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1 Introduction
Diabetic nephropathy can be defined as a progressive impairment of kidney function,
which usually shows increased serum creatinine or calculated glomerular filtration
rate (GFR) and increased excretion of albumin and protein (24-h urinary albumin
excretion 300 mg). There are characteristic morphological changes that include
Kimmelstiel-Wilson syndrome (intercapillary glomerulonephritis), mesangial expansion, and ultimately diffuse glomerulosclerosis, interstitial fibrosis, and extracellular
matrix accumulation [1]. Hypertension and cardiovascular morbidity are commonly
associated with the progression of diabetes and correlate with angiopathy of the
glomerular capillaries. However, diabetic nephropathy usually is delayed 1215
years from diagnosis. Therefore, metabolic alterations occur before the morphological
F. Palm (*)
Department of Medical Cell Biology, Uppsala University,
Box 571751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
e-mail: Fredrik.Palm@mcb.uu.se
T. Miyata et al. (eds.), Studies on Renal Disorders, Oxidative Stress in Applied Basic
Research and Clinical Practice, DOI 10.1007/978-1-60761-857-7_29,
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
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changes. At this entry stage, the kidney can demonstrate functional defects including
increased GFR and oxygen consumption (QO2), resulting in decreased oxygen tension
(pO2) in the diabetic kidney [27]. The increased GFR is caused by increased
glomerular capillary pressure [8]. This increases the tubular electrolyte load and the
tubular Na+ transport (TNa) in order to maintain electrolyte homeostasis. The increased
TNa inevitably increases the oxygen (O2) demand and thereby renal QO2. Indeed,
studies have shown that diabetic kidneys have reduced tissue pO2, which may be
linked in part to increased QO2 [5, 9, 10]. However, it should be noted that the
diabetes-induced increase in renal QO2 cannot be explained fully by increased active
TNa. Although animal models can reproduce many of the functional defects and the
presence of proteinuria, the special histological features are seen in full only in human
diabetic nephropathy.
Although accounting for only about 0.5% of total body mass, the kidney consumes
approximately 10% of the body O2. About 80% of the renal QO2 is attributed to active
transport of electrolytes by tubular cells [11], while the remaining 20% is due to basal
metabolism [12]. The major renal consumer of energy is Na+/K+ adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase), located in the basolateral membrane of most tubular cells. The
metabolism in the renal cortex is mainly aerobic and therefore highly dependent on
pO2. In the renal medulla, on the other hand, glucose oxidation is relatively high
compared to in the cortex, indicating a high glycolytic rate. The medulla has a
relatively low QO2 and anaerobic metabolism [12]. As a consequence, the cells in
the renal medulla function under close to hypoxic conditions even in normal physiology [13]. The energy metabolism within the renal medulla is also highly heterogeneous. Glucose oxidation and QO2 are higher in the outer part of the medulla, while
the deeper, inner medulla is more dependent on anaerobic metabolism, with high
glycolytic rate, but almost undetectable QO2 [14].
Approximately 25% of the cardiac output is directed through the kidneys. Most
of this perfusion is directed toward the renal cortex, while only about 2.5% of
cardiac output perfuses the O2-poor medullary structures. The low medullary blood
flow is required to maintain an osmotic gradient, thereby optimizing urinary
concentration capacity [15]. Blood flow to the renal medulla is derived through
the closely situated ascending and descending vasa recta, creating a counter current
system where electrolytes are recirculated from the ascending to the descending
vessel. This counter-current system is necessary for maintaining the high osmotic
gradient used for concentrating the urine. However, the high pO2 of blood entering
the vasa recta ensures that O2 is shunted in the opposite direction, leading to a low
O2 delivery to the medulla [16, 17]. Clearly, shunting of O2 could influence
medullary pO2 [18], possibly leading to further reduced pO2, tubular damage, and
reduced kidney function. Several factors have been incriminated in the genesis
of diabetic nephropathy, and various defense mechanisms have been targeted for
prevention of ischemic and hypoxic kidney injury [19, 20]. In this chapter,
these factors and mechanisms will be discussed and the interplay between them
critically summarized.
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2.1
The pO2 in any tissue will be the result of the O2 delivery and the QO2. The
majority of QO2 in the kidney is related to TNa, which itself correlates with the
filtered load [30]. Therefore, the diabetes-induced increase in kidney QO2 has
been ascribed to the effect of glomerular hyperfiltration that increases proximal
tubular reabsorption [5, 31]. However, although in the early stages of diabetes,
glomerular hyperfiltration and concomitant increases in transport-dependent QO2
are common [9], QO2 is also elevated in tubular cells from diabetic rats with
normal GFR [10], suggesting additional mechanisms for the increased QO2 in
diabetic kidneys (Fig. 1). In diabetes, excess formation of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) can derive from the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondria membrane or the NADPH oxidase [3234]. Remarkably, correcting the
diabetes-induced ROS formation completely prevents the decreased pO2 in the
diabetic kidney [9]. In addition, a diabetes-induced decrease in interstitial renomedullary pH [10] would increase the shunting of O2 from the arterial blood in
descending vasa recta to the venous blood in ascending vasa recta due to the
Bohr effect. The net result will be a reduced O2 delivery to renal medulla and
hence reduced pO2. A decreased pO2 could be involved in progression of
nephropathy [27].
