Insects Become Top Booster Plant Evolution and Diversity

Friday, October 5, 2012 -

Recent research from the University of Toronto Mississauga (UTM) on the impact of
insects on plant populations have shown that evolution can occur faster than previously thought,
even in a generation. The study is published in the October 5 issue of Science.
"Scientists have long hypothesized that the interaction between plants and insects have
brought so much diversity that we see among the plants, including agricultural crops, but until
now we still have limitations direct experimental evidence," said Marc Johnson, Assistant
Professor in the Department of Biology UTM. "This research fills a fundamental gap in our
understanding of how natural selection by insects causes evolutionary changes in plants as they
adapt, and demonstrated how quickly such changes could occur in nature."
Johnson and colleagues from Cornell University, the University of Montana and the
University of Turku in Finland, planted evening primrose, a plant that generally reproduce and
produce offspring genetically identical, to the two sets of plots. Each plot initially contained 60
plants of 18 different genotypes (plants that contain sets of mutations are different).
To test whether insects drive the evolution of the plant defense, one set of plots is kept
free of insects with insecticide applications regular biweekly during the study period. While the
other received a plot set in the rate of natural insect.
Plots are allowed to grow without other interference for five years. Every year, Johnson and
colleagues calculate the number and types of plants that complied with the plot. They also
analyzed the frequency of changes in genotype evening primrose different and traits associated
with these genotypes.

Evening primrose moth caterpillar (Schinia florida) devouring buds usual evening
primrose (Oenothera biennis). These moths are exclusively feed on flowers and fruits of evening
primrose and in response to natural selection caused by it and moths other specialists, the
population of evening primrose in a later growing flowers and produce high levels of toxic
chemicals called ellagitannins in fruit -buahan them. Evolution is effective in reducing damage to
the reproductive organs of plants and their descendents. (Credit: Marc Johnson)
Johnson revealed that evolution, which is simply a genotype frequency changes over
time, observed in all plots after just one generation. Plant populations started to diverge
significantly in response to insect attack in at least three to four generations. For example, plants
that are not subject to insecticides increased frequency of genotypes associated with levels of
toxic chemicals are higher in fruits, which makes them taste good for the seed moth predators.
Plants that bloom later, so protected from insect predators, with increasing frequency.
Johnson says the findings also show that evolution might be an important mechanism that
causes changes in the ecosystem as a whole. "As these plant populations evolve, their properties
change and affect their interactions with insects and other plant species, which in turn can
develop adaptations to cope with these changes," said Johnson. "The abundance and
competitiveness of plant populations is changing. Evolution can change the ecology and
functioning of the organism as well as the entire ecosystem. "
Additional ecological changes occurred in the plot when the insect has been removed.
Plants competitors, such as dandelion, entering the second set but the plot is more abundant in
plots without insects. This in turn reduces the number of evening primrose plants. Dandelion
who use more resources and also potentially prevent the light to reach the seeds of the evening
primrose, affecting seed germination. According to Johnson, ecological changes are the result of
pressure from moth caterpillars that like to eat dandelion.
"What is shown in this study is that changes in the populations of these plants are not the
result of genetic drift, but directly due to natural selection by insects on plants," said Johnson. "It
also demonstrates how rapid evolutionary changes can occur - no more than a thousand years,
but over the years, and everything going on around us."

Journal: AA Agrawal, AP Hastings, MTJ Johnson, JL Maron, J.-P. Salminen. Science, 2012; 338
(6103): 113 DOI: 10.1126 / science.1225977

