11 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A.

English
Language Teaching English language teaching has changed for many years. Several methods
have emerged to facilitate English teaching and learning process. Richards (2006: 6-21) divides
the trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into three phases which are traditional
approaches (up to the late 1960s), classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s),
and current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present). Richards describes the
characteristic of traditional approaches which existed up to the late 1960s. Traditional
approaches to language teaching gave priority to grammatical competence as the basis of
language proficiency. They were based on the belief that grammar could be learned through
direct instruction and through a methodology that made much use of repetitive practice and
drilling. The approaches to the teaching of grammar were deductive and inductive. It was
assumed that language learning meant building up a large repertoire of sentences and
grammatical patterns and learning to produce these accurately and quickly in the appropriate
situation. Once a basic command of the language was established through oral drilling and
controlled practice, the four skills were introduced, usually in the sequence of speaking,
listening, reading and writing. 12 This approach also often employed several techniques
including memorization of dialogs, question-and-answer practice, substitution drills, and various
forms of guided speaking and writing practice. Great attention to accurate pronunciation and
accurate mastery of grammar were stressed from the very beginning stages of language learning,
since it was assumed that if students made errors, these would quickly become a permanent part
of the learners speech. In the 1970s, a reaction to traditional language teaching approaches
began and soon spread around the world. The centrality of grammar in language teaching and
learning was questioned, since it was argued that language ability involved much more than
grammatical competence. Attention shifted to the knowledge and skills which were needed to use
grammar and other aspects of language appropriately for different communicative purposes such
as making requests, giving advice, making suggestions, describing wishes and needs, and so on.
What was needed in order to use language communicatively was communicative competence.
Building on Hymess theory, Canale and Swain in Richardss and Renandya (2002: 206-207)
propose that communicative competence includes grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, and
strategic competence. These components underlie the effectiveness of speaking. Since the 1990s,
the communicative approach has been widely implemented because it describes a set of very
general principles grounded in the notion of communicative competence as the goal of second
and foreign 13 language teaching. Current communicative language teaching (CLT) places the
students as the center of teaching and learning process, involves the real communication, and
meaningful tasks, and uses mixed syllabus (Richards, 2006:22). B. Four Language Skills In
general, there are four language skills which the language learner should master either through
the process of learning or acquisition. They are reading, speaking, listening and writing. Along
with the development of theories of language teaching and learning, there are several terms used
for these skills which are conventionally accepted by most of language teachers as what Donald
and Kneale (2001:14) say that: Language teachers conventionally distinguish between four
aspects of language which are mastered by means of the four skills: listening, speaking,

reading, and writing. Listening and reading might be taught as primarily passive receptive or
input skills, whilst speaking and writing are their active productive or output counterparts
(Donald and Kneale, 2001: 14). In real communication, these skills are often manifested
integratively. For example, when learners listen to a lecture, they make notes. To clarify the
message they got, they read the notes again and expressed their understanding by asking
questions. The previous theory that English should be taught integratively is supprorted by
Brown (2001:232). He states: Despite our history of treating the four skills in separate segments
of a curriculum, there is a trend toward skill integration. That is, rather than designing a
curriculum to teach the many aspects of one skill, say, reading, curriculum designers are taking
more of a whole language approach whereby 14 reading skills, then, will also deal with related
listening, speaking, and writing skills. Meanwhile in Harmers (2007:265) words, it would
make no sense to teach each skill in isolation since in meaningful communication, people
employ incremental language skills not in isolation, but in tandem. In summary, these four
language skills should be carried out in a meaningful way and taught integratively. C. The Nature
of Speaking 1. The Definition of Speaking Many definitions about speaking have been proposed
by language experts. According to Johnson and Morrow (1981: 70), speaking which is popular
with the term oral communication, is an activity involving two or more people in which hearers
and speakers have to react to what they hear and make their contributions at a speed of a high
level. In this definition, the essential components mentioned to exist in speaking are the speakers,
the hearers, the message and the response. Both the speakers and the hearers should agree on the
message and/or meaning being talked through acceptable language. From a communicative,
pragmatic view of the language classroom, speaking and listening skills are closely intertwined.
The interaction between these two modes of performance applies especially strongly to
conversation. In a classroom, students will respond to the teacher after listening to some
information (Brown, 2001: 267). In addition, Chaney 15 (1998) in Kayi (2006) adds that
speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal
symbols in a variety of contexts. Speaking is much more complex. It involves both a command
of certain skills and several different types of knowledge. Canale and Swain (1980) in Richards
and Renandya (2002: 206-207) suggest that in order to be able to communicate meaningfully,
speakers need to know the knowledge of communicative competence consisting of grammatical,
discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competence. Grammatical competence is an umbrella
concept including grammar (morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics. With regards to
speaking, the term mechanics refer to basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of
words, intonation, and stress. Grammatical competence enables speaker to use and understand
English-language structures contributing to students fluency. Discourse competence is
concerned with speakers relationships, formal or informal occasion, the rules of cohesion and
coherence etc. Discourse competence contributes in turn taking in conversation (Scarcella and
Oxford, 1992 in Richards and Renandya, 2002: 207). Brown (1994) in Richards and Renandya
(2002: 207) states that sociolinguistic competence means knowing what is expected socially and
culturally by users of target language. Learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the
appropriate timing and realization of speech acts. Understanding the sociolinguistic side of

