Programa de Doctorado Espacio Pblico

y Regeneracin Urbana.
Arte, Teora, Conservacin del Patrimonio
Facultat de Belles Arts
Universitat de Barcelona

Designing city ground: the role of the

pavement in creating the image of the city
Danae Esparza Lozano
Supervisor and tutor: Dr. Antoni Remesar
Dissertation submitted for the defense of doctoral degree
july 2014

Apoyo de la Agncia de Gesti dAjuts Universitaris

i de Recerca (FI-DGR 2011) de la Generalitat de Catalunya

Abstract

This work directs a watchful gaze at the ground. Regardless of its functional qualities of
strength, durability or comfort for the movement, in this research we try to prove how
important pavement is for the city and how it can influence the creation of the image of the
city, concept developed by Kevin Lynch and recently revisited by Pedro Brando.
Five million square meters of panot cover the ground of Barcelona. 2,617 linear km. of
granite kerbstones, 18.056 pedestrians fords and 25.909 standard fords for vehicles
complete the urbanization of the city, demonstrating the potential role of the primary
elements of urbanization in the creation of identity of the city, since they define a common
and identifiable landscape for both citizens and visitors.
Moreover, as we note in Barcelona, paving ad hoc interventions that aim to monumentalize
specific locations, or to recreate a unique atmosphere or to evoke the memory of the city,
demonstrate the potential of the pavement in building strategies for the identity of places.
The ground plane is involved, thus, in enhancing the imageability of these places, by
creating iconic images spread by the media in order to promote the international
competitiveness of the city, and, it is therefore not surprising that the great international
events will be key moments in the transformation of the ground of cities.
Finally, the analysis of Lisbon shows us another example in which the pavement is part of
the image of the city. Black and white stones, the portuguese calada, have embellished
public spaces of Lisbon since mid-nineteenth century. However, degradation of
construction system that has spread across the entire city, presents difficulties for
pedestrian accessibility demonstrating its potential obsolescence, despite having qualities
associated with the latest ideas about urban sustainability. Latest interventions in this city
seek to reinvent the pavement without losing the colour and brightness of the soil so
characteristic of the city.
However the degradation of the construction system throughout the entire city, presents
difficulties for pedestrian accessibility demonstrating its potential obsolescence, despite
this constructive system presents qualities associated with the latest ideas about urban
sustainability. Latest operations undertaken in Lisbon intend to reinvent the pavement
without losing the colour and brightness of the ground so characteristic of the citys image.

Keywords: Pavement, public space, city image, urbanization, panot, portuguese calada

Table of contents
Abstract
0. Introduction
1. Context and terminology
Context of the thesis
Objective of the research
Methodology
Theoretical framework
The image of the city
Ground floor design in public space
[Visual dimension]
[Functional dimension]
Structure of the thesis
1 I THE GROUND DESIGN FROM A HISTORIC PERSPECTIVE
The road system of the Roman Empire
Healthiness in the streets of Rome
Renaissance ornamental paving
Comfort circulation of the Court during the Ancient Regime
Urban embellishment of Paris in the Enlightenment
The transformation of Paris of Haussmann
2 I EVOLUTION OF THE GROUND DESIGN IN BARCELONA
2.1 The beginning of pavement systematization
The cobblestone plan for the inner city
The cobblestone raffle
Montjuc stone
Paving in the municipal ordinances
The cobblestone model of Daniel Francesc Molina
The proposal of Ildefons Cerd for the paving of the Eixample
2.2 The debate around the most appropriate paving for the city
Searching for alternatives to the Montjuc stone
Broken stone road surfaces or macadam
Construction of cobblestone for pedestrian crossings
Great expectations on the wooden paving
First proposals of wooden paving in Barcelona
First tests of wooden cobbles in Ronda de Sant Pere
Testing the Dehaynin system in Las Ramblas and Pelai
The fabulous business of the wooden blocks: the controversy outbreak
Two new tests of the wooden cobbles: Elli and Forment
The failure of the wooden blocks
The first applications of the Portland cement in the streets of the city
Artificial granitic sidewalks
Iron slag cobbles
The introduction of asphalt
First asphalt experiences in Barcelona
Test in Ronda Sant Pere from the Sociedad General de Asfaltos de Portugal
Asfaltos Maestu Company
Candemberg system
Asphalt irrigation over macadam
Three tests of Portuguese mosaic
The patent of Portuguese mosaic
The expiration of the invention patent
Portuguese mosaic around the Cinc dOros
Paving around the Fuente de Diana
Tests without conclusions: the need of the underground adaptation