WHAT EVOLUTION IS
By Paul Claybrook
The Theory of Evolution began with Charles Darwin and his book, Origin of Species.
Interestingly, he did not conclude that evolution began billions of years ago in a chance
combination of just the right chemicals. He simply observed that many species were similar
enough that they appeared to come from a common ancestor. Despite its "evolution" into what it
is today, it has become the default scientific explanation of the origin of life.
To understand evolution, one must understand the difference between the origin of life
and the tiny changes that we do see happen and are clearly happening. The origin of life is
thought to have taken place billions of years ago when the earth was rather young and was
bathed in water and a plethora of simple molecules that included carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, iron,
chlorine, etc. In other words, the ingredients of life. It is believed that with the aid of energy from
the sun, these chemicals combined in various combinations and every once in a while, or maybe
just once, the one in a million chance (so to speak) would cause a combination that could be
classified as primitive life giving molecules. Eventually these combined to make more complex
molecules until they formed into what would be considered a very simple cell of come sort.
Now of course it is thought that even basic molecules were very uncommon, and the
more complex they became the lesser and lesser chance they had of forming, but that the one in a
billion billion billion billion, etc. ended up as a cell. Of course this took place over millions of
years, it is not supposed to have happened in a short time. However, for some random reason, a
tiny fraction, or perhaps even just one of these few primitive cells, through pure chance,
happened to have the ability to divide, which it began doing. Soon there were lots of these cells
and as they filled the ocean, natural selection began to take effect and most of them died off, but

every once in a while, one would have a mutation that allowed it to adapt a little better and
therefore reproduce.
It is this natural selection that we see every day. We know for example that wolves were
the original ancestors of dogs. This is an example of evolution, just evolution that humans
forced. Every once in a while, a wolf was a little tamer than normal and then bred to produce
offspring that were also tame. Over many generations, they became what we call dogs today.
There are also clear similarities between animals in different places because their environments
demanded slightly different survival properties.
These distinctions are important because no one is positing that species can't change over
time, but many deny that life could have come from a pool of non-living molecules purely by
chance. So when you say that you don't buy into evolution, you don't usually mean that minor
attributes of species cannot change over time, you mean that you don't think life originated with
a pool of slime. Not understanding the difference can make it seem that you do not know what is
evolution.

FUNCTION OF POPULATION GENETICS EXPLAINS THE ROLE OF NATURAL

SELECTION IN THE EVOLUTION OF NEO-DARWINISM
Written by Hendy Wijaya, MD January 12, 2011, 09:24:00 PM
Along with the rapid technological advances in the field of molecular biology, genetics
aspects are also experiencing rapid growth. Aspect is entered into the realm of genetics that is
classical genetics, molecular genetics and population genetics. Quantitative genetics are
discussed in depth the various kinds of quantitative traits such as height, weight, IQ,
susceptibility to disease, and so enter into the science of population genetics. The science of
population genetics which supports the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin 150
years ago. Science makes use of various statistical approaches to prove, explain or detect
changes in the organism in the environment and therefore the encouragement of evolution
(evolutionary force). From this was born the term Neo-Darwinism.
In Neo-Darwinism, evolution is described as changes in allele frequencies that exist in
the population at a particular time and therefore their evolutionary force. Evolutionary force is
referred to here consists of (1) Mutation, as the building block of evolution, it tends to increase
genetic variation or allele frequencies that are subject to natural selection; (2) Natural Selection,
consisting of directional selection, stabilizing selection and disruptive selection; (3) random
genetic drift, which tends to suppress genetic variation; (4) Non-random mating that increase
homozygosity phenotype without affecting the frequency of allele; (5) migration, which
encourages frekensi similarity between populations of different alleles.
Before going any further, it would be nice if we know how to calculate the frequencies of
alleles in a population. Suppose in a population, there are two alleles in one locus, which is A1
and A2, then in the population there are only individual genotyping variations as follows A1A1,
A1A2, and A2A2. If in the population are known amounted to 500 people and individuals with

