of life which include taking nutrients in
and eliminating wastes and other by-products of metabolism. Several mechanisms allow cells to carry
out these processes. All of the cells activities are, in one way or another, tied to the membrane that
separates its interior from the environment.
Ask the learners how they visualize a plasma membrane and what characteristics do they think are
essential for it to perform its function.
Teacher tip
Before the start of the lesson on diffusion, conduct this simple class activity. Spray an air freshener in
one corner of the room and instruct the learners to raise their hands if they have smelled the scent of
the spray.
Ask the learners the following questions:
Who among the class were able to smell the air freshener first?
Who among the class were the last ones to smell the air freshener?
How would you explain the phenomenon wherein people in the same classroom smelled the
scent of the air freshener at different times?
Divide the learners into groups and ask them the question: What comes to your mind when you see
two men who are of the same age but one is 7.5 feet tall and the other is 3.5 feet tall?
Allow the learners to discuss the similarities and differences between the two among their groups.
Ask a representative from each group to present the results of their discussions to the whole class.
Teacher tip
52
Molecules and substances move in several ways that fall within two categories: passive transport and active transport. In passive transport,
heat energy of the cellular environment provides all of the energy, hence, this is not energy-costly to the cell. Active transport, however, requires
the cell to do work, requiring the cell to expend its energy reserves.
Diffusion is a type of passive transport described as the natural tendency for molecules to move constantly. Their movement is random and is
due to the energy found in the individual molecules. Net diffusion occurs when the materials on one side of the membrane have a different
concentration than the materials on the other side. Osmosis is a special type of diffusion specifically associated with the movement of water
molecules.
A solution with a higher concentration of solutes is said to be hypertonic while a solution with a lower concentration of solutes is hypotonic.
Water crosses the membrane until the solute concentrations are equal on both sides. Solutions of equal solution concentration are said to be
isotonic. This only occurs when the solute concentration are the same on both sides of the membrane.
Compare and contrast facilitated diffusion and active transport. Then present photos of plant and animal cells immersed in an isotonic,
hypotonic, and hypertonic solution. In addition, describe a solution and solute movement into and out of the cell under hypertonic, hypotonic
and isotonic conditions.
Explain the effects of the different solutions to the cells. Ask which among the three solutions is the best for plants? For animals? Let them
understand water requirement in plants.
Many cells are isotonic to the environment in order to avoid excessive inward and outward movement of water. Other cells must constantly
export water from their interior to accommodate the natural inward movement. Most plants are hypertonic with respect to their immediate
environment. Osmotic pressure within the cell pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall and makes a plant cell rigid.
Ask the learners the following questions:
When an animal cell such as red blood cell is immersed in an isotonic solution, the cell gains water at the same rate that it loses it. The cells
volume remains constant in this situation.
What will happen to the red blood cell when immersed in a hypotonic solution which has a lower solute concentration than the cell? The cell
gains water, swells, and may eventually burst due to excessive water intake. When placed in a hypertonic solution, an animal cell shrinks and
can die due to water loss.
Water requirement for plant cells is different due to their rigid cell walls. A plant cell placed in an isotonic solution is flaccid and a plant wilts in
this condition. In contrast with animal cells, a plant cell is turgid and healthy in a hypotonic solution. In a hypertonic solution, a plant cell loses
water, shrivels, and its plasma membrane detaches from the cell wall. This situation eventually causes death in plant cells.
Differentiate diffusion from facilitated diffusion.
To control the entrance and exit of particular molecules, selective transport of materials is necessary. One simple process is facilitated diffusion
that utilizes protein transmembrane channels that are specific to certain molecules. It is a passive process driven by the concentration of
molecules on the inside and the outside of the membrane. Certain molecules are transported in and out of the cell, independent of
concentration. This process requires the expenditure of energy in the form of ATP and is called active transport.
plasma membrane
semipermeable
phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic heads
hydrophobic tails
cholesterol
membrane proteins
Teacher tip
For the concept mapping, you can provide
the learners with key words or allow them to
come up with their own key words for their
concept map.
