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Chapter 8
Surfaces
In This Chapter
Introduction
Surface Features
Using Surfaces
Creating Surfaces
Intersecting Surfaces
Contouring Surfaces
Displaying Surfaces
Surface Volume Reporting
Creating a SEG for Block Model Interfacing
Introduction
In Gemcom, surfaces can represent several types of topographic
information including:
Original topographies
As-mined topographies
Pit designs
Dump layouts
Sub-surface structures such as geological structures, faults or
lithological contacts.
Modelling
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3144
Surface Features
Triangulated surfaces have many characteristics that differentiate
them from other computerized surface models:
The surface will not have any holes in it, unless a clipping
operation is performed after initial surface creation.
Page 3145
Using Surfaces
In Gemcom, you can:
Creating Surfaces
Gemcom lets you create surfaces using active data consisting of
discrete points (such as drillhole intersects, spot heights, or sample
locations) and polylines representing breaks in slope (such as surface
contours, bench crest lines, or bench toe lines). These surfaces are
created as a series of connected triangular panels, also known as a
triangulated irregular network (TIN). The surface is able to preserve
all the breaks in the feature lines used to make the TIN. A TIN surface
gives the best approximation of surfaces for subsequent operations
such as volume calculations.
You can also create surfaces using the Laplace gridding method.
Chapter 8: Surfaces
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Page 3147
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3148
Laplace Gridding
Laplace gridding provides a very fast and effective way to create
gridded surfaces in any orientation to represent any of the following:
Features
The main features of using Laplace gridding are as follows:
Different types of data can be used when making a single grid (for
example, drillhole collars, contours, and control stations can all be
used together to make a grid of surface topography).
All the data used for the gridding process can be visually checked
for correctness, both in 2D and 3D.
Page 3149
There is no size limit to the grid; the amount of data used for
gridding and the size of the grid itself is limited only by available
memory.
Data Points
Laplace gridding allows you to create a grid on the current view plane
using the same active data points as other surface creation commands,
including:
Storage Formats
Once the Laplace grid interpolation is complete, the grid can be saved
in a number of different formats:
The grid can be saved to a surface that can be contoured, clipped with
other surfaces or solids, plotted, etc.
Advantages
Laplace gridding has a number of advantages over other interpolation
methods (such as inverse distance and kriging):
Modelling
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3150
The time taken to create a grid does not depend significantly upon
the number of input data points. It can even turn out that the run
time for creating the grid will decrease as the number of points is
increased. Run times from a few minutes to a maximum of around
two hours can be expected.
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Modelling
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3152
Combined Method
Gemcom provides a third alternative. By combining the TIN and
Laplace gridding methods to create a single surface, the strengths of
both can be used while eliminating the drawbacks of using either
independently. The process is as follows:
1. Activate the data points that will be used for creating the grid.
2. Create a Laplace grid that covers the area of interest and grid it.
3. Save the results to an extraction file.
4. Load the extraction file along with the original data points.
5. Create a surface using the TIN method.
This process will first "fill in" the sparse areas with points from the
Laplace gridding method, then create a TIN using both the interpolated
points and the original data points. Both objectives are achieved; the
surface honours the known data points exactly while still providing a
smooth, natural representation of the whole surface by incorporating
the interpolated points.
General Procedure
Follow these steps to create a Laplace gridded surface:
1. Activate the data points to be used for the gridding process.
Depending on the type of surface you are creating, this may
include any combination of drillhole, point, or polyline data.
To use extraction file data:
Choose Point } Data } Load Data from Extraction File. Select
the name of the file containing the desired data to use for the grid
from the File Name dialog box that appears and choose OK.
In the editor that appears, enter the display parameters. If you are
displaying location values, select the Elevation field as your
display field. If you are displaying grade values, select either the
Page 3153
Real or Integer field as your display field. See Volume I: Core for
more information.
To use drillhole data:
Choose Drillhole } Data } Load Drillholes. From the picklists
that appear, select the desired loading and display profiles and
records.
Use the Drillhole }Select submenu to activate all (or part) of the
data that you want to use. See Volume II: Exploration for more
information.
