1.

Hybrid Cars
There are two configurations for hybrid cars. The first configuration uses gasoline
engine to run a generator. The generator supplies electricity to the motor, which
drives the wheels, which allows the gasoline engine to run constantly while achieving
optimum fuel efficiency. This thereby minimizes emissions owing to incomplete
combustion. A hybrid car with parallel configurations uses both an engine and a
motor to drive the wheels depending on driving conditions. "A hybrid car is an
automotive equipped with two or more sources of motive energy"
(http://www.howstuffworks.com/hybrid-car1.htm).
Hybrid cars use both gas and electric. The gasoline engine is the primary source of
power, while the electric motor is used at low speeds. Emissions levels are reduced
because the gasoline engine shuts off at low speeds. An additional benefit of the
parallel configuration is that no outside source of electric power is required because
the engine itself generates the required electricity. A Hybrid Electric Vehicle known as
HEV have several advantages over traditional internal combustion engine (ICE)
vehicles: Regenerative braking capability, which helps minimize the energy lost when
driving. Engine is sized to average load, not peak load, which reduces the weight of
the engine. Fuel efficiency is greatly increased, while emissions are greatly
decreased. HEVs can be operated using alternative fuels; therefore they need not be
depended on fossil fuels (http://www.ott.doe.gov/hev/what.html#hev). Another great
thing about these machines is the mpg; on the average, a hybrid car gets anywhere
from 55-70mpg on the hwy. This is what makes the car all worth having. Now all this
sounds good, but there are some issues that must be addressed.
First of all the prices must come down. The prices for hybrid cars are naturally higher
because there are no existing facilities for mass production and both engine and
electric motor must be installed. Another downfall is the lack of infrastructure for
repair and maintenance. Many of the mechanical problems occurring with the hybrid
cars may not be repairable at existing service stations. The Hybrid's car power
system is very complex and will require specialized expertise. Today there are a few
hybrid cars on the road, by the makers of Honda, GMC and Toyota. Once more
people realize that these cars are economical for the environment, I believe that more
will buy. And what about the future? Population is still on the rise, and in developed
countries everyone wants their own car.

2. The idea of the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has been around for longer than a
decade, as many people may not have originally thought. In fact, hybrid vehicles have
been in development for the past century. The combination of an electric motor and a
gasoline engine has been stirring in the minds of scientists and inventors alike for
many years. Hybrid cars have surpassed many feats as it's progressed through the
years, such as increased gas mileage and reducing the pollutants that regular
internal combustion engines expel. While the hybrid car is in high demand at the
present time, some people believe these cars are just a quick resolution before
bigger and better ideas, such as fuel cell vehicles, begin taking over the automobile
industry. Still, the development of the hybrid car has had many effects on today's
society and may continue to in the future.
When the 1970s rolled around and the oil crisis struck, gas prices rose tremendously
and people were very concerned about the dependency for oil and the idea of hybrid
cars once again came up. The main financial support came from the U.S.
Department of Energy, with a few automobile companies also investing some money.
By the early 1990s Volkswagen was the only automaker that considered marketing a
hybrid vehicle, only in Europe though. 1993 sparked a major event for the
advancement of hybrid cars. The Department of Energy signed a five-year $138
million development agreement with General Motors and a $122 million agreement
with Ford to design and build preproduction hybrid prototypes that could be marketed
in less than 10 years. Four years later brought about a new generation of hybrid
vehicles with the introduction of the Toyota Prius (Sperling, p. 101).
Today's hybrids come in many different varieties such as mild or full and series or
parallel. Mild hybrids require the use of an electric motor to assist the gas engine
when extra power is needed. It can only move from the stopped position if the internal
combustion engine is engaged. The mild hybrid can be broken down into 3 subsystems. The Start/Stop system, which is also called a micro hybrid, will shut off the
engine when the car would normally be idling and instantly restart the engine when
pressure is applied to the accelerator. This type of system only increases fuel
efficiency by approximately 10 percent and is the most basic of all hybrid vehicles. A
few GM trucks use the start/stop feature. Some people question whether the micro
hybrid should actually be considered a hybrid at all.
In a series hybrid vehicle the electric motor is the only thing turning the wheels. While
it does have a gasoline engine, it does not have a direct connection to the drive train.
Its main purpose is to power a generator, which either charges the batteries or turns
the electric motor. Currently there are no series hybrids in mass production, although
the Prius is considered to have a few characteristics of both the series and parallel
(Sperling, p. 104).