language helps learners to know 16 what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during
interaction, and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk. In addition,
Brown (2004: 102) also asserts that strategic competence is the way learners manipulate
language in order to meet the communicative goals. It is perhaps the most important of all the
communicative competence elements. This argument is highlighted by Berns (1990) in Richards
and Renandya (2002: 208) who suggests that strategic competence is the ability to compensate
for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse rules. With reference to
speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know when and how to take the flow, how
to keep the conversation going on, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up
communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems. 2. Functions of Speaking
Numerous attempts have been made to classify the functions of speaking in human interaction.
Richards (2008: 21-28) distinguishes three functions of speaking which are different in terms of
the form, function, and teaching approaches. The functions of speaking are talk as interaction,
talk as transaction, and talk as performance. Talk as interaction refers to conversation and
describes interaction that serves a primarily social function. Brown (2004: 142) uses a different
term to refer to talk as interaction. He uses the term of interpersonal exchange. The main features
of talk as interaction can be quoted as follows (Richards, 2008: 22) 17 a. Has a primarily social
function b. Reflects role relationships c. Reflects speakers identity d. May be formal or casual e.
Uses conversational conventions f. Reflects degrees of politeness g. Employs many generic
words h. Uses conversational register i. Is jointly constructed Richards also promotes some skills
involved in using talk as interaction. They are opening and closing conversations, choosing
topics, making a small talk, joking, recounting personal incidents and experiences, turn taking,
using adjacency pairs, interrupting, reacting to others, and using an appropriate style of speaking
(Richards, 2008:23). These ideas are supported by Brown (2004: 142) saying that interpersonal
exchanges can become pragmatically complex with the need to speak in a casual register and use
colloquial language, ellipsis, slang, humor, and other sociolinguistic conventions. Talking with
some friends in a party and chatting with companions during the coffee break are the examples
of talk as interaction. Talk as a transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is said
or done. The message and making oneself understood is the central focus rather than the
participants and how they interact socially with each other (Richards, 2008: 24). Meanwhile, to
refer to the same thing, Brown (2004: 142) uses another term, transactional language. He
promotes that the purpose of transactional language is to exchange specific information.
Classroom group activity and buying things in a shop are the examples of transactional language.
18 To see the differences between talk as interaction and transaction, it is important to see the
main features of talk as transaction. Talk as transaction has a primarily information focus. It
focuses on the message not the participant. There may be frequent questions, repetitions,
comprehension checks, negotiation and digression. While the speakers are talking to get some
information or obtaining goods or services, they employ a range of skills such as explaining a
need or intention; asking questions, clarifications, opinions; making suggestions and etc
(Richards, 2008:26) The last type of speaking functions is talk as performance. It refers to public
speaking to share the information. Audiences are the part of this talk. It tends to be written

language than conversational language since it has recognizable format which is like monolog
rather than dialog. Classroom presentations, public announcements, and speeches are kinds of
examples of talk as performances. Some skills are involved in public speaking such as using an
appropriate format, presenting information in an appropriate sequence, maintaining audience
engagement, using an appropriate opening and closing, and creating an effect on the audience
(Richards, 2008: 28) Another distinction of speaking has been made by Brown and Yule in
Nunan (1989:27) who consider the development of speaking skills into two parts that are
dialogue and monologue. Besides, Thornburry (2005: 14) proposes four language features in
speaking. They are interactive, non interactive, planned and unplanned. Multy-party speeches
like casual conversation between friends or between children and their parents is 19 interactive
speaking or dialogue. Monologues such as news reporting on a television, and voice-mail
message are non interactive speaking. Public speeches and business presentations are typically
planned. On the other hand, chatting with friends at the classroom and conversation at the shop
are kinds of unplanned speaking. 3. Aspects of Speaking Skills Fluency is natural language use
occurring when a speaker engages in meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and
ongoing communication despite limitations in his or her communicative competence. Accuracy
means that the speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
Fluency is developed by creating classroom activities in which students must negotiate meaning,
use communication strategies, correct misunderstandings, and work to avoid communication
breakdowns (Richards, 2006: 14). In addition, Nunan (1999) states that fluency means that the
speakers are required to be able to keep going when speaking spontaneously. However, it does
not mean that the speakers speak so fast because sometimes pausing is important. That pause is
an aspect of fluency which may be long but not frequent. Moreover, when speaking fluently,
speakers should be able to get the message across with whatever resources and abilities they
have got and regardless of any grammatical and other mistakes. 20 Otherwise, Nunan (1999) also
asserts that accuracy means that the speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation. It uses correct example of language use. The differences between
activities that focus on fluency and those that focus on accuracy can be summarized as follows.
1. Activities focusing on fluency a) Reflect natural use of language b) Focus on achieving
communication c) Require meaningful use of language d) Require the use of communication
strategies e) Produce language that may not be predictable f) Seek to link language use to context
2. Activities focusing on accuracy a) Reflect classroom use of language b) Focus on the
formation of correct examples of language c) Practice language out of context d) Practice small
samples of language e) Do not require meaningful communication f) Control choice of language
(Richards, 2006: 13-14). Besides considering the importance of fluency and accuracy in
speaking, teachers should also pay attention to an essential of language performance. Richards
and Renandya (2002: 204) say that learning to speak a foreign language is more than knowing its
grammatical and semantic rules. Learners must also acquire the knowledge of how native
speakers use the language in the context of structured interpersonal exchange in which many
factors interact. Harmer (2001: 24-25) suggests a number of variables which govern learners
choice in order to meet the appropriacy during the conversation such as setting, participants,