To use polyline data:
Choose Polyline } Data } Load Polylines from Status Map.
See Volume I: Core for more information.
2. Laplace gridding occurs relative to the current view plane.
Determine the orientation you want your grid to follow by
selecting View }Vertical Section, Inclined Section or Plan
View. You must select a plane to activate the desired orientation,
although which plane you choose is not important, as the plane
itself is not needed by the application. For more information on
selecting planes, see Volume I: Core.
3. Change the current viewing mode to 2D.
For manual gridding, this step is optional, but may help you to
define the grid parameters, which must be specified in 2D planar
coordinates. Decide on the extents and parameters for the grid,
considering such factors as the distance between original data
points, the total number of original data points, and the final level
of density of data required. If you are also working with a surface
elevation grid, you will likely want to coordinate the size of the
Laplace grid with that of the SEG.
4. Choose Surface }Create }Create Surface by Laplace
Gridding }Define Grid Location Manually or Define Grid
Location Graphically and follow the command procedures
described in Chapter 12: The Surface Menu.
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Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3154
+ 2 y C ( 4 + 4 y ) z = 0
Page 3155
Copying Surfaces
You can create a new surface by copying and renaming an existing
surface. The new surface will contain the same attribute information
as the original. This command can be used to make a temporary
backup copy of any surface prior to performing editing operations.
As this command lets you enter X, Y, and/or Z offset values, you can
copy and move a surface in one step. This is useful in cases where you
want to make a solid from the surface for evaluation purposes. For
example, if you have a surface that represents the top of a five-metrethick seam , you can copy the top surface with an offset of -5 meters,
thus creating the bottom of the seam. You can then mesh the two
surfaces together to create a solid.
Each node on the top surface is projected onto the "bottom" surface to
calculate the new Z values according to the equation. The new surface
will contain the same number of nodes as the first surface selected in
this operation, and not the cumulative points of both surfaces as may
be expected. Therefore, the top surface should have corresponding
nodes on the bottom surface. For this reason, we suggest that this
command be used with surfaces created by the Laplace Gridding
Application and having exactly the same dimensions and XY locations.
Modelling
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3156
Intersecting Surfaces
Gemcom lets you perform several advanced merging/clipping
operations using surfaces. For example, you can clip all polylines or
solids above or below a surface, select or deselect points above or below
a surface, or merge surfaces together to make a new surface. This last
capability is useful in cases where you have one surface representing
topography and another representing a pit design, and you wish to
combine them.
As shown in Figure 8-3, you can:
By using the View menu commands with a limited corridor width, you
can quickly view the top surface/plane intersection using surface
models. These intersections can be used for plotting or as references
for on-screen digitizing in conjunction with block model/drillhole/point
information.
Page 3157
Figure 8-3: Two intersecting surfaces, cut away to show detail (top)
and the minimum of the two surfaces on left
Modelling
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3158
Contouring Surfaces
You can contour any surface to create new polylines. Contouring
involves slicing surfaces with sets of parallel planes. Contour lines are
the polylines of intersection between the surface being contoured and
the parallel planes (see Figure 8-4). Contour lines are stored as
polylines; once created, they can be edited, smoothed, manipulated or
used in the same way as any other polylines. Contouring can be done
in global or local view coordinates at specified intervals.
You can define the planes in six ways:
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Modelling
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3160
Gemcom is very flexible in that you can contour several solids and/or
surfaces at once. In addition, solids need not be of the same classyou
can contour Geology, Excavation, and Surface class solids in the same
operation.
Based on default plane. The plane attribute for all polylines will
be set to a user-specified default value.
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Chapter 8: Surfaces
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Displaying Surfaces
Each TIN created within Gemcom (or imported into Gemcom) belongs
to one of three classes: Geology, Excavation or Surface. Each active
TIN is displayed based on its class assignment. You can define different
display parameters for each class at any time. These parameters
include:
Solid display mode. You can choose one of two modes for
displaying the TIN:
Solid fill shows the TIN with solid coloured panels (when
viewed in rendered mode).