3 I THE GENERAL PROJECT FOR THE URBANIZATION FOR THE EIXAMPLE

The underground sanitation project, Pere Garcia i Fria 1891
The general plan of cobblestone and macadam, Jos Bofill 1891
Legislative framework: the Expansion Law of 1982
The General urbanization project, Jos M Jordan 1893
Can fanga: the unfortunate condition of the sidewalks
The Eixample sidewalks transformation project
Hydraulic mosaic companies and Portland tiles
The polemic construction of sidewalks down to the kerb
The uncertain beginning of the flower shaped panot: la Casa Ametller
4 I A DECENT LOOK FOR THE CITY BECAUSE OF THE 1929 EXHIBITION
The pavement improvement to be adjusted to the needs of the vehicles
Construction plans for the Exhibition
Tests to improve the disadvantages of the macadam
The prolongation of the Diagonal
The progressive disappearance of cobblestones
The mosaic concrete in Avenida Repblica Argentina
The beginning of the traffic signals to organize the circulation
The pavements for the pedestrian traffic
The introduction of concrete and asphalt in the pedestrian walkways
The floor in the Mediterranean garden: Forestier and Rubi i Tudur
The Central Avenue of the Exhibition
The urbanization of gardens and squares: Rubi i Tudur and Cabestany
The urbanization and embellishment of the Plaza de Catalunya
Restoration of Parque de la Ciutadella
Jardines Reina Victoria
5 I THE PAVING OPERATIONS IN THE INNER REFURBISHMENT
Adolf Florensa and the restoration of the Gothic quarter
The role of the pavement in the historic city: the creation of ambient
The removal of the sidewalks in the streets of the historic centre
Interventions in the historic centre: Florensa, Rubi i Tudur y Duran i Sanpere
Artistic pavement interventions
The noble pavement in Plaza Sant Jaume
The monumental paving project for Plaza Catalunya
6 I THE SEARCH FOR A SPECIAL PAVING FOR LA GRAN BARCELONA
Paving constructions in la Barcelona de Porcioles
The experiences of Avenida Roma and Passeig Martim
Pedestrianize of historic city, Boqueria street
The introduction of Vibrazo, Escofet 1960
The colorfull Ramblas and its origin: Lisboa, Copacabana, Alicante, Barcelona
Gaud tiles in Paseo de Grcia
The extensive use of Vibrazo Relieve
Paving the spaces between buildings
Participation of artists in the design of the floor
7 I DESIGN OF THE GROUND IN THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC
BARCELONA
Unitary image of the city
Common elements of urbanization
Integration of accessibility criteria
Quality and attention in the bonding
Utilization of natural stone
The evolution of artificial material
Ceramic cobbles
Precast concrete
New challenges / opportunities for the city
Parque del Vall dHebron 1992
The Frum 2004 area
Service galleries in Vila Olmpica and 22@ district
Singularization of ground design
Toward a greener city
Panot turned into an icon of the city

8 I CALADA-MOSAIC IN LISBON
Central responsibilities vs local responsibilities
Calada-mosaic origins
Exportation of Portuguese stones
Expressive evolution
Consequences of the generalization of the system
New opportunities
CONCLUSIONS

Introduction
The objective of this study is to demonstrate the role of the pavement in the configuration
of the image of the city. Starting from the analysis of the city ground design in Barcelona, it
provides knowledge on the most relevant floors of the city, analysing the evolution of the
pavements role throughout history and identifying relationships with different paving
systems used in other cities, in particular the city of Lisbon.
In the year 1859, Francesc Daniel Molina projected the cobblestone plan for the inner city at
the same time that the City approved the Plan for Barcelonas Reform and Extension from
Ildefons Cerd, in which the engineer made a proposal for the street pavings. From that
moment, a large number of trials begun in Barcelona, in order to find a suitable material for
the paving of the new streets of the Eixample, where the increasing circulation and the vast
expanse of the streets exceeded the possibilities of the Montjuc stone, usual material in the
paving of the walled city.
In addition to trials of stones of greater hardness, as the "artificial stone" based on concrete
and asphalt, the City Council channeled its expectations on the wood pavements, with the
aim to achieve the good results shown in European capitals such as Paris and London,
looking to reduce the dust and the noise of the streets. Wooden pavements were used in
the surrounding streets from where the 1888 Universal Exhibition.was hosted.
This research highlights the 1895 construction trial of the paved mosaic, a paving system
used widely in the streets of Lisbon and patented in Spain, for commercial exploitation, by
a Portuguese merchant. In Barcelona, this paving was experience on one side of the Paseo
Sant Joan, adapting the decorative elements characteristic of the Calada portuguesa to the
symbolism of the city as well as the construction requirements imposed by the municipal
architect Pere Falqus. Even after the expiration of its patent, the City of Barcelona used
this pavement to complete the Paseo Sant Joan and in two, more places: to embellish the
"Cinc d'Oros and in the Diana fountain opposite to the Ritz Hotel.
Municipal engineer, Jos Maria Jordan, allegeed the impossibility of obtaining conclusions
of the numerous tests due to the large number of variables in play for each material, in
addition to the lack of a general project of sanitation, as well as simultaneous
implementations of electrical lighting services and the installation of the tramway network.
Following the adoption of the project of sanitation designed by Pere Garca i Faria, Jordan
designed the general urbanization plan for the Eixample according to the Expansion Law
of 1892.
However, neither the sewer system nor the street paving of the Eixample were installed as
the Expansion Law dictated. Owners were the ones to initiate the paving in front of their
buildings in a strip of 2,5 meters, usually with natural stone or cement. Because of these
deficiencies in the urbanization, the streets of the Eixample were practicly impossible to
circulate on rainy days due to the amount of mud: it offered also an image that was
considered unfit for the new and wide streets of the city, and was subject of mochery

receiving the name of Can Fanga (mud city).