gender, channel and topic. Setting is related to 21 the place where the conversations take place.
People speak differently at office and night clubs. Participants refer to people involved in an
exchange. The language forms students use will be different when they speak with their friends
and teachers. Gender represents how women and men use language in conversations. Women
have frequently used more concessive language than men for example, and crucially have often
talked less than men in mix-sex conversations. Channel represents how people communicate
whether they will use spoken or written grammar. Speaking face to face and giving speech at the
hall will generate different uses of language. Finally, the topic affects the grammatical and lexical
choices (Harmer, 2001: 24-25). Furthermore, Harmer (2001: 269-270) also proposes four
language features that are necessary for spoken production. They are connected speech,
expressive devices, lexis and grammar, and negotiation meaning. The first feature is the use of
connected speech. Effective speakers of English need to be able not only to produce the
individual phoneme of English but also to use fluent connected speech. In connected speech,
sounds are modified (assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking verb), or weakened (through
contractions and stress patterning). Due to the complexity of the connected speech, therefore,
English teachers should involve the students in activities which are designed to improve their
connected speech. The second feature is the use of expressive devices. Some native speakers of
English use expressive devices in speaking through some ways, 22 such as changing the pitch
and stress of particular parts of utterances, varying volume and speed, and using facial
expressions. The use of these devices can contribute to the ability to convey meanings.
Therefore, in order to be fully effective communicators, students should be able to employ those
devices. The third feature is the use of lexis and grammar. The use of common lexical and
grammatical features can be found in spontaneous speech when performing certain language
functions. The last feature is the use of negotiation. The negotiation is used to seek for
clarification. The speakers need to ask for clarification when they are listening to someone else
especially when they know that their talks are not being understood. Students choose language
forms provided to ask for clarification. 4. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance In
designing speaking activities or instructional materials for second language or foreign-language
teaching, it is necessary to recognize the different functions speaking performs in daily
communication and the different purposes for which the students need speaking skills. According
to Brown (2001: 271-274), there are five types of speaking. They are imitative, intensive,
responsive, interactive, and extensive. In imitative speaking performance, learners imitate or
parrot back a word or phrase or possibly a sentence. The purpose of imitation is not for 23
meaningful interaction but for focusing on some particular elements of language form. Drilling is
the example of imitative speaking performance. An intensive speaking performance is related to
the production of short stretches of oral language to demonstrate the competence such as
grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological relationship (prosodic elements: intonation, stress,
rhythm, juncture) (Brown, 2004: 273). Another type of classroom speaking performance is called
responsive. Short replies are the example of speaking performance which does not extend into
dialogues, for example standard greetings, simple requests and comments etc. The stimulus is
always a spoken prompt in order to preserve the authenticity with only one or two follow-up

questions (Brown, 2004: 141). Interactive speaking performance consists of transactional and
interpersonal dialogues. Transactional dialogue is carried out for the purpose of conveying or
exchanging information. This type of speaking performance is an extended form of responsive
language. A conversation is the example of transactional dialogue. Another extended form of
performance in interpersonal dialogue. Compared to the purpose of transactional language,
interpersonal (dialogue) tends to maintain social relationships better than exchange information.
Some elements may involve in a dialogue such as a casual register, colloquial language,
emotionally charged language, slang, ellipsis, sarcasm etc. 24 The last speaking performance is
extensive (monologue). Extensive oral production can be in the form of reports, summaries, and
speeches. It can be planned or impromptu. Thornbury (2005: 89-110) suggests some activities to
promote speaking. They are discussion and debate; drama, role play, and simulation;
presentation; classroom conversation and casual chat; outside-class speaking; and storytelling,
joke, and anecdote. Discussion and debate tend to be difficult speaking activities and therefore
they are commonly suitable for higher level students (intermediate/advance). Many teachers
would agree that discussion at class which arise students to talk spontaneously is a good activity
since it provokes the students to exchange information. Meanwhile, Brown (2004: 175) states
that discussion can promote some skills such as topic nomination, maintenance, and termination;
attention getting, interrupting, floor holding, control; clarifying, questioning, paraphrasing,
comprehension signals; negotiating meaning; intonation patterns for pragmatic effect; kinesics,
eye contact, proxemics, body language; and politeness, formality, and other sociolinguistic
factors. Drama, role play and simulation are other speaking activities that activate students
imagination. Drama allows the learners to take an imaginative leap out of the confines of the
classroom, provides a useful springboard for real-life language use. Just in a real theatre, a
preparation stage including rehearsal is done for public performance. Role play has 25 appeal for
students because it allows the students to be creative and to put themselves in another persons
place for a while. The students can play as a customer and buyer, teacher and student etc. In a
simulation, on the other hand, the students play themselves in a simulated situation for example
they make a simulation of what students should do when an earthquake strikes. Presentation is a
planned talk that is arranged systematically. It can be done individually or in group. It is usually
followed by a question session which is the most challenging stage of presentation. Classroom
conversation and casual chat are two different activities. Casual chat or talk is primarily
interpersonal, unplanned communication, and tends to be natural since it is spontaneous. But, not
many students can speak spontaneously with their friends. Many teachers then make a planned
conversation called a classroom conversation to encourage the students to speak English.
Outside-class speaking consists of some activities done outside the classroom. These include (a)
such as tape diaries which are the learners recording their voice and submitting the recording to
the teacher in order that they can get the feedback; (b) video conferencing in which the learners
communicate via a live audio or video link over the internet; and (c) humancomputer interaction
in which people talk by responding to written input like using chat room at yahoo messenger and
facebook. The last speaking activity type includes storytelling, jokes, and anecdotes. Storytelling
is a universal function of language and one of the 26 main ingredients of casual conversation.

Delivering jokes and anecdotes could be a funny rehearsal of speaking. Harmer (2001: 88-93)
gives four activities to promote the speaking skills. The first activity is an information gap in
which two speakers have different parts of information making up a whole. The second activity
is called survey. The students can conduct questionnaires and surveys asking some questions
about certain topics. They go around the class questioning other students and noting down what
they say. The third activity is discussion. The important things when the teacher conducts debate
or discussion are the activity should include engage, study, and activate stages (ESA). The
students should engage in the topic. Then, they might do some studies to figure out language
inputs and facts. Finally, they move quickly to activate stage, that is discussion itself. The last
activity is role play where the students are asked to imagine what they are in different situations
and act accordingly. 5. Micro- and Macroskills of Speaking Brown (2004: 142) distinguishes
between microskills and macroskills of speaking. The microskills refer to producing the smaller
chunks of language such as phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal units. The
macroskills imply the speakers focus on the larger elements: fluency, discourse, function, style,
cohesion, nonverbal communication, and strategic options. Brown (2004: 142-143) continues to
explain micro- and macroskills of oral production as quoted bellow. 27 a) Microskills 1. Produce
differences among English phonemes and allophonic variants. 2. Produce chunks of language of
different lengths. 3. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions,
rhythmic structure, and intonation contours. 4. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases. 5.
Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish pragmatic purposes. 6. Produce
fluent speech at different rates of delivery. 7. Monitor ones own oral production and use various
strategic devices pauses, fillers, self- corrections, backtracking to enhance the clarity of the
message. 8. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs etc.), system (e.g. tense, agreement,
pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms. 9. Produce speech in natural
constituents: in appropriate phrases, pause groups breathe groups, and sentence constituents. 10.
Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms. 11. Use cohesive devices in spoken
discourse. b) Macroskills 1. Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to
situations, participants, and goals. 2. Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies,
pragmatic conventions, conversation rules, floor-keeping and floor-yielding, interrupting, and
other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations. 3. Convey links and connections
between events and communicate such relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and
feelings, new and given information, generalization, and exemplification. 4. Convey facial
features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language. 5.
Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing,
providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately
assessing how well your interlocutor in understanding you. 28 6. The Difficulties in Speaking
Many people regard that speaking is difficult. The following eight characteristics of spoken
language are adapted from several sources. a. Clustering. Fluent speech is phrasal not word by
word. Learners can organize their output both cognitively and physically through clustering. b.
Redundancy. The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through the redundancy of
language. c. Reduced forms. Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels etc are special problems in