genotype A1A1 = 245, A1A2 and A2A2 = 150 = 105, then the frequency of each allele in the
gene pool, the A1 and A2 can be calculated as follows:
Frequency A1 = [(2 x 245) + (1 x 150)] / 1000 = 0.64
Frequency A2 = [(2 x 105) + (1 x 150)] / 1000 = 0.36
Here in 1000 means that the gene pool consisting of 500 individuals from 1,000 alleles
because each individual has two alleles or diploid. In individuals A1A1 there are two alleles A1,
whereas in the individual A1A2 there is an A1 allele.
The next step was to determine whether people with less specific allele has superior
adaptability than other alleles are expressed with fitness, we must first calculate the value of
fecundity and survival of offspring produced by individuals with a particular genotype.
Fecundity is the ability of an organism to mengasilkan descent or in other words the average
offspring born by organisms with certain genotpe in the population concerned. Survival is the
ability of the offspring to stay alive until the time of reproduction. Products between fecundity
and survival is fitness. We take the example of a female wolf spiders that produce offspring as in
the table below.
Genotype

relative

fecundity

Survival

fitness fitness

A1A1

230

0.0200

4.6

1.00

A1A2

280

0.0150

4.2

0.91

A2A2

190

0.0100

1.9

0.41

In the table above it appears that the individual homozygote Gym A1 have the greatest
fecundity despite its slightly lower than the heterozygote but had a higher survival. The concept
of relative fitness is more often used in population genetics than by absolute fitness. In relative
fitness, individuals with certain genotypes that have the highest fitness is considered to have
fitness of 1, while the other is less than 1, as shown in the last column of the table above. In other
words, individuals with the highest adaptability have a fitness of 1.00.

From the above it appears the selection process against individuals with certain
genotypes, which in this case is the selection of the A2 allele. Selection magnitude experienced
by individuals with certain genotypes expressed with numbers coefficient of selection. The
relationship between fitness with a coefficient of selection (s) can be expressed as follows:
coefficient of selecion (s) = 1 - fitness (F)
From the example in the table above, can be calculated coefficient of selection (s) it, that is equal
to 0.59.
In a real environment, certain alleles may affect the ability to adapt (fitness) people are
not always directly, that is, the phenotype generated by certain genetotip not directly determine
its viability, but rather determines the ability of the individual's life through through interaction
with the environment. Suppose ability to camouflage an organism is highly dependent on the
genotype that encodes a color pigment and environmental conditions in which an organism lives.
The better the ability berkamulflase the higher it cushioned from predators, as a result, alleles
that encode related properties more lowered in the next generation than another allele. Examples
of such mechanisms seleks looked at one type of butterfly Beston betularia in the UK (see
picture). Before the era of industrialization in Britain, many trees still bright, so bright-colored
butterflies and inevitably more camouflaged from predators rather than dark-colored butterflies.
Here the dominant alleles encoding the dark pigment of the alleles encoding the bright pigment.
However, during the era of industrialization, where a lot of air pollution that make skin color
becomes darker trees, butterfly with a dark color is more adapted than the light-colored
butterflies, consequently allele frequencies to encode more dark color pigments or increased.
Natural Selection effect on allele frequencies in Next Generation
As mentioned above, natural selection can increase the frequency of allele that produces a
phenotype with the highest fitness. Calculation of the effect of natural selection we take the same
example in the table above, but this time had a relative fitness heterozygote individuals with
individuals homozygote is 1.00 as follows:
Genotype genotype frequencies P

relative fitness

contribution genotype frequencies P '