In order to improve the healthiness of the streets of the Eixample, and, at the same time, to
decorate its sidewalks, in 1906 the Eixample Commission approves a project to transform
sidewalks which stipulates the obligation of neighbours to contribute in the expenditure of
the paving of sidewalks up to the curb and the standardization of hydraulic cement tiles
for its construction. These tiles, produced by the manufacturers of hydraulic mosaics for
interiors, are slowly introduced into the sidewalks of the Eixample area due to the
controversy concerning the financing of works, by breaking the Expansion Law, and to
critics who reject the measure to guarantee the health of the trees.
The desire to tidy up the city on the celebration of the Montjuc Exhibition1, associated
with the increase in automobile traffic in the 1920's, promotes the creation of grants for
owners to speed up the paving of sidewalks, at the time that continues the search for a
floor suitable for final paving of Eixamples roads. For this reason, the Pavements
Departement of the city, directed by Jos Cabestany, undertakes a large number of trials to
improve the properties of the macadam by tar surface coatings or by penetration of
concrete.
The passage of Forestier in Barcelona, invited to design the Park of Montjuc, shows great
sensitivity in the design of gardens, not only in terms of plant species, but also in the
treatment of horizontal surfaces as part of the global project of garden. The combination of
ceramic materials, natural stone and artificial stone used in the design of the gardens floor
meets the needs of drainage of the roads, the tradition of materials and comfort of
movement, and together with the vegetation, walls, stairs or furniture is involved in the
creation of different environments in the garden. This attention to detail of the pavement
had continuity in the parks and gardens designed by Nicolau Mari Rubi i Tudur, as well
as in the new garden squares opened in the monumental area of the historic city with the
collaboration between Adolf Florensa and Duran i Sanpere.
Florensa work continues from the Service for the Conservation and Restoration of
Monuments, with interventions in the old town that recovers Montjuc stone for the
creation of a consistent atmosphere in the new Gothic quarter "created" around the
Cathedral to promote the attraction of tourism. Florensa takes place, in addition, a series of
interventions of paving to monumentalize emblematic areas of the city such as Plaza
Catalunya or Plaza Sant Jaume, resorting to classical compositions to enhance the nobility
and importance of both places.
From the use of the terrazzo in the 1960's, the material properties are used to introduce
colour and ornamentation in the grey postwar Barcelona, providing an alternative to the
generic pavement, then considered vulgar and monotonous. These pavements are used in
the singular spaces designed by Adolf Florensa, in collaboration with the company Escofet,
introducing motifs that refer, in some cases, the drawings created by the calada
portuguesa, as it is the case of the paving of Las Ramblas.
After the restoration of the democratic City Council in 1979, a process of transformation of
the city begins, giving priority to public spaces and facilities. This policy emphasizes the
treatment of the horizontal plane that, in general, tends towards the homogenization of the
plane of the floor in order to ensure a level of common accessibility throughout the city
based on the standardization of urban elements, including the pavement, kerbs, fords and
urban furniture. The 1992 Olympics are a good excuse for the transformation of large urban
areas, where it is possible to test new materials and build underground service galleries in
areas of new development as the Olympic village to ensure better preservation of the
pavement.
Since 1999, Urban projects, following the decentralization of competences of the city
1

A long process that began in 1905 and end in 1929, with the effective holding of the exhibition

planning to the Districts of the city, result in a return to the singling out of the pavements
as each District faces the pedestrianization of their historical centres with own solutions
that accentuate the identity of each neighbourhood, and allows external municipal services
architects greater flexibility in the use of singular pavements. In addition, it is perceived a
paradigm shift that leaves behind the hard places to reverse the trend and restore the
"green" space in the streets and squares of the city; initiating, in a timely manner, the trial
of pavements that introduce environmental concerns, including draining pavements and
photocatalytic materials.
After 120 years since the beginning of its use, hydraulic cement tiles that began its journey
in the Eixample around 1895, known with the name of "panot", covering nearly five million
square meters of sidewalks in the city, have become a true icon of the landscape of
Barcelona. Similarly to what happens in Barcelona, the "Calada mosaic" of Lisbon, used
extensively since its standardization in 1895 for the ornamentation of the main streets and
places in that city walk, became, in a few years, an element of identity which, in addition, it
has been exported to other cities, including Barcelona, as well as the former Portuguese
colonies.
The calada portuguesa in Lisbon expands in the urbanization of the new districts using
mosaics, only, on the significance of specific spaces thanks to the collaboration of architects
and artists. However, as this system spreads, the quality of its construction is also reduced
at the time that increase the number of operators involved in the underground of the city,
producing negative consequences in the perception of security and comfort in the network
of pedestrian mobility. The most recent interventions introduce alternative pavements to
the calada portuguesa that maintain the use of the limestone, in the form of stone slab,
prefabricated artificial materials or constructed on-site, in order to maintain the
characteristic colour and brightness of the city. However, more and more reviews alert
about the disappearance of this indentitary pavement.