Z buffer shading mode. You can choose one of two modes for
shading TIN panels in 3D rendered viewing mode:
Page 3163
Surface Attributes
In addition to path, names, and class, you can assign three attributes
which affect the display characteristics of an individual surface:
Panel colour. This parameter defines the colour in which the TIN
will be drawn using the primary colour method.
If you choose the Triangle Dip option and you want to view a design
pit, you might define a colour profile called PIT-DIP with these ranges:
0 to 1
1 to 15
15 to 60
60 to 90
RED
BLUE
GREEN
YELLOW
If you choose the Triangle Z option and you want to view the same
design pit, you might define a colour profile called PIT-ELEV with these
ranges:
1200 to 1240
1240 to 1280
1280 to 1320
1230 to 1360
1360 to 1400
Modelling
RED
BLUE
GREEN
YELLOW
CYAN
First Level
Second Level
Third Level
Fourth Level
Fifth Level
Chapter 8: Surfaces
Page 3164
Surface name.
Base elevation.
Total XY area (the sum of all triangle areas where each triangle is
projected onto the XY plane).
Total surface area (the sum of all triangle areas where each
triangle is projected onto its best fit plane).
Page 3165
Chapter 9
Solids
In This Chapter
Introduction
Using Solids
Types of Solids
Solid Creation Guidelines
Components of a Solid
Component Requirements
Amalgamation of Sub-Rings
Dimples, Volcanoes, and Other Surfaces with Concavities
Recommendations
Logical Solids
Solid Validation
Fixing Invalid Solids
Examples of Fixing Invalid Solids
Fixing Duplication Errors
Copying Solids
Intersecting Solids with Planes and Other Solids
Contouring Solids
Displaying Solids
Introduction
Gemcom allows you to transform your 2D (two-dimensional) polygons
into 3D (three-dimensional) solids. A solid in Gemcom is a 3D object
that is created by first connecting polygons that define similar zones
from one plane to another using tie lines, and then by automatically
constructing a 3D triangulated surface around all the polygons and tie
lines. Gemcom can create solids that represent orebodies or
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Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3166
Using Solids
Gemcom provides you with a set of powerful interactive tools for
constructing 3D solids models (often called wire-frames). You can do
the following:
Contour solids.
Types of Solids
The solids which Gemcom uses can be separated into three categories:
Page 3167
Geology Solids
Geological solids represent homogenous volumes of ground. Each
geological solid is identified by a three-part name, and is given a single
rock-type attribute, and single grade values for each specified mineral.
Geological solids are used to represent ore bodies, ore zones, dykes,
sills, or any other geological zone(see Figure 9-1). Geological solids are
generally constructed from combinations of 3D rings, polylines and
points digitized on sections or plan views.
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Chapter 9: Solids
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Page 3169
Excavation Solids
Excavation solids represent voids in the ground created by mining.
Each excavation solid is identified by a three-part name, and no other
attributes. Excavation solids can represent development such as
shafts, haulages, crosscuts, ramps or raises, or stope designs.
Excavation solids can also represent excavation designs, or as-mined
excavations (see Figure 9-2).
Excavation solids can be constructed from digitized centrelines and
cross-section profiles, outlines digitized on plan views, 3D rings, or
surveyed data.
Note that solids are commonly viewed in combination with other solid
types and other data such as drillholes and block models for a more
comprehensive visualization of data. For example, Figure 9-3
illustrates geology and excavation solids, drillholes, and block models
together:
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Chapter 9: Solids
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Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
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Components of a Solid
The components you use to create a solid are as follows:
Rings
Ties
External points
Part-rings
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Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3174
Rings
A ring is defined as a 3D closed polyline (see Figure 9-8). The points
that form the polyline may or may not lie on a plane. In order to be
classified as a solid, an object must have at least one ring; otherwise,
the object is a surface.
Neighbouring rings can be at large angles to each other. Specifically,
for any sequence of three rings, the angle between the plane of the
first ring and the plane of the third ring must be less than 180.