A1A1

1.00

0.41

(0.64) 2 = 0.41

0.41

0.92

0.44

A1A2

2 (0.36) (0.64) = 0.46 1.00

0.46

0.46

0.92

0.50

A2A2

(0.36) 2 = 0.13

0.05

0.05

0.92

0.06

0.41

total = 1 Total = 0.92 Total = 1

P frequency calculations are based on the law of Hardy-Weinberg. From the above
calculations it appears that total allele frequency in the next generation (P ') mengceil because
their selection on specific allele, in this case the A2 allele in homozygote genotype A2. In the
next generation, A1A1 genotype frequencies to 0.44, to 0.50 A1A2 genotype and genotype A2A2
be 0.06. A2A2 genotype frequencies down from 0.13 becomes 0.06, which is just half! From this
calculation it can be seen that the A2 allele frequency in the next generation to be:
(0.06) + (0.5 x 0.50) = 0.31
Namely experienced pernurunan of .36-.31 = 0.05 or about 5%. If the frequency is
expressed as p A1 and A2 frequency expressed as q, then the frequency difference between the
parental generation A2 and f1 expressed in q = -0.05. While the frequency of allele A1, by the
same calculation with the A2 allele had increased by 0.05 or 5%.
The above example illustrates if dominance (dominance) A1 is complete dominance, that
is to say, the phenotype of the heterozygote has exactly the same properties with homozygote A1
so that natural selection can not "detect" the A2 allele in a heterozygote state. This is not always
true in the real world. Because sometimes, there allele did not show such properties in terms of
dominance, but has a degree of dominance until a certain value dinayatakan in the level of
dominance (h). Alleles with such properties is said to have an additive effect (additive effects).
See examples in the following table:
Genotype

genotype frequencies P

relative fitness

genotypefrequencies
A1A1

(0.64)

contribution

P
2

0.41

1.00

0.41

'
0.41

0.83

0.49

A1A2
A2A2

(0.36)

(0.36)
total

(0.64)

0.13

0.41

0.05

Total

2
=

0.46

0.80

0.37

0.37
0.05
0.83

/
/

0.83
0.83
Total

=
=
=

0.44
0.06
1

With the above data, the A2 allele decreased by 8%, larger than the table above. From
this it appears that if the level of dominance declines, the A2 allele in the heterozygote state will
be "detected" by natural selection.
Penejelasan this is just a piece of the many calculations in population genetics, which of
course can not be told at length in this occasion. This description does not include explanation of
the role of population genetics in explaining natural selection that occurs in quantitative traits as
the basis for the evolution of organisms is much more complex.
References:
Hyde, D. 2009. Population Genetics. In: Hyde, D. (Ed), Introduction to Genetics Principles, 1st
Edition, (p. 790-811). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Increasing Biodiversity Loss Threatens Human Well-being

Thursday, June 7, 2012 -

Twenty years after the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 17 prominent ecologists called for
an international effort to suppress the loss of biodiversity, which is compromising nature's ability
to provide goods and services important to human well-being.
Over the past two decades, strong scientific evidence has shown that the loss of
biodiversity in the world reduces the productivity and sustainability of natural ecosystems and
reduce its ability to provide goods and services like food, wood, fodder, fertile soils, and
protection from pests and diseases, so according to an international team led by ecologist
Bradley Cardinale of the University of Michigan.
Human actions had devastated the natural ecosystems on Earth, resulting in the extinction
of species in the rate was several times faster than has ever been observed in the fossil record.
Nonetheless, there is still time - if the countries in the world makes international priorities for
biodiversity conservation - to save a variety of living species and to restore some of what has
been lost, according to Cardinale and his colleagues.
The researchers presented their findings in the June 7 issue of the journal Nature, in an
article entitled "Biodiversity Loss and its Impact on Humanity." This paper is a scientific
consensus statement that summarizes evidence from more than 1,000 ecological studies over the
past two decades.