Conclusions
In order to demonstrate the importance of the pavement in the configuration of the city
image we have conducted an investigation of the most significant interventions in the
paving of the public space in Barcelona, taking as starting point the year of approval of the
Plan for the Reform and Extension of the city, until to the present day. In parallel, we have
developed a working case study on the experience of Lisbon in the use of the calada
portuguesa and the consequences of its generalization in the accessibility of the city.
This research reveals new information about the paving of Barcelona around specific issues
where a lack of information had been detected. Among them the most prominent are the
following:
Contrary to what is known so far, we demonstrate that Barcelona is the first city in
the world to experience the calada portuguesa outside the borders of Portugal,
specifically in the Saln de Sant Joan in 1895. Curiously, it is a patent what gives the
clue to realize it.
It provides new and original information about the origin of the slabs of hydraulic
cement (panots). They were used generically in the paving of the city sidewalks and
standardized in 1906.
It is systematized the work that Adolf Florensa developed in the artistic pavements
in the decade of the 1960s.
The method utilized allows us to write a systematic history of the evolution of the
paving in Barcelona.
Through primary sources consultation from the municipal archives and the specialised
press we have been able to acknowledge interventions and opinions of technicians about
the municipal paving. This information has been contrasted with the periodical
publications in order to get a broader picture of the public opinion of the city ground of the
city. Finally, the research has also been contrasted in the photographic archives of
Barcelona and Lisbon, allowing us to locate photographs to confirm the role of the
pavement in the image of the city.
The paving that currently covers the city's streets is the result of the evolution of various
functions that the city ground design carries out in the public space. It is subject to a
number of functional requirements to ensure the mobility of the various modes of
transportation, the rain conduction to the collecting points, as well as the demands of the
underground infrastructure networks.
The paving conditions of the city has been a matter of discussion, both in the specialized
publications as in the daily press. An issue that daily affects the life of all citizens: in their
pedestrian journeys, by car or public transport and specially because it requires high
municipal investment. We remind that the numerous critics about the condition of the city
ground of the Eixample district in the early 20th century developed the popular nickname
of "Can Fanga" (mud city) to the city of Barcelona, still used today.

10

The public opinion in the media expressed in some cases by well-known and respected
writers, architects and historians of the city has affected the evolution of the paving by
addressing strong criticism and demanding to the municipal governments in order to
improve the city ground towards better hygiene, health, comfort, safety and beauty of the
city. In this regard, we recall the articles published by the writer Noel Claras claiming
again and again to the City Council cheerfulness and colour in the pavement of Las
Ramblas, pointing out the example of the Paseo in Alicante, which in no doubt was taken
into account by Adolf Florensa in his pavement design for the Barcelona promenade.
As expected, the opinions gathered in the press often defend contrary positions. This is the
case of the extension of the paving in the entire width of the sidewalks of the Eixample:
defended by those who wanted to put an end to the dust and mud of the city and criticized
by those who were concerned about the trees health and defended a better contact with
nature and soil. After a period of homogenization of the city ground and urbanization of a
series of hard squares, this debate is reopened in Barcelona with the urban and design
proposals that review the relationship between the city and the green areas, projecting
green spaces for the reuse of railroad tracks (Sants and Sagrera), or demolishing road
infrastructures for the creation of urban parks (Les Glries).
After a long period of paving and waterproofing of the city ground, Barcelona starts a
series of proposals to "depave" 2 the asphalted city, through projects that point out
opportunities to increase the permeability of the city ground and propose a more
sustainable rainwater management. These projects should take into account the
experiences of the city in order not to repeat the same mistakes and the name of "Can
Fanga" be again justified.

Fig. 1> The construction of Plaza de la

Glries begins in 2014 the demolition of road
infrastructure inaugurated in 1992

Fig. 2> Agence Ter & Ana Coello de Llobet. 1st prize
competition Plaza de les Glries

This research has allowed us to know the work of the municipal technicians involved in the
improvement of the paving of the city, in some cases valued for their contributions in other
areas but not for their contributions in the paving of the city. These contributions have been
carried out based on the work of former professionals.
Among these professionals, we have pointed out the work of the architect Francesc Daniel
Molina in the systematization of the paving of the inner city, with the creation in 1859 of a
cobblestone plan that standardizes the urbanization of the streets. A long history of trials
will be necessary before being able to develop a project of urbanization. In the case of the
Eixample, it was supervised between 1882 and 1902 by Jos Mara Jordan, author of the
general plan for the urbanization of the Eixample in 1893.
Circulation growth and the development of new materials require of the experimentation
2