Like the series hybrid, the parallel hybrid system is much more complex than the mild
hybrid system. The parallel hybrid is also sometimes called a full hybrid. This system
basically allows the vehicle to run solely on the electric motor at lower speeds and in
stop and go traffic. This makes it much more fuel-efficient as this is when the gas
engine is the most inefficient. It also explains why cars such as the Prius get better
gas mileage in the city when at times its run mainly by the electric motor and not
using the gas engine at all (Sperling, p. 103). At higher speeds the gas engine splits
its power usage to the wheels and to a generator, which in turn runs an electric motor
that helps to turn the wheels as well. Not only do the batteries get replenished by the
generator when full power is not needed but also while the vehicle is coasting or
braking; as this produces energy as well which is sent to the batteries to recharge
them. This method makes the car efficient at all times. Parallel and mild hybrids are
currently the most produced hybrid vehicles today.
There are many benefits to owning a hybrid vehicle. Probably most important to
consumers is the gas mileage. HEV's can get anywhere from 40 to 70 miles per
gallon (Sperling, p. 109). This means saving time by refueling less often and getting
more miles on a tank of gas then a regular conventional vehicle. Another important
benefit of hybrid cars is the decrease in pollutants it puts out. This varies depending
on the vehicle and its configuration, but in general they have lower emissions than
internal combustion vehicles. This is due to the electric motor that can either assist or
solely run the vehicle. While the electric motor is running the vehicle by itself
produces zero pollutants and when it is assisting the gas engine, a lower level of
gasoline is being used which in turn reduces the amount of emissions emitted from
the gas engine.
There are also many incentives for purchasing a hybrid vehicle. Consumers who
purchase a hybrid vehicle are eligible for a tax credit. "They range from a one-time
credit of $250 for the Chevy Silverado and GMC Sierralight-green hybrids that
improve gas mileage only 10% - 15% -- to $3,150 for the Prius (Solheim, p. 103).
This credit depends on the fuel-efficiency of the car and how much fuel the car is
expected to save over its lifetime. The twist to the tax credit is that congress has set a
cap of 60,000 on the total number of people that can claim a tax credit from any one
automaker between 2006 and 2009 (Meckler, pg. D2). The opening of HOV lanes to
hybrid vehicles that contain only one passenger may also be seen in the near future
(Meckler). Many local and state governments offer incentives as well. "In New
Mexico, any hybrid that gets at least 27.5 miles per gallon is exempt from state sales
tax. New York provides a state income-tax credit worth $2,000. The city of San Jose,
Calif., offers free parking in city lots and at meters" (Meckler). All these incentives are
ways to decrease pollution and better the environment.

As there are benefits there are also disadvantages to the hybrid car. One aspect
that's making people choose internal combustion vehicles over hybrid vehicles is the
loss in performance. The acceleration speed is slower than a conventional gasoline
vehicle, which can make people feel unsafe, as their car is incapable of keeping pace
with traditional vehicles. Another factor is the extra price of hybrid vehicles. Why
would someone want to purchase a more expensive car that performs less than a
cheaper car? That thought runs through man people's minds while considering a
vehicle to purchase. Hybrids on the average are about $2,000 to $3,000 more
expensive. Plus, because of the heavy weight of the batteries, hybrids were made out
of lighter body materials, which make them more vulnerable to a greater amount of
damage in the event of an automobile accident. Still, the advantages must over
power the disadvantages as there is a six month waiting list for hybrid vehicles at this
time (Sperling, pg. 113).
The future of hybrid vehicles is still very unclear. Many people believe that consumers
will lose interest while others believe they will be around for many decades to come.
New and improved hybrids will still continue to be in production in the near future.
One such is the plug-in hybrid. This name may scare people away as they are used
to the idea of no extra hassle for a hybrid car. While the average American drives 30
miles per day, "plug-in hybrids with just 40 miles of range on batteries could handle in
all-electric mode 60 percent of Americans' driving needs" (Stoffer). It would then be
able to be charged overnight. For driving longer distances the plug-in hybrid also is
equipped with a gasoline engine that could also be used at the drivers' discretion.
There are a few other options to the hybrid car besides gasoline cars. All-electric
vehicles, which have already made an appearance, didn't last very long due to their
high prices and short travel distances before recharging is required. Unless these
problems can be overcome the all-electric vehicle does not look too promising. On
the other hand, Fuel cell vehicles, also known as hydrogen cars, are making their
buzz in the automobile industry. Replacing the gasoline engine with a hydrogen
engine would make for the cleanest mode of transportation eliminating harmful
emissions all together. Despite the constant effort of automakers working on fuel cell
technologies, hydrogen cars are not believed to be produced in significant numbers
for many decades. "According to one optimistic scenario presented in a report by the
National Academy of Engineering, by 2038, cars powered by hydrogen fuel cells
could completely dominate new-car sales, causing automotive gasoline consumption
to dry up by around 2050" (Lawrence, pg. 30).
As the development of hybrid cars continues, it's evident that the last century of
improving it has paid off. It's starting to become a more sought after option when
deciding what vehicle to purchase. With the rising gas prices and the effects we know