Each ring must form a simple circuit when it is projected onto its bestfit plane. As Figure 9-9 shows, a simple circuit means that the ring
does not intersect itself. If it does, the solid creation process will report
an error, and it will be necessary to modify the ring before attempting
the solid creation process again.
Page 3175
OK
ERROR
ERROR
Sub-Rings
Rings can either be single entities, or they can be split into sub-rings
(see Figure 9-10) using tie line splits that connect points on the same
ring (as opposed to tie lines that connect rings on different planes).
A single
ring with
no splits
A ring split
into sub-rings
by two tie lines
across its face
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3176
Ties
A tie is a polyline that connects other elements of the solid to each
other. A tie may have multiple segments. Each end of a tie lies on a
ring, a part-ring, an external point, or a split. Any number of tie lines
may start or end at the same point (see Figure 9-11).
External Points
External points are used to terminate sections of the solid. These are
useful if you think there is part of the solid beyond the last ring, but
have no further hard data. You can place a point logically beyond the
last ring at an estimated location. You can think of an external point
as a one-point ring. An external point must be connected by at least
one tie (see Figure 9-12).
Page 3177
Part-Rings
A part-ring is a partial ring, i.e., it is not closed. A part-ring is used
when a full ring is not available. It modifies the solid surface in a local
area.
There are two types of part-rings:
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Chapter 9: Solids
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Page 3179
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3180
Component Requirements
The specific requirements for the components of a solid are very few.
However, it is important that the user understand them.
e2
e1
i1
e3
i2
i3
Error: the
internal partring (i1, i2, i3)
is not allowed
between the
full ring and
the external
part-ring (e1,
e2, e3).
Page 3181
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3182
Each end of an internal part-ring needs exactly two ties, one in each of
two logically opposite directions (see Figure 9-18).
tie lines
rings/part-rings
Figure 9-19: Diagram legend
Page 3183
A correct configuration
p
a
d
e
Error: sequences abc and ade go through, but they are not separate.
Figure 9-20: Example using two complete rings and two part-rings
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3184
A correct configuration
A correct configuration
Page 3185
OK
ERROR
OK
ERROR
ERROR
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3186
If the two rings are connected by a single tie, there are no further
requirements (see Figure 9-24).
OK
OK
ERROR
OK: 6 end-pts
OK: 5 end-pts
ERROR: 4 end-pts
ERROR: 4 end-pts
Page 3187
Sprays of ties
Sprays of Ties
Two rings or sub-rings connected only by a spray of ties is
ambiguous. A spray of ties is two or more ties with a single common
end-point (see Figure 9-27).
Figure 9-27: A spray of ties: you will be asked to supply more ties.
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3188
Figure 9-28: Ambiguous case: you will be asked to specify more ties.
Page 3189
Figure 9-30: Ambiguous case: you will asked to specify more ties.
the ring on the far right forms a solid with either one of the sub-rings,
or both. The addition of ties which do not join the split is required to
resolve the situation.
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3190
Amalgamation of Sub-Rings
For purposes of explanation in this section, sequences of ties between
two rings will be considered to be a single tie. Also, part-rings will be
ignored.
Page 3191
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
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Page 3193
Both sets of
sub-rings on
the face of each
ring will be
amalgamated
before forming
the solid.
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3194
Dimples, Volcanoes,
and Other Surfaces
with Concavities
Gemcom offers the capability to model surfaces with concavities. If a
solid has concavities on the sides, the concavities will be represented
in the rings, and solid formation will model the concavities without
further processing (see Figure 9-38).
Page 3195
Recommendations
The insertion of ties can have a very strong influence on the final
solid.
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3196
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Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3198
Triangles on the
back side have
been omitted for
clarity.
A possible triangulation.
Addition of this
tie line restricts
the influence of
the concave tie.
Bidirectional Bifurcations
It is possible to create a solid which contains a bidirectional
bifurcation (see Figure 9-42).
Page 3199
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3200
Ties
Be generous when inserting ties, especially with ties that do not
connect to splits.
Logical Solids
A logical solid is simply a collection of physical solids which have
been designated as belonging logically together. A logical solid may be
useful in a zone in which the ore is extensively fractured, where each
physical solid represents a parcel of ore (see Figure 9-44).