Teacher tip
Diffusion and osmosis are two processes
involved in making salted eggs. The salt
solution should be supersaturated in order
to produce good and delicious salted eggs.
56
Teacher tip
You can provide the learners with key words
or allow them to come up with their own
key words for their concept map.
General Biology 1
120 MINS
LESSON OUTLINE
Introduction Presentation of learning objectives and
important terms; Discussion on dehydration
reactions and hydrolysis
Motivation
10
10
60
20
Evaluation
20
Materials
Teacher tip
Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocols (i.e., verbatim, own
words, or read-aloud)
I can distinguish a carbohydrate from a lipid given its chemical structure and function.
I can explain the roles played by carbohydrates and lipids in biological systems.
I can detect the presence of carbohydrates and lipids in food products using simple chemical tests.
Introduce the list of important terms that learners will encounter in this lesson:
macromolecule
cellulose
polymer
chitin
monomer
lipids
dehydration reaction
fat
hydrolysis
fatty acid
carbohydrates
triacylglycerol
monosaccharides
saturated fatty acid
disaccharides
unsaturated fatty acid
glycosidic linkage
trans fat
polysaccharide
phospholipids
starch
steroids
glycogen
cholesterol
58
Teacher tip
For the food labels, local products that are
familiar to the learners will make the best
samples. Make sure that the labels have
carbohydrates, fats, and fibers in them. If
there are no food labels available, you may
do an image search and print some sample
food labels from the internet.
Division into small groups of two or three
may facilitate sharing. Only call on two or
three groups to present if there is limited
time.
Expect the responses to vary depending on
how realistic the serving sizes are. You can
also discuss about how advertisers can
influence how people perceive food.
Take note that a food calorie is the same as
1 kcal or 1000 calories. A young adult would
often need to take 1800-2500C per day
depending on their size and level of activity.
proteins, and nucleic acids. All of these have carbon atoms as their backbones since carbon is capable of forming up to four chemical bonds
with atoms of other elements.
Facilitate the lecture on carbohydrates and lipids.
What do humans get from food?
Heterotrophs, such as human beings, obtain energy and raw materials from food. These are important for cell growth, cell division, metabolism,
repair, and maintenance of the body. Nutrients can be classified as either organic nutrients (i.e., those that contain carbon such as
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and nucleic acids) or inorganic nutrients (i.e., those that do not contain carbon such as water and mineral
salts).
What are carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These compounds have a general formula of
CnH2mOm. This means that the hydrogen and oxygen atoms are present in a ratio of 2:1. For example, glucose has a formula of
C6H12O6 and sucrose has a formula of C12H22O11.
Carbohydrates are usually good sources of raw materials for other organic molecules and energy. One gram of carbohydrates provides
four food calories or 16 kJ of energy. In the human diet, carbohydrates mainly come from plants although they are found in all
organisms.
How are carbohydrates formed?
Carbohydrates are examples of macromolecules. These are chainlike molecules called polymers (mere means part) made from repeating units
like monomers. Polymers can be formed from covalently-bonded monomers much like a single structure can be made out of repeated building
blocks linked to each other.
These monomers, called monosaccharides, form covalent bonds when one monomer loses a hydroxyl group and the other loses a hydrogen
atom in dehydration or condensation reactions, forming disaccharides. This reaction requires energy to occur. The bond formed is called a
glycosidic linkage.
Teacher tip
Some notes on their structures and functions are found in the following table:
Classification
Monosaccharide
Functions
major cellular
nutrient
often
incorporated
into more
complex
carbohydrates
Structure
position
may have three to seven
carbons in the skeleton
may be arranged in a
linear form when solid
and is converted into a
Examples
Classification
Disaccharide
Functions
energy
source
sweetener
and dietary
component
Structure
forms when a
glycosidic linkage
forms between
two
monosaccharides
Examples
Polysaccharide
storage
material for
important
monosaccharides
structural
material for the
cell or the entire
organism
forms when
hundreds to thousands
of monosaccharides are
joined by glycosidic
linkages
Teacher tip
Examples of alpha helices and beta
sheets may be created using wire for
the backbone and yarn for the Hbonds; invite learners to speculate on
why alpha helix structures are
associated with storage
polysaccharides and beta sheets with
structural polysaccharides.