gasoline emissions cause to the environment something needs to be done now. Plugin and diesel hybrids could be just around the corner. While developing future
alternative fuel vehicles such as hydrogen cars the only answer for the problems of
today is the hybrid-electric vehicle.
Works Cited
Lawrence, S.. (May 2005) "Emerging Energy Technologies" Technology Review. Vol.
108 Issue 5. p30-30.
Meckler, L.. (August 8, 2005). "Free Parking for Hybrids" Wall Street Journal
(Eastern edition). Vol. 246 Issue 24. pD.1 D3.
Solheim, M. K. (May 2006) "How GREEN is my hybrid?" Kiplinger's Personal
Finance. Vol. 60 Issue 5. p102 104.
Sperling, D. (1994). Future Drive: Electric Vehicles and Sustainable Transportation.
Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Stoffer, H.. (March 2005). "Who's getting juiced about plug-in hybrids" Automotive
News.

3. The current

vehicles that are powered by gasoline pollute, but as

technologies improve and the human way of life changes alternatively
powered vehicles enter the automotive industry. These vehicles
developed to achieve better gas mileage and to help slow the
production of the gasses that cause Global Warming. The hybrid
vehicle is one of the newest and most popular alternatively powered
vehicle. Hybrid electric vehicles are energy efficient cars or trucks
that run on an internal combustion engine of a gas vehicle with the
battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle. This results in twice
the fuel economy of gas vehicles. These hybrid electric vehicles
consume fewer natural resources than gas vehicles and produce
almost no emission fumes compared to the standard gas vehicle.
Hybrid cars are one solution to preserving air quality for the future.

Hybrid electric cars were created because of the shortfall in battery

technology. The batteries that were being made could not produce
enough power. These batteries would not sustain long trips with the
car.
To work around this and on board generator, powered by an internal
combustion engine could be used for long trips. These cars became
known as hybrid electric vehicles that are now being mass-produced
by companies like Toyota and Honda. When the vehicle starts and
travels at city street speeds less than 30 miles per hour the electric
motor does the greatest amount of the work. As the cars power
sources begins to lose some of its energy the backup gasoline
engine starts. This function is similar to how gasoline cars work, with
the alternator using the engine's power to recharge the battery.
After the power supply is replenished the gasoline engine shuts down.
Also the gasoline engine is used to power the vehicle as it reaches the
higher speeds where the added horsepower is needed. Usually the
speed at which the gasoline engine starts is in the 30 mile per hour
range. Even as the gasoline engine runs the electric motor continues
to provide power for the vehicle.
This vehicle combination in my opinion is beneficial economically
and environmentally. Using the hybrid electric vehicle will reduce
smog-forming pollutants and cut emissions of global-warming
pollutants by a third to a half. The average gas vehicle will pose
substantial economic, environmental and energy security issue for
the U. S.
and all nations. When the hybrid operation schedule is biased more
toward the energy storage system, relying more on the battery than
on the gen set, emission levels become more like those of an battery
electric vehicle which has a zero emission reading level. The hybrid
electric cars have several advantages over the gas guzzling cars that
are already out there. The hybrid cars greatest advantage is that they
almost release zero emissions into the atmosphere.
These cars use their brakes to regenerate power to the batteries.
When the car is slowing down it takes the energy being released when