Page 3201
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3202
A
Figure 9-46: Cut-away drawing of a nested logical solid
In Figure 9-46, the volume of the logical solid is the volume of A minus
the volume of B plus the volume of C.
Solid Validation
Gemcom provides the capability for validating solids. It is strongly
recommended that you validate all solids upon creation (or upon
importation into Gemcom). Invalid solids can lead to incorrect
volumetrics as well as errors when intersecting solids with other solids
or surfaces. Early validation will help to ensure reliable results.
When validating solids, the program checks for invalid triangle edges
and self-intersection. To be valid, a solid may not intersect itself. A
solid is self-intersecting when one part of the solid intersects another
part of the same solid (i.e., when any of its triangles intersect each
other). As well, each edge in a valid solid must be part of only two
Page 3203
triangles (or one triangle in the case of edges along the perimeter of a
valid surface).
Whenever a solid is validated, the program looks for self-intersecting
triangles and counts triangle edges to determine if any are connected
to more edges than allowed. If any errors are discovered, Gemcom
displays an error message and highlights the problem areas.
Strategic placement of tie lines. One way to eliminate selfintersection is to change or add tie lines. The original placement of
a tie line may be forcing the creation of triangle edges in an
inappropriate direction.
Changing or adding tie line splits. Since all tie lines (including
splits) can have multiple points, you can add points to change the
shape of the split. Alternatively, you can put in two splits close
together, which creates a small close-off between them. This will
separate the two legs of a bifurcation a small amount. Or, you can
create tie lines from a split to a ring to improve the triangulation.
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
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Page 3205
10400E
10500E
10350E
10150E
10550E
10200E
West
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3206
Tie line
Section
10500E
Section
10550E
Page 3207
Area A
Area B
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3208
Ring 10500E
Tie line
Area A
Area B
Narrow
3D ring
Ring 10550E
Page 3209
creation pattern that is based on the poor placement of the tie line.
The second condition is due to the meshing of non-planar rings
(creating the bend at Area B).
Both areas can be easily corrected. The key is to determine a common
condition contributing to both problems. Since unnecessarily long
edges occurs in both areas, it follows that we should direct our
attention to changing the placement of the original tie line. A better
placement is illustrated in Figure 9-53:
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3210
Page 3211
Section
10400E
Section
10350E
Area C
Area D
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3212
Bottom of solid
protruding
through the top
Ring on section
10400E
(foreground)
Tie lines
Sharp and
narrow bend
Area of self-intersecting
triangles
Ring on section
10350E
(background)
Page 3213
Additional
tie lines
Two part-rings
Additional
tie lines
Additional
node
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3214
Adding 3D Rings
Gemcom performs validity checks on a hierarchical basis. The process
first looks for invalid edges, and then for self-intersecting triangles. If
the system encounters invalid edges, it will discontinue any further
checks for self-intersection.
Invalid edges occur when three or more triangles share an edge. The
most likely occurrence of this is in areas of bifurcation, when the
inside surface of the solid becomes coincident with itself: part of the
surface may internally touch another part of the surface. You can
visualize this by thinking of squeezing a balloon: where your thumb
and index finger touch each other would be an invalid edge.
In the following example, our attempt to validate a solid created from
rings on sections 10150E and 10200E produces the error message seen
in Figure 9-60:
Page 3215
Section
10150E
Tie line
Section
10200E
Tie line
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3216
Bad
triangles
Bad triangles
Bad edge
(coincident with tie line
defining line of bifurcation)
Ring on section
10100E
Area of
bifurcation
Page 3217
connecting the duplicate ring with the ring on section 10150E with as
many tie lines as necessary.
Remember that after you fix invalid edges, you must validate the new
solid to check for any self-intersecting triangles that were previously
ignored by the validation process.
Copying Solids
You can create a new solid by copying and renaming an existing solid.
The new solid will contain the same attribute information as the
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3218
Clip the solid portion of a solid that lies inside another solid (see
Figure 9-66).
Page 3219
Create the union of one solid with another solid (see Figure 9-68).