Name of an American organization that has the mission of removing the asphalt unused areas for the
creation of green spaces (see Depave)
11

of asphalt and concrete pavements in order to find the final paving of the streets of the
Eixample. The Chief of technical services, Jos Cabestany, developed this experimentation
between 1922 and 1930.
An important novelty of this thesis is the demonstration of how the teachings of the French
landscape architect J.C.N Forestier are present in the city ground design, with an increased
interest towards the paving project to improve the comfort of the garden, the worked
drainage surface and the creation of multiples atmospheres in the garden through the
combination of different materials. These aspects were developed by his disciple, the
architect Nicolau Maria Rubi i Tudur, in collaboration with the architect Adolf Florensa,
in the design of urban gardens, as well as in the new opened green spaces next to the
monuments of the ancient city.
The present thesis highlights the figure of this architect in the intentional use of the
pavement in the creation of a specific image of the city. Florensas interventions in the
historic centre restoration explored the possibilities of pavements adaptation to the context
in order to create a coherent environment at the "Gothic quarter", through the recovery of
paving plans used in the city in the mid-nineteenth century. In addition, he introduces in
the city the monumental paving for emblematic places, throughout the adaptation of
classic references, and the use of colourful flooring to beautify the grey post-war period.
This care in the design of the city ground has its continuity in the interventions started by
the architect Oriol Bohigas that extend to the entire territory of the city a uniform quality of
the city ground. These interventions generalize the universal accessibility standards, with
great attention to every detail and the bonding/assembly of the pavement in coherence
with the environment. It tends to reduce the variety of pavements in order to facilitate the
maintenance tasks and the use of natural stones and standard prefabricated materials.
In addition to the experiences made in the city itself, these professionals have had in mind
the experiences of other European cities when introducing new materials, although, as we
have seen, trials in other cities are no guarantee of success. An example of this are the
wooden pavements, the first trials of asphalt and the construction of the Portuguese
mosaic. Even if they succeeded in other cities, its implementation in Barcelona was not
possible, due to, among other causes, the type of workmanship, the proximity or
remoteness of the materials and the particular climatic conditions in Barcelona, conditions
that determine the paving of a city.
Besides the functional requirements, we have confirmed how the evolution of pavements
also has been marked by the visual qualities offered by the materials and subject,
therefore, to the aesthetic trends of each moment and the evolution of the materials
industry. In Barcelona, hydraulic cement tiles arise in a context of industrial production at
the beginning of the 20th century (cement companies, hydraulic mosaic tiles companies,
etc.) and were valued, not only for its functional qualities, but also for the capacity of
ornamentation, combining tiles of different drawings for the decoration of the streets of the
Eixample, perceived at that moment as monotonous. Subsequently, the technical
advancements of the cement industry allowed, in the decades between 1960-1980, the use
of other materials (Vibrazo) as it happened in the 1990s with the development of
mechanized stone cutting techniques and the reduction of transport costs, which enabled a
certain return to natural stone.
The possibilities of ornamentation, colour and texture of the materials are determining
visual qualities of the pavement that play a fundamental role in the image of the city. These
visual qualities are involved in the process of identity of the city, as long as there is a
common treatment of public space that allows these self-features to identify and to
differentiate the city from other cities.
In the case of Barcelona, the extensively use of panot tiles, especially after the

12

standardization of the common elements of urbanization since the 1990s, formed by the
kerb, the ford granite pieces for pedestrian V-120 and vehicles, characterize the landscape
of the city and make it identifiable: recognizable among other cities, both by its citizens and
visitors.

Fig. 3> The sidewalk paved with panot tiles

containing the drawing of a flower enables us to
identify that it is a street in Barcelona

Fig. 4> The mosaic that covers the floor of the

promenade enables us to identify the city and
even the particular location: Avenida da Liberdade
in Lisbon.

The thesis has demonstrated the role played by municipal regulations in the
homogenization of the urban landscape, through the stipulation of urbanization conditions
of public spaces 3 . Determining unitarian criteria that standardize the construction of
sidewalks and floors of the city. In Barcelona, the Eixample Committees approved
stipulation for the construction of sidewalks between 1906-1908, that restricted the use of
materials and the obligation of paving until the kerb, produced a characterization of the
landscape of the city. More recently, it is determinant, the Town Hall Statement of 1991,
concerning the installation of urban elements in public spaces that stipulates the obligation
to use only the City Council approved ones, including pavements, and defines their
arrangement style in the street. In addition to ensuring accessible urban routes, this
Statement has played a fundamental role in the creation of an image of Barcelona as a city
of design and which has resulted in several international awards.
The case of Barcelona offers, in addition, an example of the importance of the pavement in
the image of the city, since the panot cement tile that contains the drawing of a flower has
become an icon of the city, recognized and valued by its citizens. Among the panots used
in the paving of the city, the flower is the least functional due to the difficulty of cutting
and the accumulation of water in the bas-relief. Nevertheless, the uniqueness of this
concrete flower brings to the sidewalks of the city a special touch that characterizes the
landscape.
Although Josep Puig i Cadafalch has usually been pointed as the author of its design, in
this research we have not found sufficient information to affirm this relationship, apart
from its similarity with the paving used by the architect in the lobby of the Casa Amatller.
However, what is absolutely justified is the use of this tile as a symbol of modernism,
because it is a sample of the integration of the applied arts to the architectural project that
goes beyond the building limits in order to ornament its front sidewalks.
The various initiatives that use this tile as representative icon of the city's landscape, either
3

As Sabat 1999 states concerning the building Ordinances from the Eixample
13

by the City Council, designers, artists, or private citizens, it demonstrates the ability that
the pavement has to identify the streets of the city and, by extension, to identify the city.
Similar cases happen in other cities, such Lisbon, as we have seen, or Bilbao, where the use
of a hydraulic mosaic with a pattern very similar to the flower of Barcelona is also
considered an icon of the city4.