"As well as the consensus statement from the doctors to alert the public about the dangers
of tobacco use on health, this is a consensus statement of experts agree that the extinction of wild
species on Earth would be dangerous for the world's ecosystems and may harm society by
reducing ecosystem services that are important for health and human well-being, "said Cardinale,
a professor in the School of Natural Resources and Environment and in the Department of
Ecology and Biology Evolutionary UM.
"We must respond to the loss of biodiversity by far more seriously - from individuals to
international bodies - and take greater action to prevent further species extinctions," said
Cardinale, first author of the Nature paper.
There are an estimated 9 million species of plants, animals, protists and fungi inhabit the
earth, to share with about 7 billion people.
Call for action called for in times of international leaders prepare to gather in Rio de
Janeiro on June 20 to 22 to attend the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development,
known as Rio +20 Conference. The upcoming conference marks the 20th year, the 1992 Earth
Summit in Rio that produce the support of 193 countries for the purposes of the Convention on
Biological Diversity in the form of biodiversity conservation and use of natural resources in a
sustainable manner.
Earth Summit 1992 which is driven by the amount of interest for the understanding of
biodiversity loss might impact the dynamics and functioning of ecosystems, as well as the
provision of goods and services that are valuable to society. In the Nature paper, Cardinale and
colleagues reviewed the relevant studies that have been published and list six consensus
statements, four emerging trends as well as the four statements "balance of evidence".
The balance of evidence suggests, for example, that the genetic diversity of commercial
crops increase yields, increase the production of wood in the forest, increasing the production of
fodder in grasslands, and increases the stability of yields in fisheries. Increased plant diversity
also results in greater resistance to invasion, inhibits plant pathogens such as fungal and viral
infections, increase carbon sequestration in the air through the refinement of biomass, as well as
improving nutrient remineralization and soil organic matter.
"No one will agree with what would happen if ecosystems lose species, but most of us
agree that it is not going to be good. And we agree that if ecosystems lose most of the species,
then it would be a disaster, "says Shahid Naeem of Columbia University, a co-author of the
Nature paper. "Twenty years and a thousand studies later, what to think right by the world in a
meeting in Rio in 1992 has finally been proven: Biodiversity underlies our ability to achieve
sustainable development."

While there is broad support to the Convention on Biological Diversity, but the loss of
biodiversity continues for the last two decades, often with a rate rise. In response, a set of new
goals for the conservation of biodiversity by 2020, known as the Aichi targets, was recently
formulated. Also, a new international body called the Intergovernmental Panel on Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services was formed in April 2012 to guide the global response to the
management of biodiversity and ecosystems the world.
Significant gaps in the science behind biological diversity remain and must be addressed if the
Aichi targets to be met, Cardinale and colleagues said in the Nature paper.
"Some of the key questions that we describe can help show the way for the next generation of
research on how changes in biodiversity affect human well-being," said David Hooper of
Western Washington University, one of the study co-author.
Without an understanding of the fundamental ecological processes linking biodiversity,
ecosystem functions and services, efforts to foresee the social consequences due to the loss of
diversity, and to meet policy objectives, are likely to fail, according to 17 ecologists.
"But with the fundamental understanding in hand, we might be able to bring the modern era of
biodiversity loss towards a safe path for humanity," they concluded.
In addition to Cardinale, Naeem and Hooper, co-author of the Nature paper are J. Emmett
Duffy of The College of William and Mary, Andrew Gonzalez of McGill University, Charles
Perrings and Ann Kinzig of Arizona State University, Patrick Venail and Anita Narwani of
Educational Resources nature and Environment UM; Georgina Mace of Imperial College
London, David Tilman of the University of Minnesota, David Wardle of the Swedish University
of Agricultural Sciences; Gretchen Daily of Stanford University, Michel Loreau of the Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique in Moulis, France, James Grace from the US Geological
Survey; Anne Larigauderie of the National Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Rue Cuvier, France,
and Diane Srivastava of the University of British Columbia.
This research funding from the National Science Foundation and the University of
California-Santa Barbara and the state of California.
"The purity of water, food production and air quality can be easy to use just like that, but
all were mostly provided by the community of organisms," said George Gilchrist, program
director in the Division of Environmental Biology National Science Foundation, which funded
the research. "This paper shows that not only the number of living beings, but also biodiversity
of species, genetic and their properties that affect the availability of 'ecosystem services' that
counts."