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Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3220
Page 3221
If any of these conditions exist, you should change the solids slightly,
by placing a significant amount of space between them (e.g., 0.1
metre).
Intersection operations between logical solids produce the same
intuitive results as for physical solids. However, intersections between
a surface and a logical solid make sense only when the surface
intersects all of the physical solids members of the logical solid. If the
surface misses any of the physical solids, the result will be undefined.
Contouring
Contouring involves slicing solids with sets of parallel planes (see
Figure 9-71 and Figure 9-72). Contour lines are the polylines of
intersection between the solid being contoured and the parallel planes.
The contour lines are stored as polylines, so once they are created they
can be edited, smoothed, manipulated or used in the same manner as
any other polyline. This means that you can create solids from sets of
polylines on vertical sections, create contours on plan views, edit the
polylines that were created in the contouring process, and then rebuild
the solids from the plan view data to get a new interpretation of your
data. You can define the planes in a number of ways:
In the current view plane, with an upper and lower local Z value,
and separation distances between the planes.
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Chapter 9: Solids
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Page 3223
You can preset default values for all the polyline attributes if you dont
want the program to automatically assign the attributes for you. The
polylines created from contouring can be used for all normal polyline
operations (clipping, solid creation, editing, etc.).
Displaying Solids
Each TIN created within Gemcom (or imported into Gemcom) belongs
to one of three classes: Geology, Excavation or Surface. All active TINs
are displayed based on their class assignment. You can define different
display parameters for each class at any time. These parameters
include:
Solid display mode. You can choose one of two modes for
displaying the TIN.
Solid fill shows the TIN with solid coloured panels (when
viewed in rendered mode).
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3224
Z buffer shading mode. You can choose one of two modes for
shading TIN panels in 3D rendered viewing mode:
Page 3225
Figure 9-74: The smooth-shaded sphere displays a smooth, "pingpong ball" appearance
Solid Attributes
In addition to path, names, and class (and grades for Geology solids)
you can assign three attributes which directly affect the display
characteristics of an individual solid or surface:
Modelling
Chapter 9: Solids
Page 3227
Chapter 10
Reserves Reporting
In This Chapter
Introduction
Components of Reserves Reporting
Report Types
Report Structure
Reserves Reporting Profiles
Mined and Filled Volumes
Default Rock Code and Grades
Overlapping Solids
Needling
Checking Needle Accuracy
Using Clipping Polygons
Issuing a Report
Polygonal Reserves
Introduction
The Volumetrics menu allows you to produce reserves reports
containing volume, grade, density, tonnage and product information.
The volumetrics toolbox is extremely flexible: you can report
quantities of ore and waste within solids and between surfaces by
groupings of rock codes and grade ranges, and with varying levels of
detail. Volumetrics can incorporate block models for the reserve
calculations, by evaluating the proportion of each block that is
contained within a solid or between surfaces. You can also report
polygonal reserves.
Modelling
Page 3228
Page 3229
Page 3230
assign a low grade rock code to a folder which contains a low grade
block model. This way, one block of an entire block model can have
different rock codes and different grades (controlled by the Gemcom
solids). You define the block model names and folders. See Chapter 3:
Block Model Projects for more information on defining block models
and folders.
Rock type. When creating rock code definitions in Gemcom, it is
possible to tag a rock code as barren (waste). This allows for flexible
and efficient reserves reporting since you can include areas that will
not be accessed for grade calculations; any rock code designated as
waste contributes only volume and density information to the reserves
reporting calculations. Generally you would use a waste designation
for host rock or for the reserves reporting default rock code (for
unmodelled areas).
Report Types
By combining the various report components, many types of reserves
reports describing volume, tonnage, grade and product can be issued.
The different combinations are outlined in the tables below.
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications
Activate
Multiple
geology solids
Geology
solids
Multiple
excavation
solids
User-specified
defaults
Excavatio
n solids
Page 3231
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications
Activate
Intersection of
multiple
geology and
excavation
solids*
Block model
material within
multiple
excavation
solids
Block models
Geology
solids
Dilution assessment where solids have been and
Excavatio
defined for ore zones but not for
surrounding host rock. If excavations extend n solids
beyond the ore zones into the host rock,
outer material will be classified by userspecified default parameters and considered
dilution.