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Fig. 1 Schematic view of mechanisms linking hyperglycemia to reduced kidney oxygenation and
the development of diabetic nephropathy
2.2
Since QO2 has been found to be increased in diabetic cells from the kidney, there
must be impaired effects on O2 metabolism in diabetes that are independent of
hemodynamic changes such as hyperfiltration [9, 10]. The increased cellular QO2
has been linked to increased Na+/K+-ATPase activity [5, 35]. Increased activity of
the Na+/glucose-linked transporters (SGLT) as a result of the increased filtered load
of glucose can increase Na+/K+-ATPase activity [5]. Moreover, hyperglycemia
enhances the expression of uncoupling protein-2 and increases gluconeogenesis
and fatty acid metabolism, thus inducing a further increased QO2 [36, 37]. Nitric
oxide (NO) inhibits mitochondrial QO2 reversibly and dose dependently. Thus, the
ROS-induced increase in cellular QO2 in the diabetic kidney is at least partly due to
increased degradation of NO [38].
2.2.1
With their report on polyol pathway in Science in 1966, Gabbay et al. described the
first pathological mechanism in basic diabetes research [39]. The diabetes-induced
increase in intracellular glucose concentrations activated the polyol pathway in tissues
with insulin-independent glucose uptake [40, 41]. The NADPH-dependent enzyme
aldose reductase not only inactivates toxic aldehydes by reducing them to alcohols but
also metabolizes glucose. Within the renal tissue, aldose reductase was found predominantly in the medulla, whereas low enzymatic activity was detected in the kidney
cortex [42]. Aldose reductase has a low affinity for glucose (Km 70mmol/L), which
accounts for polyol pathway as being only a minor contributor to the total glucose
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2.3
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2.3.1
Dimethyl Arginines
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2.4
567
Proinsulin C-Peptide
2.5
Adenosine
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F. Palm et al.
renal cortex via acting on the adenosine A1-receptor (A1AR), which directly
reduced GFR [142]. Furthermore, selective A1AR blockade increased cortical
blood flow by 15%, whereas medullary blood flow remained unchanged in normoglycemic control rats [143]. However, the same study reported that medullary pO2
decreased more than 40% after A1AR blockade. Thus, it is not yet fully elucidated
whether adenosine is protective or damaging to the diabetic kidney [144, 145]. It is
clear that the vascular effects of adenosine are both concentration and time dependent. Adenosine caused renal vasoconstriction in short time and at low doses, and
renal vasodilation later on and in higher concentrations [142, 146148]. The
vasoconstrictor effect of adenosine is enhanced in diabetic kidneys [149], perhaps
via interaction with Ang II [146].
3.1
Oxidative stress is the result of an imbalance between ROS formation and the
activity of the antioxidant defense system (e.g., superoxide dismutase [SOD]).
Increased production of ROS during diabetes is accomplished by several different
pathways, for example, increased NADPH oxidase activity, uncoupled NOS, and
mitochondrial superoxide production. ROS are implicated in the development of
diabetic nephropathy [9, 34, 154157]. ROS can damage enzymes and DNA and
regulate transcription factors and the activity of various O2-sensitive genes. Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 has emerged as an important mediator for medullary
adaptation to low pO2 under physiological conditions [158]. A unifying mechanism
has been reported whereby hyperglycemia-induced ROS activated several pathways known to participate in the development of diabetic complications, namely
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the hexosamine pathway, glucose flux through the polyol pathway, formation of
AGE, and activation of PKC [33, 157, 159]. However, this theory does not specify
where the ROS are produced, only that the normalization of the superoxide concentrations at the levels of the mitochondria membrane prevents activation of
these pathways. In the view of the excessive capability of NADPH oxidase to
produce superoxide anions as a result of AT1-receptor activation, it seems likely
that superoxide anions produced in the cytosol could influence mitochondria
function and potentially activate these pathways.