Fig. 5> Unlike in Barcelona, Bilbao tiles

measure 60 cm. and contain 4 flowers, with
grooves to reduce the accumulation of water

Fig. 6> This tile is present in numerous souvenirs of the

city and has also become the image used for the blue
kerchief of the festivities

Possibilities of the pavement, in relation to its role in the identification of places, are
utilised by the Administration and architects in the creation of place identity5. In this
sense, the experience of Barcelona has shown examples where the paving project takes part
in the monumentalization of a place, either by their ability to recreate a historic
environment or by the creation of iconic images. The clearest example we have discussed,
where paving takes part in the monumentalization of a particular space, is the design of
the Plaa Sant Jaume`s city ground, where Florensa uses the classic models of noble
character, reflected in the views of the ideal Renaissance city. These classic references are
used internationally to reinforce the noble and monumental character of certain places.
Forestier, French landscape architect, who in Barcelona intervenes in the parks, where he
combines the sandy ground with the ceramic flooring and natural stone, in his works in La
Habana by 1926-1930, he adapts to the vernacular materials6 and uses the classic references
for paving some of the most significant spaces, where the floor design has an important
role.

Fig. 7> Capitolio, La Habana

Fig. 8> University stairway, La

Habana

Fig. 9> Paseo del Prado, La

Habana

The city ground design is also used in the significance of a place, through the creation of
atmosphere in accordance with the environment, with the aim of providing coherence to
the city ground regarding a certain atmosphere. Hence the importance of the work of Adolf
Florensa who, from 1929 throughout his position, helped to recreate an invented "Gothic
4

As we saw in Chapter 3, Bilbao hydraulic mosaic factories stand out in the manufacture of tiles for the
sidewalks pavements, as it was shown at the Universal Exhibition at Barcelona in 1888, so it seems likely
that there is a relationship between both tiles. The tiles used in Bilbao have 60 centimeters side and are
made up of four flowers, they include grooves around the flower to prevent the accumulation of
rainwater, more appropriate to the climate of the city. The sources describe multiple origins and point
out that its use started around 1920.
5
Brando (2011, p.53) called them "Strategies of the public space for the identity of places"
6
Terrazos made in situ with cement and aggregates of marble, a technique used in the Cuban capital in
the 1920's (In Cuevas Toraya 1992)
14

quarter", removing asphalt and cement tiles to restore the cobbled stone of Montjuc and
recovering the street sections used in the middle of the 19th century.
The recovery of this stone, that was dismissed at the end of the 19th century due to its little
resistance and to the large amount of dust that it produced, demonstrates the prioritization
of the aesthetic aspects above the functional ones. The recovery of traditional materials and
models allow the creation of a harmonious, effective and credible image, not only for
tourists, but also for locals. Ultimately, Florensa designed a coherent monumental
environment, where the pavement is involved in the creation of an iconic image, easy to
communicate and able to promote the attraction of tourism, with the intention that tourism
intervenes economically in the conservation of the heritage of the city and the recovery of
the historic neighborhoods.
Passing years have demonstrated that the image of the Gothic quarter works. However, the
place has been reduced solely to an image, an image of mass consumption, an obligatory
point in the tourist guides, a place to remember through photographs. A scenario where,
nearly, there is no room for the citizen...

Fig. 10> The creation of the Gothic

quarter includes, besides the
restoration of the architectonic
patrimony, the recreation of a coherent
environment.

Fig. 12> Florensas project for the

Catalunya Plaza recovers the former
projects by Rovira i Trias and Puig i
Cadafalch

Fig. 11> Asphalt, tiles and cobblestone disappear from the

Gothic quarter in order to recover the Montjuic stone used
during the mid-nineteenth century

Fig. 13> Turned into a symbol for the 15M movement

identity in Barcelona, after the demonstration that took place
in that same square in 2011