Journal: Bradley J. Cardinale, J. Emmett Duffy, Andrew Gonzalez, David U. Hooper, Charles
Perrings, Patrick Venail, Anita Narwani, Georgina M. Mace, David Tilman, David A. Wardle,
Ann P. Kinzig, Gretchen C. Daily, Michel Loreau, James B. Grace, Anne Larigauderie, Diane S.
Srivastava, Shahid Naeem. Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature; 486, 59-67
(June 7, 2012); DOI: 10.1038 / nature11148

EVOLUSI
Diposkan oleh Erwin Christian di 20.39,Jumat, 14 Mei 2010
Evolusi (dalam kajian biologi) berarti perubahan pada sifat-sifat terwariskan suatu
populasi organisme dari satu generasi ke generasi berikutnya. Perubahan-perubahan ini
disebabkan oleh kombinasi tiga proses utama: variasi, reproduksi, dan seleksi. Sifat-sifat yang
menjadi dasar evolusi ini dibawa oleh gen yang diwariskan kepada keturunan suatu makhluk
hidup dan menjadi bervariasi dalam suatu populasi. Ketika organisme bereproduksi,
keturunannya akan mempunyai sifat-sifat yang baru. Sifat baru dapat diperoleh dari perubahan
gen akibat mutasi ataupun transfer gen antar populasi dan antar spesies. Pada spesies yang
bereproduksi secara seksual, kombinasi gen yang baru juga dihasilkan oleh rekombinasi
genetika, yang dapat meningkatkan variasi antara organisme. Evolusi terjadi ketika perbedaanperbedaan terwariskan ini menjadi lebih umum atau langka dalam suatu populasi.

Evolusi didorong oleh dua mekanisme utama, yaitu seleksi alam dan hanyutan genetik.
Seleksi alam merupakan sebuah proses yang menyebabkan sifat terwaris yang berguna untuk
keberlangsungan hidup dan reproduksi organisme menjadi lebih umum dalam suatu populasi dan sebaliknya, sifat yang merugikan menjadi lebih berkurang. Hal ini terjadi karena individu
dengan sifat-sifat yang menguntungkan lebih berpeluang besar bereproduksi, sehingga lebih
banyak individu pada generasi selanjutnya yang mewarisi sifat-sifat yang menguntungkan ini.
Setelah beberapa generasi, adaptasi terjadi melalui kombinasi perubahan kecil sifat yang terjadi
secara terus menerus dan acak ini dengan seleksi alam. Sementara itu, hanyutan genetik (Bahasa
Inggris: Genetic Drift) merupakan sebuah proses bebas yang menghasilkan perubahan acak pada
frekuensi sifat suatu populasi. Hanyutan genetik dihasilkan oleh probabilitas apakah suatu sifat
akan diwariskan ketika suatu individu bertahan hidup dan bereproduksi.
Walaupun perubahan yang dihasilkan oleh hanyutan dan seleksi alam kecil, perubahan ini
akan berakumulasi dan menyebabkan perubahan yang substansial pada organisme. Proses ini
mencapai puncaknya dengan menghasilkan spesies yang baru. Dan sebenarnya, kemiripan
antara organisme yang satu dengan organisme yang lain mensugestikan bahwa semua spesies
yang kita kenal berasal dari nenek moyang yang sama melalui proses divergen yang terjadi
secara perlahan ini.
Dokumentasi fakta-fakta terjadinya evolusi dilakukan oleh cabang biologi yang
dinamakan biologi evolusioner. Cabang ini juga mengembangkan dan menguji teori-teori yang
menjelaskan penyebab evolusi. Kajian catatan fosil dan keanekaragaman hayati organismeorganisme hidup telah meyakinkan para ilmuwan pada pertengahan abad ke-19 bahwa spesies
berubah dari waktu ke waktu. Namun, mekanisme yang mendorong perubahan ini tetap tidaklah
jelas sampai pada publikasi tahun 1859 oleh Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species yang
menjelaskan dengan detail teori evolusi melalui seleksi alam. Karya Darwin dengan segera
diikuti oleh penerimaan teori evolusi dalam komunitas ilmiah. Pada tahun 1930, teori seleksi
alam Darwin digabungkan dengan teori pewarisan Mendel, membentuk sintesis evolusi
modern,yang menghubungkan satuan evolusi (gen) dengan mekanisme evolusi (seleksi alam).
Kekuatan penjelasan dan prediksi teori ini mendorong riset yang secara terus menerus
menimbulkan pertanyaan baru, di mana hal ini telah menjadi prinsip pusat biologi modern yang
memberikan penjelasan secara lebih menyeluruh tentang keanekaragaman hayati di bumi.