slowing the car down. The result is a use of energy that does not
require the car to be plugged in. The cars reduce the dependency on
fossil fuels because they are run on alternative fuels.
By combining gasoline with electric power, hybrids will have the
same or greater range than traditional combustion engines. Hybrid
electric cars are normally divided into the subtypes of either series or
parallel, which refers to the way in which the engine supplies power
to the propulsion system. In the series hybrid, a heat engine powers a
generator, which either charges the battery or supplies power directly
to the propulsion circuit and thereby reduces demand on the batter.
In a parallel hybrid, the heat engine delivers mechanical power
directly to the drive train, and the generator is eliminated.
The series hybrid is used mostly in the design of today's hybrids,
because of the lighter, smaller, and more powerful gen sets that have
been developed. Energy and power requirements are based on a
multiple of driving schedules that include power / duration plots of
acceleration, cruise, and total trip energy demands for each driving
schedule. The environmental benefits of a hybrid electric vehicle
depend on the design of the hybrid power system. Designs using
combustion engine for on board electrical generation and an
operating schedule that is heavily biased toward the engine /
generator system (gen set).
This produce the greatest amount of harmful emissions, but when
operating normally they produce almost zero emissions making them
the most efficient environmental breakthrough in reducing pollution
from gasoline cars. The hybrid requires less strain on the motor
because of the way it works off a generator which reduce strain on the
motor and with less strain there is less emissions produced and
therefore helping the problem of air pollution. Gasoline vehicles
release harmful chemicals, or pollutants through their tailpipes.
These chemicals, such as oxides of nitrogen and carbon dioxide are
produced through the combustion of fossil fuels. Besides the addition
to causing smog, these vehicles place a large role in contributing to
global warming and affect the health of the people. Hybrid electric
vehicles emit fewer of these pollutants into the air that people
breath.

If the hybrids can get into the market now the effect that they will
have can have a big impact on the quality of air in the future. There
has been a problem with the greenhouse gases and there needs to be
a way to reduce this problem so that it is not the destruction of this
planet. "If growth in global emissions continues unabated, the
atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (Co 2) and other
greenhouse gases is likely to double relative to it pre-industrial level
midway through the 21 st century and continue to rise thereafter to
levels not seen in 50 million years" (Beharrell and Toomey 1). The
problems of this could be devastating to all people on the planet and
could cause rising water levels and severe weather events. To try to do
this the Kyoto Protocol was adopted to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which is an
agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by clearly defined
reduction targets.
This will bring about a large amount of research into reducing the
problem of emissions gases from cars that are causes so much
damage to the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol is target to a few
greenhouse gases. These gases are Co 2, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydro fluorocarbons (HFC's), per fluorocarbons (PFC's), and sulphur.
The Kyoto Protocol states that "Article 3 (1) stipulates that Annex 1
countries must ensure that their aggregate greenhouse gas emissions
do not exceed their assigned amount, but does not require specific
reductions for each gas" (Beharrell and Toomey 2). The problem with
this is that there is no set rules for reduction. The countries can also
reduce one greenhouse gas in exchange for the increase of another
green house gas that has equivalent environmental effects using
conversion factors.
The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNG) have
created and environment in which automakers are willing to invest in
new development efforts. The Partnership for a New Generation of
Vehicles combines government and industry resources to develop a
prototype design for an affordable production ready family sedan by
year 2004. This group will emerge new cars that produce a near zero
emission level output. The group will be dealing with hybrid electric
vehicles along with standard gasoline type cars. The Partnership for a

New Generation of Vehicles is trying to make advances in high-power

batteries so that there is no use for gasoline and they are also trying
to create alternate fuels that burn clean or trying to use fuels that are
readably available and burn efficient and clean. The Partnership for a
New Generation of Vehicles has goals that must be achieved without
sacrificing key vehicle performance, safety, emissions, size and
economic criteria.
The vehicles fuel economy must be increased to 83 miles per gallon,
acceleration from zero to sixty in twelve seconds, maintain a top
speed of 85 miles per hour and climb a six and a half percent grade at
55 miles per hour for 20 minutes. The two major companies to first
mass-produce a hybrid electric vehicle are Toyota and Honda. Toyota
created the Prius, which is stated to get "45 to 52 miles per gallon
says the window sticker, puffing out few enough poisons to wear a
federal SU LEV (Super Ultra Low-Emission Vehicle) label" (Robinson
69). The Pruis is a relatively light vehicle, but it ways 88 pounds more
in the United States than it does in Japan.
This is because of the United States legal five mile per hour bumpers.
There must be competition in this market so Honda has created the
Insight, which has a one-liter VTEC-E gasoline engine. Honda's new
integrated motor assist power train incorporates and electric motor
to supplement the torque produced by the gasoline engine at low
rams. The integrated motor assist provides a smooth and adequate
amount of power to accelerate the Insight from stop to cruising
speed. The electric motor is extremely quiet which is a good thing for
noise pollution. This is because the motor is only 2.
4 inches wide and provides power to the drive train effortlessly. The
electric motor draws power from a battery pack, which is charged
through regenerative braking, so there, is no need to plug it in to
charge the battery. This is a good thing because there is not a use of
resources to charge the batteries so the Insight is being more selfefficient which is a good thing for the environment. The hybrid car is
one solution to curing the problem of air pollution that is out there
today and for the future. These cars will help bring down the
pollutants in the air.