teaching spoken English. Learners who never learn colloquial contractions sometimes speak too
formal in casual context. They become bookish and stilted. d. Performance variables. In spoken
language there is a process called thinking time. During this thinking time, learners can employ a
certain number of performance hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and correction. Some examples
of thinking time in English such as inserting fillers like uh, um, well, you know, I mean etc.
Hesitation phenomena are the most salient difference between native and nonnative speakers of
language. e. Colloquial language. Students should be familiar with words, idioms, and phrases
and they practice to produce these forms. f. Rate of delivery. It is one of the characteristics of
fluency. Teachers should help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other attributes of
fluency. 29 g. Stress, rhythm, and intonation. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken language and its
intonation patterns convey important message in any communication forms. h. Interaction.
Having no interlocutor will rob the speaking skill components, one of them is the creativity of
conversational negotiation. (Dunkel, 19991; Richards, 1983; Ur, 1984) in Brown (2001: 270271) C. Teaching Speaking. 1. Principles of Language Teaching Teachers have an important role
in making the teaching and learning process succeed. They may try to use various approaches to
teach English and then select an appropriate approach which is suitable for their classes. It is
necessary to connect teachers experience during the teaching and learning process with the
theory of teaching derived from research so that it will help the teachers to comprehend when to
use a certain technique, with whom it will work, how to adapt it for the students, and how to
judge its effectiveness. Brown (2001:55-70) suggests twelve teaching principles that must be
taken into account by the teachers during the language teaching. These twelve principles are
classified into three parts as explained below. a. Cognitive Principles (1) Automaticity Children
acquire language subconsciously. Through an inductive process of exposure to language input
and opportunity to experiment with output, they appear to learn languages without 30 thinking
about them. Barry Mclaughlin in Brown (2001:55) called this as automatic processing with
peripheral attention to language forms. This is, in order to manage the incredible complexity and
quantity of language. Both adults and children must sooner or later move away from processing
language unit by unit, piece by piece, focusing closely on each and graduate to a form of highspeed, automatic processing in which language forms (words, affixes, word order, rules etc) are
only in the periphery of attention. Over generalizing language, thinking too much about its
forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language all tend to impede the automaticity. (2)
The anticipation of reward According to Skinner in Brown (2001: 57-58), the anticipation of
reward is the most powerful factor in directing ones behavior. Everything people do is inspired
and driven by a goal. During the teaching and learning process, a reward can be in the form of
praise for a correct response e.g. very good and appropriate grades or scores or other public
recognition. However, teachers should carefully use a reward to motivate the students. They may
consider the following things. a. Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and
encouragement to students as a short-term reward. b. encourage students to reward each other
with compliments and supprtive action 31 c. short-term reminders of progress may help students
to perceive their development in class with low motivation. d. Display enthusiasm and
excitement during the teaching and learning process. e. Explain the long-term rewards in

learning English such as the academic benefits of knowing English. (3) Meaningful learning
Meaningful learning happens when new information is linked with the existing structures and
memory systems. It creates stronger retention than rote learning in which new information does
not connect with ones existing cognitive. Teachers can avoid the pitfalls of rote learning such as
too much grammar explanation, abstract principles and theories, drilling and memorization;
activities whose purposes are not clear and do not contribute to accomplishing the goals of
lesson, unit, or course; and techniques that are so mechanical that students focus on the
mechanics instead of on the language or meanings. (4) Intrinsic motivation The most powerful
rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems
from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding. Therefore, no
externally administered reward is necessary. At the class, the learners may perform the task
volunteerily because the task 32 is interesting, useful, or challenging and not because they
anticipate some cognitive or affective rewards from the teacher. (5) Strategic investment
Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large extent to learners own personal
investment of time, effort, and attention to the second language. In this case, learners use various
styles and strategies in learning process. Teachers should give attention to every student at the
classroom. b. Affective Principles (6) Language ego Learners learning the second language may
have the second identity, a new mode of thinking, acting, and feeling. Language ego can be a
fragility, defensiveness, and rising of inhibition. Teachers should give much attention to students
having those feelings. Teachers can display a supportive attitude to students. They can also help
their students to understand that the confusion of developing the second identity in the second
culture is a normal and natural way. Considering learners language ego help teachers to
determine some aspects in the teaching and learning process such as who to call on, who to ask
to volunteer information, when to correct a students speech error, how much to explain
something, how structured and planned an activity should be, who to place in which small
groups or pairs etc. 33 (7) Self-confidence Another term to refer to self-confidence is selfesteem. Learners belief that they can finish the task is one of the factors in their eventual success
in attaining the task. Teachers can give ample verbal and nonverbal assurances to students.
Besides, they can sequence techniques from easier to more difficult. (8) Risk- taking Successful
language learners must be willing to become gamblers in the game of language, to attempt to
produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty. Risktaking
contributes to long-term retention and intrinsic motivation of learners. Teachers can encourage
students to try out language, to venture response, and not to wait for someone else to volunteer
language. (9) The language-culture connection Teachers who teach language to students should
also teach its culture such as values, ways of thinking, feeling, acting etc as culture and language
are intricately intertwined. The language-culture connection will affect the process of
acculturation in students. For those who can adapt with a new culture will affect their language
acquisition. 34 c. Linguistic principles (10) The native language effect The native language of
learners influences the acquisition of the target language system. The influence of the native
language can both facilitate and interfere learners in learning the target language. But, the
interfering effects are likely to be the most salient. Teachers can give feedback whenever

