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Slide 2
LN
S3
3
3
S1
V LL I *
jQ
Slide 3
Leading
Power
Factor
Lagging
Power
Factor
jQ
P - jQ
P + jQ
Slide 4
IB
ZB
(kVB )
MVA B
3VI
3ZI
IB
SB
3VB
VB2
SB
ZB
I pu
I actual
IB
Zpu
Zactual
ZB
Vpu
Vactual
VB
Spu
Sactual
SB
Slide 5
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied starting
from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
kV
kVB2
N1
kVB2
N2
Z pu
X pu
1
X
R
X
R
R pu
x pu
X
R
Slide 6
X pu
0.065(12.14)
1 (12.14)
0.06478
0.06478
12.14
R pu
0.005336
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
Znpu
Zopu
o
B
n
B
V
V
% Z 100 Z pu
n
B
o
B
S
S
(5.33 10
j0.06478)
13.8
13.5
100
5
(0.1115 j1.3538)
11.15 j135.38
Impedance Z1: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.
VB
kVutility 13.5
4.0695
N1
3.31
N2
ZB
VB2
MVA
(4.0695) 2
100
0.165608
Slide 7
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Z pu
Zactual
ZB
% Z 100 Z pu
(0.1 j1)
0.1656
(0.6038 j6.0382)
60.38 j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Slide 8
Slide 9
Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Slide 10
Power Factors
Transformer LTC Settings
Voltage Drops
Generators Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Total Generation & Power Demand
Slide 11
Slide 12
Optimize Operating
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 13
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Slide 14
2.
3.
Fast-Decoupled Method
Newton-Raphson Method
Slide 15
kVARated
FLA3
FLA1
kWRated
PF Eff
kVARated
3 kV
kVARated
kV
HP 0.7457
PF Eff
kVA
PF
I3
I1
(kW ) 2 (kVar ) 2
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
1000
kV
1000
Slide 16
Slide 17
Slide 18
Slide 19
Slide 20
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Slide 21
Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Slide 22
Slide 23
Isochronous Mode
Slide 24
Droop Mode
Slide 25
Droop Mode
Slide 26
Droop Mode
Slide 27
Slide 28
Adjusting Excitation
Slide 29
Slide 30
In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
Slide 31
Slide 32
Slide 33
Slide 34
Slide 35
Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)
Slide 36
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Slide 37
Power Flow
V*I
V1
V2
V2
1
2
jQ
V1*V2
*SIN(
X
P
V1
V *V
j 1 2 *COS(
X
V1*V2
*SIN( 1
X
V1*V2
*COS( 1
X
V2
X
)
2
V2
X
Slide 38
I
I
1000 j268
1000 j268
Slide 39
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
( V E)
X
sin
( V E)
cos
X
Power Flow
V
X
2
2
0
Slide 40
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
For Bus4:
kVCalculated
100 97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated
V%
4.03
kVNo min al
4.16
kVCalculated
100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 41
Slide 42
Slide 43
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 44
Global
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Slide 45
Slide 46
Slide 47
Slide 48
Slide 49
Cable
Reactor
Line
Transformer
UPS/Panel
Generator
Slide 50
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
OverLoad
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
OverLoad
Slide 51
Slide 52
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Slide 53
Slide 54
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 55
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Run LF
Slide 56
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run LF
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Slide 57
Panel Systems
Slide 58
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
Slide 59
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Slide 60
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Slide 61
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 62
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)
Slide 63
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
Slide 64
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
Slide 65
Schedule Page
Slide 66
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Slide 67
Rating Tab
Slide 68
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Slide 69
Slide 70
Feeder Tab
Slide 71
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Slide 72
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Slide 73
Output Report
Slide 74
Slide 75