In contrast to the Gothic quarter, citizenship has recently created a new icon that
demonstrates the possibilities of the pavement in the identity of the place. Movement
citizen 15-M, after demonstrations in Plaza Catalunya on May 15th 2011, creates an image
that identifies the citizen movement of Barcelona using the form of the Plaza Catalunyas
paving, designed by Adolf Florensa in 1959 to monumentalise the centre of the square. The
drawing Florensa did, now of the citizen's movement, remembers former projects of Rovira
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i Trias and Puig i Cadafalch for the connection of the ancient city with the Eixample.
The role of the pavement in the creation of identity, can also be seen in those interventions
where the architects used the ground level to link the area with the historical memory
through paving which allude to the planimetry of the place or evoke memorable aspects of
its history. In Barcelona we have identified in the paving of the Fossar de les Moreres the
will of the architect Carme Fiol to give meaning to the place, where the victims of the battle
of 1714 were buried, throughout a brick surface that evokes the shedded blood. A few
meters from there, the pavement around the new El Born Cultural Centre, reproduces
streets and buildings existing before the war of succession, through changes in materials
and textures.
Interventions by artists in the city ground design show us the possibilities of the pavement
towards the creation of meanings, with interventions that characterize a place, although in
Barcelona we have only focused on the first two floor public art works, designed by Joan
Mir and Joan Josep Therrats. These artistic interventions provide a new view to the city
ground surface that besides creating meaning, are able to innovate both in the use of
materials and with visual and perceptual experience of space.

Fig. 14> Mario Merz,

Crescendo appare. Moll
de la Barceloneta,
Barcelona 1992 (Web Art
Pblic)

Fig. 15> Lothar

Baumgarten. Plaa Pau
Vila, Barcelona 1992
(Web Art Pblic)

Fig. 16> Francesc Torres, Lnia de la Verneda

Rambla Guipscoa, Barcelona 1999 (Web Art
Pblic)

The collaboration of artists and architects in the urban design of Lisbon has resulted in
experiences that re-evaluate the expressive-artistic boundaries of the urban paving. The
creative possibilities offered by this constructive system have favoured the participation of
artists in urban design and especially in the city ground design, providing experiences of
great value to the identity of the city. Among the artists involved in Lisbon, we highlight
the figure of Eduardo Nery, who was able to create optical illusions, labyrinths, shadows,
or the architectural projection of its context, and without a doubt, exceed the expectations
of any municipal technician and are involved in the creation of meanings. However,
despite this interesting collaboration, the survival of this paving system arises limits on
maintenance and the accessibility of the city, that must certainly be addressed from an
interdisciplinary perspective with the contributions of artists.
In the same way that the image of the city is involved in the creation of city brand
(Brando 2011, p. 129), the experience of Barcelona shows us that since the end of the 19th
century the city values the importance of the paving in the competitiveness of the city at an
international level. In this sense, Barcelona takes the most of the events that placed the city
in the international spotlight to promote improvements in paving its streets, such as in the
Exhibition of 1888 utilizing wood to pave the streets around the Ciutadella Park; or the
improvements plan promoted for the Exhibition of 1929 for the implementation of the new
systems of asphalt on the streets of the Eixample. The celebration of the XXXV Eucharistic
Congress in 1952 initiated the removal of sidewalks for the creation of a "Gothic"
atmosphere in the Cathedral quarter. The celebration of the first National Congress of

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Urbanism in 1959, allowed a kind of paradigm shift in the special pavings, throughout the
use of new materials which opened the door to experimentation with forms and colours in
the city ground surfaces, been one of the examples the Plaza Catalunya project.
The big event of the 1992 Olympics offers the city the opportunity to demonstrate the
efforts of transformation that have taken place in the public space, where the pavement has
a neutral, but fundamental role on the quality of this internationally recognized design of
the public space. Finally, the Universal Forum of Cultures held in 2004 focuses on the Star
System architects that not only had the freedom of transforming the city's skyline, but also
to create unique floorings.
This research shows the importance of documenting the experiences of paving. Practical
knowledge gained from the experience as well as its mistakes must be documented to be
able to progress and, above all, not to repeat the same errors. So that this acquired
knowledge stays along with the municipal technicians replacements, it should be based on
documented and conclusive data regarding the constructed floors. Like this, it would be
subsequently transmitted among professionals involved in the citys public space design
and construction. In addition to the documentation of current interventions, the analysis of
past interventions allows us to demonstrate the value of certain floors, by its ability to
adapt to the functional or aesthetic needs and, at the same time, get to know the paving
tradition of the city. This is useful essentially to preserve the identity of the city and avoid
the urbanalizacin (Muoz 2008) of the floor through the creation of aseptic spaces that
could be found in any city in the world.
The Barcelona experience has shown the need to differentiate between the floors of a
generic nature and those that are of a special character, without denying the role of both in
the global city image as well as in the identity of specific places. As we have seen, in
periods of economic bonanza or international events, large investments are made in new
materials and unique flooring, however, after an event and in periods of economic crisis,
the maintenance of singular surfaces can overflow the possibilities of the Administration at
the expense of the pavements. Therefore, the revision of the boundaries of these two
categories should take into account not only the impact on the image of the city, but also,
the long term consequences that are generated in the maintenance of the city.
The coexistence of various types of pavement raises a fundamental issue of urban
management: How to maintain them in a practical and economic way? The experience of
Barcelona has shown us some answers, including:
the systematization of solutions through the standardization of the elements of
urbanization, among them the group formed the fords, kerb, etc. through a
selection of urban elements of compliance, subject to a regulation from City
Council;
reduction of models used in the city. Barcelona City Council decides in 2000 to
reduce the use of panot to two unique models, retracting three of them to
facilitate the tasks of maintenance;
instead of using unique flooring, tend towards standard materials (concrete
prefabricated, ceramic pavers) and natural stones, working the singularity through
bonding/assembly, joints, combination of materials, etc.
Due to the multitude of requirements that the city ground must fulfil, its design requires an
interdisciplinary approach. Over the years, Barcelonas paving projects have been
including greater interactions between the municipal departments, not longer being an
exclusive decision by the municipal architect or engineer of mobility, as it happened at the
end of the 19th century. A greater transversality with the Parks and Gardens Service,
Department for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments, the Municipal Institute
of History and paving companies or associations for the promotion of accessibility in the
public space, among others, has been progressively included.