students made errors by explaining the native language cause of the error. Besides, they can
persuade students to directly think into the second language instead of making translation words
in the native language to the target language. (11) Interlanguage Second language learners tend
to go through a systematic or quasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to full
competence in the target language. Successful interlanguage development is partially a result of
utilizing feedback from others. Teachers are enganged in a never- ending process of giving
feedback to students about whether or not their actual language is clear and unambiguous. (12)
Communicative competence Communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom.
According to Bachman (1990), Canale and Swain (1980) in Brown (2001:68), communicative
competence consists of some components. They are organizational competence (grammatical and
discourse), 35 pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic), strategic competence, and
psychomotor competence. Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due attention to
language use and not just usage, to fluency not just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts,
and to students eventual need to apply classroom learning to previously unrehearsed contexts in
the real world. 2. Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques Brown (2001:275-276) proposes
some principles for designing speaking techniques. These principles will help teachers to conduct
the speaking class. a. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from languagebased focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning and fluency. Make sure
that the tasks include techniques designed to help students to perceive and use the building block.
At the same time, do not make the students feel bored with repetitious drills. Teachers should
make any drilling as meaningful as possible. b. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques. Try
to appeal to students ultimate goals and interests in their need for knowledge, for status, for
achieving competence and autonomy, and for being all that they can be. Help them to see how
the activity will benefit them. c. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.
It takes energy and creativity to design authentic contexts and meaningful 36 interaction, but
with the help of storehouse of teacher resource material it can be done. Even drilling can provide
a sense of authenticity. d. Provide appropriate feedback and correction. In ESL situations,
feedback is mostly from the teacher. Feedback can be found outside of the classroom but it is
important for teachers to inject the kinds of corrective feedback that are appropriate for the
moment. e. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. Many interactive
techniques involving speaking will also include listening. The two skills can reinforce each other.
Skills in producing language are often initiated through comprehension. f. Give students
opportunities to initiate oral communication. Part of oral communication competence is the
ability to initiate conversations, to nominate topics, to ask questions, to control conversation and
to change the subject. Teachers can design speaking techniques allowing students to initiate
language. g. Encourage the development of speaking strategies. Not all students are aware of
strategic competence. Teachers should help their students develop strategic competence to
accomplish oral communicative purposes. The strategies are asking for clarification (What?),
asking someone to repeat something (Excuse me?), using fillers (uh, I mean, Well), using
conversation maintenance cues (Huh, Right, Yeah), getting someones attention (Hey, So) and so
forth. 37 3. Approaches to the Teaching of Speaking Many language experts have argued the best

approach to language learning during years. Some believe in the old approaches, some welcome
the use of current approach to improve the teaching and learning process. According to Richards
(2006: 24-25) communicative language teaching (CLT) is a new approach used widely since the
1990s. Here are some core assumptions of current CLT. 1. Native language is allowed as long as
learners engage in interaction and meaningful communication. 2. Learners negotiate meaning
through the task, expand their language resource, and notice how language is used. 3. Learning
language is a gradual process involving creative use of language and trial and error. The goal of
learning is using the new language fluently and accurately. 4. Successful language learning uses
communication strategies. 5. The role of the teacher is a facilitator and learners learn through
collaboration and sharing. CLT requires a syllabus that identifies all the relevant components of a
language. The first widely adopted communicative syllabus developed within the framework of
classic CLT was termed Threshold Level. It described the level of proficiency learners need to
attain to cross the threshold and begin real communication. It consists of topics, functions,
notions, situations as well as grammar and vocabulary (Van Ek and Alexander in Richards, 2006:
10-11) Regarding CLT, Richards also distinguishes two current methodologies that can be
described as extensions of the CLT movement. These methodologies are also suggested by
Thornburry (2005: 119-122) for teaching speaking. They are a task-based approach and a textbased or genre approach. 38 Richards (2006: 33-40) asserts that a task-based approach or task
based instruction (TBI) focus on classroom process. The interactional process in the classroom is
achieved by the use of instructional tasks. Furthermore, Thornburry (2005: 119) states that TBI
was originally motivated by the belief that a language is best learned through using it rather than
learned then used. A task based syllabus for speaking would be based around a sequence of
integrated tasks. Speaking would not necessarily exclusive, but the task would meet the real
world uses of language identified through need analysis. Willis (1966) in Richards (2006: 37-38
and 2008: 34-35) suggests using a cycle of activities with task work consisting of pre-task
activities, i.e. introduction to topic and task; the task cycle comprising task, planning, and report;
and the language focus comprising analysis and practice. On the contrary of a task-based, a textbased or genre-based approach focuses on product. According to this view, learners in different
contexts have to master the use of the text types occurring most frequently and communicative
competence involved in different kinds of spoken and written texts in specific contexts. Mixed
syllabus is used in a text-based approach that specifies other components of text such as
vocabulary, grammar, topics, functions. Thus, it integrates reading, writing, oral communication,
and grammar teaching through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation (Richards, 2006: 3945). Feez and Joyce (1998: 28-31) in Richards (2006: 42- 44 and 2008: 36-38) propose
sequences of implementing a text-based lesson. They are building the context, modeling and
deconstructing the text, joint 39 construction of the text, independent construction of the text,
and linking to related texts. 4. Teaching Speaking for SMK Students There are two goals of
learning English in vocational high schools which is developed by BSNP (2006). First, students
are expected to master the knowledge and skills of basic English to sustain their vocational
competency achievement. Second, students are expected to implement their mastery of ability
and skills of English to communicate in spoken and written forms in intermediate level.