The hybrid cars will help to clean the air for the future and help to
stop greenhouse gases that are generated by gasoline engine cars. The
hybrid electric vehicle allows for almost zero emission gases released
from it. The hybrid electric car will be able to use fossil fuels better
and make them last longer. With a hybrid electric vehicle the vehicle
gets better gas mileage than a typical gasoline fed engine. In doing
this a hybrid vehicle will make the resources last longer and will not
use them up as fast as they are now. The reductions that the hybrid
electric vehicle will make in the emissions problem will be one that is
looked upon as a revolution towards helping the planet.
As a human it is our right to live in a sustainable environment and
with the production of this car maybe in the future the air will be
sustainable and not cause any problems. Works Cited " Emissions
Trading: A new weapon in project finance." 9/29/2000. web weapon.
html 10/16/01 Robinson, Aaron.
"Toyota Pruis." Car & Driver March 2001. Vol. 46 Issue 9 p 69.
10/14/01"Honda Insight/Toyota Prius Comparison." 8/28/01. web
10/16/01.

The Future of Automotive Engines

In the future the automotive industries will need alternative fuel sources, in turn that
means they will need alternative engines in their automobiles. The engines found in
their cars will have to be changed to fit the new fuels being made. They have many
directions in which they can go concerning engine types and fuel types.
One type of engine is a called a fuel cell. A fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a
battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging. It will produce energy in
the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes sandwiched around and electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode
and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat. Hydrogen fuel is
used to make all this work. Fuel cell emissions are nothing but water vapor.
Fuel cells have reached a market of around $3 billion worldwide in the year 2000. A
mere one percent of global vehicle market, 450,000 vehicles, would mean another $2
billion more. Another recent study projected global demand for transportation fuel
cells in the year 2007 at $9 billion.
U.S. energy dependence is higher today than it was during the oil shock of the
1970's, and oil imports are projected to increase. Passenger vehicles alone consume

6 million barrels of oil every single day. If just 20 percent of cars used full cells, we
could cut oil imports by 1.5 million barrels every day. 10,000 fuel cell vehicles running
on non-petroleum fuel would reduce oil consumption by 6.98 million gallons a year.
The U.S. Department of Energy projects that if a mere 10% of automobiles
nationwide were powered by fuel cells, regulated air pllutants would be cut by one
million tons a year and 60 million tons of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide would
be eliminated. DOE projects that the same number of fuel cell cars would cut oil
imports by 800,000 barrels a day which is about 13 percent of total imports.
Fuel cells could create new markets for steel, electronics, electrical and control
industries and other equipment suppliers. They could provide tens of thousands of
high-quality jobs and reduce trade deficits.
Another engine type is the hybrid engine. The hybrid involves both the use of a
gasoline engine and an electrical engine. Both of these engines work together to
move the car. During acceleration the gasoline powered engine is used to get the
engine up to a speed of 60 mph. At 60 mph the gasoline engine then shut down and
the electric motors kick in while cruising. During breaking the electric motor is placed
in regenerative mode and the car slows down putting energy back into the 56
batteries.
This new engine drastically enhances acceleration, improves fuel efficiencies, and
reduces emissions.
These engine types are becoming more common. In the early 90's they were only
concepts and today they are coming into effect. I wouldn't be surprised if I owned one
of these engine typed cars in the future.
The only problem we face now is getting the public to trust these new cars. They
believe that they are to slow and do not have enough power. The automobile
companies have to start marketing these cars better so it is easier for the public to
see them. Right now the best selling hybrid car is the Honda Insight.
Within the next several years these engines are going to be very popular. Due to the
higher oil prices people would almost be forced to buy them.