Teacher tip
Invite learners to compare the rigidity
or structural integrity of plant matter
or paper, a shrimps shell, and a
mushroom. Explain that all these
structures are formed from sheets.
Teacher tip
Lipids are a class of large biomolecules that are not formed through polymerization. They have diverse
structures but are all non-polar and mix poorly, if at all, with water. They may have some oxygen atoms
in their structure but the bulk is composed of abundant nonpolar C-H bonds. They function for energy
storage, providing nine food calories or 37 kJ of energy per gram. They also function for the cushioning
of vital organs and for insulation. Furthermore, they play important roles in plasma membrane structure
and serve as precursors for important reproductive hormones.
Classification
Functions
Fats
(triacylglycerols
or triglycerides)
energy
storage
cushioning of
vital organs
(adipose
tissue)
insulation
Structure
Teacher tip
Saturated fatanimal products such as irregularly shaped objects like partiallybutter and lard have a lot of saturated fatty acids. folded sheets of cardboard.
The linear structure allows for the close packing of
the fat molecules for ming solids at room
temperature, diets high in these fats may increase
the risk of developing atherosclerosis, a condition in
which fatty deposits develop within the walls of
blood vessels, increasing the incidence of
cardiovascular disease
Misconception
Clarify the misconception that consuming
fats is entirely dangerous for health. Fats are
an essential part of a healthy diet when
consumed in moderation.
Classification
Phospholipids
Functions
major component
of cell membranes
Structure
formed from dehydration
reactions between glycerol
(an alcohol with three Cs,
each with a OH group),
forming two ester linkages
with two fatty acids (16-18
Cs, with the last C as part of
a COOH group) and a last
linkage with a phosphate
group
Examples
Phospholipids self-assemble
into bilayers when
surrounded by water and
form the characteristic
structure of plasma
membranes
Steroids and
sterols
regulate
fluidity of cell
membranes
base of sex
hormones
emulsification of
fats during
digestion
functional group
attached to the rings vary (if
OH is attached to the 4th C, then
it is called a cholesterol)
66
Teacher tip
phosphate group is
hydrophilic and is called
the head of the molecule
Teacher tip
Cholesterol found in
cell membranes regulates
the rigidity of the cell
membrane and are the base
material for the production
of sex hormones like
estradiol and progesterone
Divide the class into groups. Instruct the learners to prepare the following materials that are needed for
the laboratory activity:
eight glass droppers, medicine droppers, or caps
ethanol solution
12 test tubes
glucose solution
test tube holders or tongs
flour or cornstarch
beaker
cooking oil
alcohol lamp
sample of studentbrought food or drink
Benedicts solution
iodine solution
mortar and pestle
Explain the following processes to the learners.
Benedicts solution, a blue solution with CuSO4(aq), can detect the presence of reducing sugars (i.e.,
any sugar with a free aldehyde or ketone group such as all monosaccharides and the disaccharides
lactose and maltose). When boiled, these sugars reduce Cu2+ in Benedicts solution to produce a brickred precipitate of Cu2O(s).
Teacher tip
This activity may be done as a class if time
does not permit for the activity to be done
in separate groups. If Benedicts solution is
not available, you may only perform the last
two tests.
In the absence of laboratory grade
chemicals, you may improvise with storebought chemicals like iodine and 70% ethyl
alcohol for medical use. Make sure to test
the procedure before performing the
activity in the class.
cooking oil
In discussing the results, ask the learners to conclude whether carbohydrates or lipids are present in
their samples. They may compare this with the list of ingredients for their food or drink sample. They
can also list possible sources of errors.
Divide the class into small groups. Provide the groups with different structures of lipids or
carbohydrates and ask them to create models using common or recyclable materials.