Acccording to Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional number 23 year of 2006 (Permendiknas),

the scope of English teaching in vocational high schools consists of three levels: novice,
elementary, and intermediate. Those levels are designed for the first, second, and third grade of
vocational high school students. The first grade of vocational high school students have to pose
several speaking competencies in a year as shown in Table 1. Table 1: The Standard of
Competency and Basic Competency of the First Grade Students of Vocational High School
Standard of Competency Basic Competency 1. Communicating in English at a novice level 1.1.
Understanding basic expression of social interaction in daily life. 1.2. Mentioning things, people,
characteristics, times, dates, months, and years. 1.3. Describing things, people, characteristics,
times, dates, months, and years. 1.4. Giving simple talks, using basic English. 1.5. Describing an
event in a simple way. 1.6. Comprehending simple memos, menus, schedules, and road signs.
1.7. Writing a simple invitation. 40 5. Teachers Roles during the Speaking Lesson Role refers to
the part that learners and teachers are expected to play in carrying out learning tasks as well as
the social and interpersonal relationships between the participants (Nunan,1989: 79). Teachers
will employ different roles when teaching certain skills of English. Richards (2005: 4) proposes
two roles that must be played by teachers in communicative classroom: facilitator and monitor.
Meanwhile, Breen and Candlin (1980) in Nunan (2004: 67) suggest four roles teachers should
employ in communicative classroom. Teachers should be able to act as a facilitator, a participant,
an observer and a learner. According to Harmer (2001: 57-64), in learner-centered lessons,
teachers are appropriate to be a facilitator. A facilitator means being a prompter, resource, and
tutor. When teachers take charge to be a prompter, they occasionally offer discrete suggestions
such as words or phrases. It happens when students lose their fluency. It will diminish the sense
of frustration some students feel when they come to a dead end of language or idea. Teachers
need to do it sensitively and sympathetically, but without losing students initiative. As a
resource, teachers are a place where students can ask information, but at the same time they
should resist the urge to spoon-feed students. As a tutor, teachers are combining the roles as a
prompter and resource meaning that teachers work with individuals or small groups giving
general guidance. One 41 thing to consider is that teachers do not intrude too much because it
can impede learner autonomy. Taking role as a participant means that teachers are parts of the
activity during the lesson. For example, when a discussion is carried out, teachers can enliven
inside the discussion as a member instead of always having to prompt or organize from outside
the group. Yet, the danger is that teachers can dominate the discussion. As an observer or
monitor, teachers observe students performances in order to give feedback. Teachers also judge
the success of activities and materials during the teaching and learning process so that they can
make an evaluation for the improvement. To create a good atmosphere of teaching and learning,
teachers should try to adapt themselves with students who have been changing all the times. The
21st century teachers play many roles during the teaching and learning process. In a speaking
class, the teacher can be an adaptor. He must be able to adapt himself to students who have
different proficiency in English. He harnesses technology to improve students speaking skills.
The teacher also plays role as a visionary which means he is a crucial component of the educator
of today and tomorrow. He knows that the education will be always developing. The teacher

provides his students with appropriate material or technology which has been developing all the
times. Another important role at the speaking class is that a teacher is a model. He does not only
teach how to speak well, but also teaches values. Students are required to speak 42 appropriately
with whom, when, in what situation and where (www.charactereducation.org, accessed on
January 1st, 2012). 6. Character Education in Teaching Speaking Character education is a
national movement creating schools that foster ethical, responsible and caring young people by
modeling and teaching good character through emphasis on universal values that people all
share. Good character is not formed automatically. It is developed over time through a sustained
process of teaching, example, learning and practice. It is developed through character education
(www.character.org, accessed on January 1st , 2012). Character values can be taught during the
speaking class. Students communicate with others are not merely for the sake of speaking, but
also for building a convenient conversation which is ethically appropriate. They should learn
pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic) and strategic competence. Students know
the difference of Indonesian culture and western culture; how to start the conversation with
foreigners and how to interrupt it; how to be a good listener; how to respect someones opinion
and deliver it and so forth. During the cooperative learning, character values can be conducted
when students learn how to work with different people; how to delegate duty to friends; how to
respect one another and so forth. 7. Feedback in Speaking Most students expect their teachers to
give feedback on their performance. Consequently, teachers need to know how to deals with
these 43 things. According to Brown (2000: 217), errors reflect the students competence on the
target language that is wrong or incomplete and cannot be self-corrected, while mistakes refer to
a performance error which is either a random guess or a slip and students can correct themselves.
Both errors and mistakes are caused by interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. Interlingual
transfer means the interference of the first language or native language. Intralingual transfer
occurs when learners have already acquired the new system of the target language and then make
overgeneralization on it. As teachers are people on whom students always rely on, they need to
help students to cope with errors by giving feedback. They cannot do this all the time. Here are
some basic options and possible feedback quoted from Kathleen Bailey (1985) in Brown (2001:
291) that can be considered by teachers during the language learning. a. Basic options 1. To treat
or to ignore 2. To treat immediately or to delay 3. To transfer treatment or not 4. To transfer to
another individual, a subgroup, or the whole class 5. To return, or not, to the original error maker
after treatment 6. To permit other learners to initiate treatment 7. To test for the efficacy of the
treatment b. Possible feedback 1. Fact or error indicated 2. Location indicated 3. Opportunity for
new attempt given 4. Model provided 5. Error type indicated 6. Remedy indicated 7.
Improvement indicated 8. Praise indicated 44 Another suggestion is also made by Harmer (2001:
104-109) in relation to giving feedback to students. Whether the tasks require fluency or
accuracy or even both should be taken into account. When the performance emphasizes accuracy,
it is part of the teachers function to point out and correct the mistakes the students are making.
There are several ways to give feedback during accuracy work. a. Repeating the errors or
mistakes made b. Echoing like a precise way of pin-pointing error c. Making statement or
question for exanple Thats not quite right and so forth d. Hinting which is a quick way of