Meskipun teori evolusi selalu diasosiasikan dengan Charles Darwin, namun sebenarnya
biologi evolusioner telah berakar sejak zaman Aristoteles. Namun demikian, Darwin adalah
ilmuwan pertama yang mencetuskan teori evolusi yang telah banyak terbukti mapan
menghadapi pengujian ilmiah. Sampai saat ini, teori Darwin mengenai evolusi yang terjadi
karena seleksi alam dianggap oleh mayoritas komunitas sains sebagai teori terbaik dalam
menjelaskan peristiwa evolusi.

EVOLUTION
Posted by Erwin Christian in 20:39, Friday, May 14, 2010
Evolution (in the study of biology) means a change in the inherited traits of a population
of organisms from one generation to the next. These changes are caused by a combination of
three main processes: variation, reproduction, and selection. The properties are the basis of this
evolution brought about by genes inherited by the descendants of a living being and be varied
within a population. When organisms reproduce, their offspring will have new properties. New
properties can be obtained from gene changes due to mutation or gene transfer between
populations and between species. In species that reproduce sexually, new combinations of genes
are also produced by genetic recombination, which can increase variation between organisms.
Evolution occurs when these heritable differences become more common or rare in a population.
Evolution is driven by two main mechanisms, namely natural selection and genetic drift.
Natural selection is a process that causes terwaris properties that are useful for survival and
reproduction to become more common in a population - and conversely, harmful traits to become

more rare. This occurs because individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to reproduce,
so that more people in the next generation that inherits the properties of this beneficial. After
many generations, adaptations occur through a combination of small changes in properties that
occur continuously and with random natural selection. Meanwhile, genetic drift (English:
Genetic Drift) is an independent process that produces random changes in the frequency of traits
in a population. Genetic drift is generated by the probability of whether a given trait will be
passed on as individuals survive and reproduce.
Despite the changes generated by drift and natural selection is small, this change will
accumulate and cause substantial changes in organisms. This process culminated in generating
new species. And in fact, that the similarities between organisms with other organisms suggests
that all of the species that we know originated from common ancestors through the process that
occurs slowly diverging this.
Documentation of the facts of evolution carried out by a branch of biology called
evolutionary biology. This branch also develop and test theories that explain the cause of
evolution. Study of the fossil record and the biodiversity of living organisms have convinced
scientists in the mid-19th century that species change over time. However, the mechanisms that
drive this change will not clear until the publication in 1859 by Charles Darwin, On the Origin of
Species which explains in detail the theory of evolution through natural selection. Darwin's work
soon followed by the acceptance of evolution in the scientific community. In the 1930s,
Darwinian natural selection was combined with Mendelian inheritance to form the modern
evolutionary synthesis, which connects the units of evolution (genes) with the mechanism of
evolution (natural selection). Powerful explanatory and predictive theory encourage research that
continually raises new questions, where it has become the central organizing principle of modern
biology that gives a more thorough explanation of biodiversity on earth.
Although the theory of evolution has always been associated with Charles Darwin, but
actually has roots in evolutionary biology since the time of Aristotle. However, Darwin was the
first scientist who coined the theory of evolution that has been widely proven to confront
established scientific testing. Until recently, Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is
considered by the majority of the scientific community as the best in explaining the theory of
evolution.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Posted by Saswin Usman at 20:27, Monday, 16 April 2012
1. Definition of Growth and Development
Plant growth can be defined as events biological changes that occur in living beings in
the form of irreversible changes in size (do not change back to the origin or irreversible). The
development is a process towards the attainment of maturity or level of a more perfect
in living beings.
2. Differences in growth and development
Growth in many cell creatures (multiselluler) is characterized by the increase in cell size
(cells increase in size and length) and in the number of cells. While growth in the creature-celled
(unicellular) is characterized by the addition of cell size. The existence of this growth process
can be measured and expressed quantitatively. Empirically plant growth can be expressed as a
function of genotype X environment = F (growth factors) internal X external growth factors).