3.1.1
PKC is activated via synthesis of DAG within a few days of hyperglycemia [160,
161]. Increased PKC activity is linked to numerous diabetic complications, including nephropathy [157, 162]. PKC mediated alterations in renal blood flow [163],
possibly by decreasing the production of NO [164]. PKC is also an activator of the
mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, a regulator of cell growth, and
is pivotal for development of hypertrophy in the diabetic kidney [165]. Superoxide
production by the medullary thick asending loop of Henle (mTAL) has recently
been shown to be partially PKC dependent [166]. mTALs from diabetic rats display
increased superoxide production that can be abolished by specific inhibition of
PKCa or PKCd. Inhibition of PKC decreased mesangial expansion, albuminuria,
and GFR and increased pro-inflammatory gene expression and vascular permeability in several models of experimental diabetes [157, 163, 167].
3.1.2
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3.1.3
F. Palm et al.
3.2
The mitochondria require a proton gradient across the inner membrane to produce
ATP, which is accomplished by the transfer of electrons along the electron transfer
chain. Complexes I, III, and IV are all coupled to proton transport, and for every
two electrons passing through the electron transport chain, ten protons are pumped
into the mitochondrial intermembrane space. This creates a proton gradient across
the inner membrane, which is used by ATP-synthase to produce ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Mitochondria generate ROS
even during normal respiration, which may account for approximately 0.2% of total
normal cellular QO2 [184, 185]. However, mitochondrial ROS generation is elevated in diabetes and aging [186, 187]. An abnormally high proton gradient is
created across the inner mitochondrial membrane during sustained hyperglycemia,
causing increased ROS formation [162, 188].
Several aspects of mitochondria function are altered in the diabetic kidney.
Within the kidney, mitochondrial QO2 is normally coupled to active transport (i.e.,
it depends on the availability of ADP and the subsequent ATP production) [189].
In brown adipose tissue, however, mitochondria display no such relationship due to
the presence of uncoupling protein (UCP)-1, which is responsible for nonshivering
thermogenesis. UCPs belong to a mitochondria anion carrier family and have an
uncoupling function (i.e., uncoupling QO2 from ATP production). This is accomplished by allowing protons to leak back across the inner membrane without passing
through the ATP synthase [33, 188, 190192]. Even minor UCP-related uncoupling
will cause a mild depolarization, thus reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential [191].
Recently, UCP-2 was identified in both rodent and human kidneys [193197].
Proximal tubular cells as well as cells of the medullary thick ascending loop of
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Henle showed heavy staining for UCP-2 in the rat kidney [195]. It was also shown
that mitochondria isolated from kidney cortex of diabetic rats display glutamatestimulated QO2 during inhibition of ATP synthase, indicating mitochondria uncoupling. This was further confirmed by addition of the UCP specific blocker guanosine
diphosphate (GDP), which blocked all uncoupled QO2 [196, 198]. Although the
increased mitochondria uncoupling likely has a protective role against excessive
ROS formation in the diabetic kidney, it will increase the QO2 needed to sustain ATP
production [190, 199201]. This may provide an explanation for the lack of relationship between the diabetes-induced increase in renal QO2 and active transport of
electrolytes, and explain the increased electrolyte transport-independent QO2 occurring in these kidneys [9, 10]. It should be noted that intense insulin treatment
abolished the increased UCP-2 protein expression and the increased cellular QO2
in the diabetic kidney [196].
3.3
3.4
NADPH Oxidase
Several studies have reported a role for NADPH oxidase in the development of
experimental hypertension and nephropathy [207, 208]. NADPH oxidase includes
the membrane-associated subunits Nox-2 (originally referred to as gp91phox),
p22phox, and the regulatory cytosolic proteins p47phox, p67phox, p40phox, and Rac1
[209]. The cytosolic elements all assemble and bind to subunits Nox-2 and p22phox
to form an active superoxide producing enzyme [210, 211].
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F. Palm et al.
All components of the NADPH oxidase, as well as isozymes Nox-1 and -4, are
expressed in the kidney [212]. The main locations correlate with the sites of ROS
production. The sites of intrarenal expression include renal vessels, glomeruli,
podocytes, thick ascending limbs of the loop of Henle (TAL), macula densa, distal
tubules, collecting ducts, and cortical interstitial fibroblasts.
Renal NADPH oxidase produces a significant amount of superoxide radicals [213],
which can react with NO to form peroxynitrite, which is a potent oxidant and
nitrosylating agent. This reaction coincidentally causes NO deficiency. Since NO
normally regulates tubuloglomerular feedback and enhances renal blood flow, with
some relevance for Na+ excretion, NO deficiency could result in hypertension, glomerulosclerosis, proteinuria, and eventually the development of renal failure [90].
Furthermore, several vasoconstrictors are activated by oxidative stress [90]. Thus,
oxidative stress has been increasingly implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic
renal injury [214]. A high salt intake increased renal superoxide generation by
diminishing the renal expression of SOD and increased NADPH oxidase activity
[215]. Nox4 is induced by activation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) [216].