helping students to activate rules they already know e. Giving a facial expression or gesture
indicating there is something wrong with the performance f. Reformulating the sentence
Furthermore, Harmer also says that when students do fluency work demanding communicative
activities, teachers should not interrupt students in mid-flow to point out a grammatical, lexical,
or pronunciation error, since it can breakdown the communication and drag them to study
language form. Harmer suggests some ways to offer feedback. First, a gentle correction when the
communication breakdown during a fluency activity. Second, giving correction after students
performance by recording them first so that teachers 45 will not forget what students have said.
Third, observing them while writing down some mistakes or errors that will be explained latter.
8. Assessing Speaking Assessing speaking is challenging because there are so many factors that
influence raters (teachers) impression on how well someone can speak a language. When
teachers assess speaking it means that the teachers listening skills determine the reliability and
validity of an oral production test. Assigning a score and ranging from 1 to 5 for example is not
easy. The lines of distinctions between levels are quite difficult to pinpoint. The raters can
consume much time to see the recording of speaking performance to make an accurate
assessment (Brown, 2004: 140 and Luoma, 2004: 84). Thornburry (2005: 127-129) claims that
there are two main ways to assess speaking. They are holistic scoring and analytic scoring.
Holistic scoring uses a single score as the basis of an overall impression, while analytic scoring
uses a separate score for different aspect of the task. This holistic way has advantages of being
quick and is perhaps suitable for informally assessing progress. By contrast, analytic scoring
takes longer since it requires the teacher to take a variety of factors into account and is probably
fairer and more reliable. It also provides information on specific weaknesses and strengths of
students. However, the disadvantage of analytic scoring is that the score may be distracted by all
categories and lose sight of the overall situation performed by the students. Therefore, four or
five categories seem to be the maximum that can be handled at one time. 46 Furthermore,
Thornburry (2005: 127-129) states that based on Cambridge Certificate in English Language
Speaking Skills (CELS), four categories must be taken into account: grammar and vocabulary,
discourse management, pronunciation, and interactive communication. When dealing with
grammar and vocabulary, students need to use appropriate syntactic forms and vocabulary in
order to meet the task requirements at each level. Discourse management refers to the ability of
students to express the ideas and opinions coherently and convey clear information.
Pronunciation refers to the ability to use the right stress and intonation to convey the intended
meaning. Finally, interactive communication depicts the ability of test takers to respond
appropriately with interlocutors with required speed and rhythm to fulfill the task requirements.
Those four elements are similar with what Brown (2004: 172) states about the aspects of
assessing speaking: grammar, vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, pronunciation, and task. On
the other hand, Luoma (2004: 4-5) points out that a rating scale is important in assessing
students speaking ability since it can determine exactly how the criteria will be applied to the
performances. Scales describe what each score means. She claims that the development and use
of a the speaking test is a cyclic process in which it begins with a need for speaking scores and
ends with the use of the scores. In addition, she states that there are two interactive processes

needed for doing speaking assessment. The first is the test administration or test performance
process where the participants (students) interact with the examiner (teacher) or with students to
show a sample of their 47 speaking skills. It can be recorded. The second process is rating or
evaluation in which the rater applies the rating to the test performance that produces scores. The
scores should satisfy the need that has been identified when test development first started.
Regarding those two ways in assessing the students speaking ability proposed by Thornbury
(2005) and Louma (2004), it seems that the combination of analytic scoring and rating scale will
be better than one type. The analytic scoring can be combined with the rating scale so that it is
more detailed in giving the students speaking assessment while providing descriptions on each
category. The criteria or aspects of the assessment can be the same as Thornburys criteria, such
as grammar, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, and pronunciation. Meanwhile, the rating scale
can be used in each criterion so that the assessment criteria become more detailed. By combining
the analytic scoring and rating scale techniques, the process of assessing the students speaking
ability will be more detailed. Besides, through the use of analytic scale, the teacher knows the
students weaknesses so that he or she can give some treatment to make improvement. D.
Cooperative Learning 1. The Definition of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is the
instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each
others learning (Johnson and Johnson, 1999:9). Jacob, Power, and Loh (2002) assert that
cooperative learning comprises principles and techniques for helping students 48 work together
more effectively. Another definition suggested by Slavin (1995: 2) who states that cooperative
learning refers to a variety of teaching methods in which students work in small groups to help
one another learn academic content. The higher-level students will help lower-level ones to
improve their understanding of the subject. The idea behind cooperative learning is that by
giving a reward to a group rather than individual, the students will be motivated to help one
another to master academic materials. Each member of a team is responsible not only for
learning the materials but also for helping teammates to understand the subject and complete the
task given. Thus, it creates an atmosphere of achievement. In addition, a cooperative classroom
increasingly emphasizes mediated learning. Mediation can be defined as facilitating, modeling,
and coaching. Facilitating involves creating a rich environment and activaty for linking new
information to prior knowledge, providing opportunities for cooperative work and problem
solving, and offering students several of authentic learning tasks. Coaching involves giving hints
or clues, providing feedback, redirecting students efforts and helping them in using the strategy.
This is to provide them with right amount of help when they need it. The decision to include
cooperative learning assignments in a course should be based on a careful examination of the
course goal. For example, if students are expected to be able to apply theoretical knowledge to
real world problems, or demonstrate decision making or problem solving, then it may be
appropriate to finish it in a group work. The size of the classroom is an 49 important element also
that must be considered in applying cooperate
ve learning. The number of students in each
team must enable them to participate in their work. Individual accountability is essential to group
success (Mandal, 2009). 2. The Principles and Advantages of Cooperative Learning Many
principles have been proposed for cooperative learning. Below are some principles of

cooperative learning proposed by different experts. a. Heterogeneous grouping. This principle