When geology is either extremely complex
or extremely simple, and it is considered
unnecessary to construct geology solids.
When geology is complex, a small block size
is desirable. The rock code model could be
built from bench plans or cross-sectional
polygons; the report would logically be
subdivided by plan view.
Excavatio
n solids
and
Block
models
Geology
solids,
Excavatio
n solids
and
Block
models
* For these reports, the needle pattern only needs to cover the excavations. This permits a
denser needling pattern in the area of interest, which is particularly useful when you have
large geology solids and small excavation solids.
** If a high level of accuracy is required, needle generation and reserves calculations for this
type of report may take several hours. Therefore, it is recommended that you initially do a
few test runs using only one or two solids.
Modelling
Page 3232
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications
Activate
Block model
material within
multiple
geology solids
Geology
solids
and
Block
models
Mined and
filled volume
between two
surfaces
User-specified
defaults
Surfaces
Intersection of
multiple
geology solids
with Mined
and filled
volume between
two surfaces
Geology
solids
and
Surfaces
Page 3233
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications
Activate
Block model
material within
mined and
filled volume
between two
surfaces
Block models
Block
models
and
Surfaces
Block model
and geology
solid material
within mined
and filled
volume between
two surfaces**
Geology
solids,
Block
models
and
Surfaces
** If a high level of accuracy is required, needle generation and reserves calculations for this
type of report may take several hours. Therefore, it is recommended that you initially do a
few test runs using only one or two solids.
For estimating ore reserves, you must have at least one geology solid,
or one excavation solid, or two surfaces. When combining geology
solids with excavation solids or surfaces, only the data within the
excavations or surfaces is reported. Reports that include interaction
with one or more block models will generally take longer to produce
than other reports.
Modelling
Page 3234
Z
Original
topography
Geology solids
B260
Pit
design
B220
Planviews
B100-B260,
representing
mining
benches
B180
B140
B100
Report Structure
The Reserves Reporting process ultimately creates numerous
individual reporting categories, each classifying "homogenous"
material. For example, an individual reporting category may contain
this type of information:
All material in stope S100 on plan view B256 that is rock code
ORE and contains copper grades greater that 0.25 % and gold
grades between 2 and 8 grams/ton
Page 3235
have defined and linked rock codes and grade ranges (see the following
section Reserves Reporting Profiles).
The four sorting options for each reserves report are:
Modelling
Page 3236
Grade. The grade value (e.g., CU%) of each grade element (as
defined in Gemcom) in the category. There may be up to ten grade
fields in a report, as Gemcom allows up to ten grade elements per
project.
The report produces segments with subtotals for each of the above
fields, and grand totals for each field.
Figure 10-2 shows one segment of a simple reserves report for a
geology solid using one excavation solid, thirty vertical sections, one
rock group and one grade group (with four grade ranges). The report is
sorted in the order of excavation, plane, rock group, grade group. The
only grade element defined for the Gemcom project is percentage of
copper. This report would have a total of thirty such subtotalled
segments, each having four individual reporting categories.
You may specify whether you want values within each segment to be
reported by an incremental or cumulative method. Incremental values
(as seen above) show the individual reporting categories, whereas
cumulative values include the values for the individual category
summed (in the cases of volume, tonnage and product) or averaged (in
the cases of density and grade) with the values for the preceding
categories in that field.
Page 3237
Totals for EXCAVATION STOPE1
Subtotals for PLANE 210
Subtotals for ROCKGROUP SILL
GRADEGROU
P
VOLUME
DENSITY
TONNAGE
CU%
CU%
M**3
T per
M**3
Grade
Product
Waste
2755.685
2.450
6751.429
0.00
0.0
Low
80.031
2.450
196.077
0.05
10531.3
Med
339.439
1.000
339.439
0.08
26191.1
High
64.845
2.450
158.870
0.18
28679.1
Subtotal
3240.000
2.298
7445.814
0.01
65401.4
Subtotal
3240.000
2.298
7445.814
0.01
65401.4
Page 3238
Page 3239
0.5 - 1
Average
1-2
High
2 - 10
Rest
0 - 100
The way you order the rock groups and grade groups in the reserves
reporting profile will affect their order on the report. The rock group
that is entered first in the profile will be appear as the first rock group
on the report, and so on. Similarly, the corresponding grade group for
the first rock group will be used first by the reporting process, etc.