Nox1 activity and p22phox are also upregulated by activation of RAS and by infusion
of Ang II [216, 217]. Interventions directed against the RAS normalized p47phox
protein expression [34]. However, the mechanisms of NADPH oxidase activation in
the diabetic kidney are not fully elucidated [218], but the protein expressions of
several subtypes increased shortly after induction of diabetes and correlated with
proteinuria [34, 154, 207, 219]. Translocation of p47phox to the membrane resulted in
increased oxidative stress in diabetic kidneys [154]. NADPH oxidase expressions
were upregulated in glomeruli of type 1 diabetic mice [220]. Streptozotocin-induced
diabetic rats had increased mRNA for p47phox, p22phox, and Nox4 in both tubular
cells and glomerular podocytes [154, 221]. Exposure of mesangial cells to advanced
oxidation protein products led to membrane-associated phosphorylation of PKCa,
which caused phosphorylation of cytosolic p47phox and led to membrane translocation that activated of NADPH oxidase [222]. The NADPH oxidase inhibitor apocynin decreased expression of the subunit gp91phox and repressed activation of
p47phox in diabetic rat kidneys [154].
Nox4 is believed to be the major renal source of ROS in diabetic animals. Renal
oxidative stress is paralleled by an increase in Nox4 and decreased superoxide
dismutase activity in type 1 as well as in type 2 diabetes [223, 224]. Knockdown
of Nox4 by siRNA reduced NADPH oxidase activity and blocked glucose-induced
mitochondrial superoxide generation [223]. Part of the diabetes-induced renal mitochondrial oxidative stress was due to increased mitochondrial membrane permeability
and to protein modifications by nitrotyrosine generation [224].
3.5
Angiotensin II
The RAS plays a key role in the development of diabetic nephropathy, and intrarenal
Ang II is increased in insulinopenic diabetes [100]. Through its action on Ang II
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Fig. 4 Angiotensin II
activates the nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADPH) oxidase
to produce superoxide
radicals via AT1-receptors,
which induces a further
increase in superoxide
production by the
mitochondrial electron
transport chain. ARB
angiotensin II AT1-receptor
blocker; MPT mitochondrial
permeability transition pore
receptor subtype 1 (AT1), Ang II increased NADPH oxidase activity, which stimulated the formation of superoxide anions [34, 215, 217, 225, 226] (Fig. 4). Ang II
modulated the NO pathway in the diabetic kidney [115], partly by directly regulating
the intrarenal ADMA levels [100]. Additionally, Ang II activated PKC [227]. Early
diabetes mellitus in rats was associated with a transient increase in plasma renin
activity [228], causing an increase in Ang II formation. A renin gene polymorphism
may contribute to diabetic nephropathy through increased renin gene expression
[229]. In addition, certain polymorphisms of angiotensin converting enzymes (ACE)
are associated with increased susceptibility to diabetic nephropathy [64].
Inhibition of RAS activity has a renoprotective effect during diabetes [65,
230233]. ARB and ACE inhibition have beneficial effects on albuminuria in both
animal models of experimental diabetes and diabetic patients [234236]. RAS inhibition prevented diabetes-induced eNOS expression in rats with streptozotocin-induced
diabetes [34, 65], reduced diabetes-induced endothelin-1 activation [237], and inhibited NADPH oxidase activity [238, 239]. Onozato et al. reported that diabetes-induced
increases in renal Ang II and ADMA both are normalized by an ARB, which increased
the renal expression of ADMA metabolizing enzyme DDAH I, decreased the expression of the ADMA synthesizing enzyme PRMT-1, and resulted in increased intrarenal
NO production [100]. These novel results provide at least a partial explanation for why
patients with advanced nephropathy likely will be those who benefit the most from
blockade of the RAS [240].
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4 Conclusion
These considerations suggest that there could be substantial advances in the
treatment of diabetes by better understanding of the complex interplay between
oxidative stress, NO, and O2 metabolism in the diabetic kidney. Since oxidative
stress-induced hypoxia of kidney tissue may underlie diabetic nephropathy, potent
antioxidants are strong candidate drugs for therapeutic strategies to prevent diabetes-induced kidney damage. Even more appealing may be combining treatments, by
prescribing a multitargeting therapeutic strategy that inhibits RAS, AGE, and
ADMA formation and contain antioxidant and C-peptide supplementation to treat
or prevent diabetic nephropathy. Prevention of the early metabolic alterations that
occur in diabetic kidney is likely to improve or delay the onset of the structural
and functional changes commonly associated with the progression of diabetic
nephropathy.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by grants from NHLBI (HL-68686), NIDDK
(DK-07183, DK-36079, DK-49870, and DK-077858) and from the Swedish Research Council
(9940, 72XD-15043 and 10840).
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