means that the groups in which students do cooperative learning tasks are mixed on one or more
of a number of variables including sex, ethnicity, social class, religion, personality, age, language
proficiency, and diligence (Jacobs, 2000). b. Collaborative skills. Collaborative skills, such as
giving reasons, are those needed to work with others. Students may lack these skills, the
language involved in using the skills, or the inclination to apply the skills (Jacobs, 2000). c.
Group autonomy. This principle encourages students to look to themselves for resources rather
than relying solely on the teacher. When student groups are having difficulty, it is very tempting
for teachers to intervene either in a particular group or with the entire class (Jacobs, 2000). d.
Simultaneous interaction. In classrooms in which group activities are not used, the normal
interaction pattern is that of sequential interaction, in which one person at a time, usually the
teacher speaks. In contrast, when 50 group activities are used, one student per group is speaking.
In a class of 40 divided into groups of four, ten students are speaking simultaneously, i.e., 40
students divided into 4 students per group = 10 students (1 per group) speaking at the same time
(Kagan, 1994). e. Equal participation. A frequent problem in groups is that one or two group
members dominate the group and for whatever reason, this impedes the participation of others.
Cooperative learning offers many ways of promoting more equal participation among group
members (Kagan, 1994). f. Individual accountability. In a classroom, the team success depends
on the individual learning of all team members. Accountability focuses the activity of the team
members on helping one another learn and making sure that everyone in the team is ready for a
quiz or any other assessment that students take with out teammate help (Slavin, 1995: 5) g.
Positive interdependence. When positive interdependence exists among members of a group,
they feel that what helps one member of the group helps the other members and that what hurts
one member of the group hurts the other members. It is this All for one, one for all feeling that
leads group members to want to help one another, to see that they share a common goal (Kagan,
1994). h. Cooperation as a value. This principle means that rather than cooperation being only a
way to learn, i.e., the how of learning, cooperation also becomes part of the content to be
learned, i.e., the what of learning. 51 Cooperation as a value involves taking the feeling of All
for one, one for all (Jacobs, 2000). i.Reward. It is very important to enhance students
performance (Slavin, 1995). Language experts and researchers do not only explore the principles
of cooperative learning, but also find the advantages of it. A good deal of research has revealed a
number of advantages in cooperative learning such as increasing student talk, more varied talk, a
more relaxed atmosphere, greater motivation, more negotiation of meaning, and increasing
amount of comprehensible input (Liang, Mohan and Early, 1998; Olsen and Kagan, 1992). Other
advantages of cooperative learning are described as follows: a. Promote student learning and
academic achievement b. Increase student retention c. Enhance students satisfaction with their
learning experience d. Help students develop skills in oral communication e. Promote student
self- esteem f. Provide a shared cognitive set of information between students g. Motivate
students to learn the material h. Provide formative feedback i. Develop social and group skills
necessary for success outside the classroom j. Promote positive interaction between members of
different cultural and socio- economic groups (Slavin, 1995; Kagan, 1994) 52 3. Cooperative

Learning Methods According to Johnson, Johnson, Stanne and Geribaldi (1990), cooperative
learning is actually a generic term that refers to numerous methods for organizing and
conducting classroom instruction. Many teachers use cooperative learning in so many different
ways that the list of methods are impossibly explained in this literature review. Here are some
class activities in cooperative learning cited from Mandal (2009) a. Jigsaw A group of five is set
up and each member of group learns different material. This is called as origin group. Then
everybody who is from the origin group will get together with the expert group consisting of
students who will talk the same material. After discussing with the expert group, each member of
group gets back to the origin group to teach about the material he has been discussed with the
expert group. b. Think- Pair- Share The teacher gives the students questions and let them think
about the answer. She then asks the students to share their ideas with a partner. This task gives
them opportunity to collect and organize their thoughts. In the end, the pair shares their responses
with other pairs. c. Three- step interview Students interview each other in pairs during the first
step. They then switch their roles as an interviewer and an interviewee. The final step is 53 that
members share their partners response with the team. Interview is used to gain competence in
speaking, listening and summarizing, d. Team- Pair- Solo Students do problem first as a team
then with a partner, and finally on their own. It is a good design to motivate the students to solve
the problems which are beyond their ability. e. Numbered Heads Together A team of four is
established. Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4. Questions are asked of the group.
Groups work together to answer the question so that all can verbally answer the question. The
teacher calls out a number (two) and each two is asked to give the answer. E. Conceptual
Framework Speaking is one of the important skills that should be acquired by students. Ideally,
in the speaking teaching and learning process, students have to be given some opportunities to
practice a target language and produce it in the spoken form. They can practice the language in
the forms of dialogs, monologs, discussions, games, or role plays. Besides, those practices can be
given in controlled, guided, or creative. Moreover, they have to be able to not only speak fluently
in English, but also pronounce phonemes correctly, use appropriate stress and intonation
patterns, and speak in connected speech and different genres and situations. As has been stated in
Chapter I, the tenth grade students of the tourism program at SMKN 7 Yogyakarta have a main
problem which is related to 54 speaking skills. This problem will be improved by using some
methods in cooperative learning. The actions will be carried out in the second semester.
Cooperative learning is used since the teacher seldom puts her students in some groups during
the teaching and learning process. Besides, the students enjoy learning together as their learning
can be facilitated through working in a team. By working together, it is not only speaking skills
that can be improved, but also it will simultaneously give a positive impact to the students
vocabulary, self- esteem, pronunciation etc. Having a partner to work with will help the students
learn the materials . They have more chances to practice speaking with their friends as
well.These things are supported also on a research about improving speaking skills by using
cooperative learning conducted by Tamaela in 2009. The activities that will be used
during the teaching and learning process are communicative tasks that require

students to speak up. They will be applied in the second semester in 2012. The
materials made will be a combination
ween what has been explained on the standard of competency, basic competence
and tourism. Thus, the learning materials will fulfill the students needs at the
tourism program. According to some literature about speaking and cooperative
learning, the conceptual framework can be described as follows. 55 Figure 1: The
schema of the conceptual framework of the study

F. Hypothesis
Based on the conceptual framework mentioned above, the hypothesis of this research can be
formulated as follows: when the tenth grade students of the tourism program are involved in
cooperative learning, their speaking skills will improve. Cooperative Learning (CL) Methods of
CL Communicative tasks Contextual material The students speaking skills improve