Ask the learners to explain or write a short description of their models. In grading the models, check to
see if the learners were able to create an accurate model of the assigned lipid or carbohydrate.
Ask the learners, still in their small groups, to create a short flowchart that will allow them to distinguish
between the different kinds of carbohydrates and lipids based on their structures. They may use this
flowchart in answering the comprehension questions that follow.
Provide different molecular structures of the following and ask the learners to identify whether these
are:
68
Teacher tip
Prior to this lesson, instruct the learners to
bring recyclable materials that they can use
for this activity.
monosaccharides
disaccharides
unsaturated fats
storage polysaccharides
phospholipids
structural polysaccharides
steroids.
saturated fats
You may also ask the learners to give one of the associated functions or characteristics of the given
carbohydrate or lipid.
Teacher tip
The various carbohydrate structures were
obtained from the following electronic
resources:
commons.wikimedia.org
http://www.nature.com/pj/journal/v43/
n12/images/pj201196f3.jpg
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/
files/522/260px-Cellulose_strand.jpg?
size=bestfit&width=352&height=310&r
evision=1
Biographical Notes
FLORENCIA G. CLAVERIA, Ph.D.
Team Leader
DAWN T. CRISOLOGO
Team Leader
rsity where she has been teaching for 30 years now. She headed
researches on marine conservation and the recovery of reefs. Her
scholarly works appeared on different publications such as the
Philippine Science Letters and the Silliman Journal. Dr. Estacion
earned her doctorate degree in Zoology at the James Cook
University of North Queensland. She completed her masters
degree in Marine Biology at the University of the Philippines
Diliman and her bachelors degree in Biology at the Silliman
University.
NOLASCO H. SABLAN
Writer
Mr. Nolasco Sablan is Teacher III at the Parada National
High School and is a DepEd teacher for 11 years now. He has
worked as resource speaker, trainer, and writer for different
institutions in the education sector, including the Ateneo de
Manila University, Metrobank Foundation Inc., and the
Department of Education. Mr. Nolasco Sablan earned his
masters degree in Biology Education at the Ateneo de Manila
University and completed his bachelors degree in Education
major in General Science at the Philippine Normal University.
186
JOY R. JIMENA
Copyreader
Ms. Joy Jimena is currently Planning Officer II at the
Information Management Bureau of the Department of Social
Welfare and Development. She also previously worked with other
government agencies such as the Department of National
Defense and Philippine Commission on Women, and Social
Security System. Ms. Jimena graduated at the University of the
Philippines Diliman with a degree in Public Administration.
RENAN U. ORTIZ
Illustrator
Mr. Renan Ortiz is a teacher and visual artist who has
collaborated in local and international art exhibitions such as the
SENSORIUM at the Ayala Museum, Populus in Singapore,
Censorship_2013 Move On Asia in South Korea, and the Triumph
of Philippine Art in New Jersey, USA. Mr. Ortizs solo exhibitions
include versereverse at the Republikha Art Gallery. He first
completed his bachelors degree in Political Science at the
University of the Philippines Manila before finishing his bachelors
degree in Fine Arts major in Painting at the University of the
Philippines Diliman. Mr. Ortiz is an awardee of the Cultural
Center of the Philippines CCP Thirteen Artists Awards in 2012.
DANIELA LOUISE B. GO
Illustrator
Ms Daniela Louise Go is a freelance illustrator and graphic
designer, specializing on graphic design, brand and campaign
design, and copywriting. She has worked as illustrator for Stache
Magazine, Philippine Daily Inquirer, and Summit Media Digital.
Ms Go is a member of organisations such as the UP Graphic and
UP Grail in which she also served as designer and illustrator. Her
works have been part of art exhibitions including Freshly Brewed,
Wanton Hypermaterialism, and Syntheses 2014: Graduate
Exhibit. Ms. Go graduated her bachelors degree in Fine Arts
Major in Visual Communication at the University of the Philippine
Diliman.