Plants are growing longer in a dark place can not be said to grow despite volume increases, due
to the dry weight is actually declining as a result of the ongoing respiration, whereas
photosynthesis does not happen. Under normal circumstances the growth is not
A volume increase but also followed by dry weight gain. The process consists of plant growth
of cell division, followed by cell enlargement and the last is the differentiation of cells. Growth
occurs only in certain locations, ie the meristem tissue. Meristem is a tissue whose cells actively
dividing.
Mitosis occurs in the meristem and for this division most active in cell division are the tip
meristem tissues of roots and stems. Activities meristem both parts of this result in the growth
downwards and upwards which is also called primary growth. While growth to the side led by
the division of cells in the cambium is called secondary growth. The process of growth is due to
the mitotic division, the division of body cells. carbohydrates and protein needed in relatively
large quantities.
Cleavage itself there are two types of meiosis and mitosis. If mitotic division of the cells
of the body while the meiotic division of sex cells. For this mitotic activity, the transport of
water, carbohydrates, proteins and other substances into the area meristem running smoothly.
After cell division, cell enlargement will happen. As in cell division, cell enlargement also occurs
in meristem tissue. The final sequence of the process plant growth is called differentiation.
Growth is one of the characteristics of a tiny creature grows hidup.Tumbuhan
becomes large and developed from one zygote into an embryo later become an individual who
has roots, stems, and leaves. The growth is the result of the interaction between the factors and
outside. Growth is a process that is irreversible means irreversible changes of a minor becomes
an adult in soybeans, for example the result of a process of growth and development.
In contrast to the growth, the process of this development can not be measured and therefore can
not expressed quantitatively.
The development of the plant is a process towards achieving maturity in the plant. Plants
grown if the plants are said to have formed flowers. And the growth and development of the
symptoms of which are interconnected. Growth as it has been defined as the increase of the size
(usually in dry weight) irreversible (Irreversible).

Meanwhile, the development includes the process of differentiation, and is shown by the
changes higher, involves specialization in anatomy and physiology. Differentiation is one
important process in plant cultivation. But the change from a simple cell to complex
multicellular organisms, can not be understood completely. The mechanism of differentiation of
plants be a complex cells is not clear. But the important factors that affect tissue differentiation
already widely researched. As a result of these studies say several factors such as nutrients and
growth hormone is a factor that plays an important role in the differentiation of plants.
Growth that occurs in plants are divided into two kinds of primary growth and secondary
growth. Primary growth is the growth of a length on the stems of plants for their primary
meristem tissue activity. While the secondary cell growth is a great increase of organs in plants
because of their activity, namely the secondary meristem cambium tissue on the bark, cambium
stem, and and roots. Based on its activities, the growth area in the root tip and the tip of the rod is
divided into three areas of growth, namely:
- The area of cell division
- Cell renewal area
- Area cell differentiation
3. Seed germination
Germination is the process of growth and development of the embryo. The germination
results is the appearance of small plants from seed. The process of embryo growth when
germination is plumula grow and develop into shoots and radicle grow and develop into the
roots. Based on the location of the cotyledons during germination are two types of germination is
hypogeal (In this germination hypocotyls grow elongated cotyledons and plumula consequently
pushed to the ground, so that the cotyledons above the soil, for example on green beans) and
epigeal (In this germination occurs extends from epikotil growth that causes plumula out into the
seed coat and the cotyledons emerge above ground remains in the soil, for example, corn sprouts)

Hipogeal
4. Factors affecting the growth
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Genetic
Rainfall
Soil state
Temperature
Sunlight
6. Hara (plant nutrients)

Epigeal