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We have also seen how commercial associations have intervened on the city ground
surface in order to improve the image of streets and the citizens comfort in order to benefit
the stores. It is the case of the funding, by traders, from the paving of the Boqueria street in
1966, the Pelai street and the Paseo de Grcia in 1973. In the case of Lisbon since the 19th
century, it has been usual, the construction of caladas-mosaic on the sidewalk in front of
certain establishments with advertising purposes, as a shop owners initiative.
In addition to technicians and traders associations, we point here the need to integrate the
participation of residents and citizens in the paving of the public space, as it is not only a
technical matter but also one that affects the use of the space and intervenes in the identity
of the place. In Barcelona there are very few initiatives in this direction. Nevertheless, we
can highlight the paving built on the Rambla de la Mina, the result of a participation
process by the residents of the neighbourhood and coordinated by the Centre de Recerca
Polis, where the will of the citizens to bring colour to the new axis of the district was
resolved (Centre de Recerca Polis 2007).

Fig. 17> The pavement of the Rambla de la Mina

is the result of a process of participation with
neighbours in 2007, coordinated by the Polis CR

Fig. 18> Neighbors stopped the asphalting works

in 2013 in Rambla del Poblenou, dissatisfied with
changes

The controversy that arose in 2013 by the residents refusal of the asphalting of the Rambla
del Poblenou in Barcelona shows the need to create channels for participation with
neighbours to make them partakers of these decisions. In October 2012, the works of
asphalting the Rambla del Poblenou begun replacing the slabs from the central promenade
for black asphalt. Because of this transformation that completely changed the landscape of
the Rambla, the neighborhood residents paralyzed in April 2013 the continuation of the
asphalting works that consisted in the reform of the roundabouts and the ending of the
Rambla. Since then it begun a process of participation organized for the "Fem Rambla"
platform composed of organizations from the neighborhood that negotiated with the City
Council the way in which the paving works of the Rambla should continue. In addition, a
process of debate and participation for future interventions in the district has been
established.
We must also address the necessary collaboration between the City Administrations and
the paving materials manufacturing companies. As we have seen, the innovations
undertaken by the companies have had an impact on the design of the city ground, with
the introduction of new materials and technologies in the streets paving. Among these
companies, this research has highlighted the role of the company Escofet. It developed the
urban paving since the end of the 19th century with the manufacture of the hydraulic
cement tiles and the introduction in the 1960's of the terrazzos pavements, used to pave
emblematic sites of the city such as Las Ramblas or Paseo de Grcia. In the 1980s, it
developed tiles that approximate to textures and colours from natural stones with the aim
of adapting to the sobriety of that periods interventions. The city management should be
aware that widespread paving of a city could not be restricted to a single company
possessing a patent of exclusivity - as various European directives determine -. The
existence of several companies is more competitive and ensures the endure of the paving
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manufacture. A historic case that exemplifies this problem is the trial of the Portuguese
mosaic in Barcelona, whose patent might well be one of the conditions restricting its
implementation in the city during its period of validity.
Only with the integration of all of these factors, it will be possible to meet the challenges
posed by the future needs of the public space. There is still much to be done: improving the
conditions of universal accessibility, providing access to the underground infrastructure or
the use of sustainable materials. The quality public space, today one of the objectives of
Barcelona, should not only take into account paving aspects related with its functionality or
it aesthetics. The water cycle management is a fundamental challenge for a city that has
impermeabilized itself, in part due to the historical paving processes. In this sense, the pros
and cons of the debate initiated in Lisbon about the calada could be illustrative.
In this research, by coming across historical documentation, technical documentation and
information about the state of public opinion (graphic, photographic and textual) we
believe that we have demonstrated the importance that the pavement has in the creation of
the image of the city. The extensive and repetitive use of a type of paving (cement, calada)
generates a common image for the whole citizenship that has a huge impact on the overall
image of the city. The intensive and punctual use of paving helps the production of specific
identities of different order: City (e.g. Plaza de Catalunya, Plaza Sant Jaume, Caladamosaic...), also district / neighbourhood as shown in many interventions in the districts of
Barcelona. The balance between extension (which implies standardization) and intensity
(which implies the uniqueness of the pavement) is one of the challenges for the future of
urban design, in parallel to the search for the implementation of new pavement systems
that connect with this other dimension of the image of the city: sustainability.

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