Modelling
Page 3240
Top surface
Bottom
surface
Mined
volume
Figure 10-3: Volume between a pit design surface and original surface
topography
In Figure 10-3, the surface topography is defined as the top surface.
The volume of material in the pit would be reported as mined (because
it is below the top surface).
Bottom
surface
Filled volume
Top surface
Page 3241
Top
surface
Filled
volume
Mined
volume
Bottom
surface
Page 3242
Geology
solid
Default
region
Excavation
solid
(planned
stope)
Default
region
Page 3243
Top surface
(original
topography)
Default
region
Geology
solid
Bottom surface
(pit design)
Default
region
Bottom surface
(pit design)
Modelling
Page 3244
Block model(s)
included?
Density source
Grade source
Yes
Block model
Block model
No
None
Waste
Page 3245
Default
region
Default
region
Excavation
solid
Block model
Figure 10-9: Default region with block model and ore default rock
type
In most cases, the default rock code will be the host rock. Often, this
will be designated as a waste rock type, or have assigned default
grades of 0 (assuming the host rock contains no significant grade
quantities). In other cases, assigning grades other than 0 may give a
more realistic answer if you know that the default rock code contains
some metal.
To have default regions included in the report, make sure that one of
the rock groups defined in your reserves reporting profile contains the
default rock code. In addition, to have default grade values included in
the report, make sure the default grades that you have entered are
included in at least one of the grade ranges within a grade group.
For convenience, you may want to put the default rock code in its own
rock group (and grade group) to have it reported separately. Or, you
may include the default grade range in a catch-all grade group
linked to a catch-all rock group (see Reserves Reporting Profiles).
Modelling
Page 3246
Y
D2
D1
D3
R1
X
Figure 10-10: Assignment of overlapping solids
Overlapping Solids
Reserves reporting allows for the inclusion of solids that overlap. In
some cases, overlap can be the result of errors made when creating or
selecting the solids. However, in other cases you may produce this
overlap intentionally, such as when wanting to simplify solid creation.
Reserves reporting will not accumulate volume, density or grade totals
twice when handling geology solids. Instead, if geology solids overlap
each other, solid precedence will determine which solid "owns" the
overlapping material.
This facility can be used to greatly simplify the solid creation process.
For example, you may have a property where the host rock contains
more recently formed dykes. Instead of creating separate solids for all
the parts, it may be more efficient to simply create one solid for the
host rock code and let Gemcom handle the overlaps for you (see Figure
10-10).
Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation
Page 3247
Solid Precedence
You can use Volumetrics }Define Solid Precedence to explicitly
define the order of precedence by assigning a number to each solid of
interest, where the lowest number receives highest precedence. When
geology solids overlap, the higher precedence solid will determine
volume, density and grade information This method overrides the
default method and usually should be employed, as it removes any
ambiguity as to precedence.
Default solid precedence is determined by the order in which rock
codes are listed alphanumerically. For example, if one solid with rock
code 10 and another with rock code 20 overlap, 10 will occur closer
to the top of the Gemcom rock code listing. Thus, rock codes that
represent the most recent geological formations might be cleverly
given a prefix to force them to the top of the listing, so as to override
the older formations. This list may be edited at any time.
For example, suppose you have a deposit that encloses two as-mined
excavations. You can simply create one geology solid for the deposit
(rock code zdyke) and two excavation solids (rock code sill). With
"sill" higher on the rock code list, the excavation volumes will be
reported in place of the geology where appropriate.
Modelling
Page 3248
Needling
Gemcom calculates volume, tonnage and grade for solids using a
numerical integration technique called needling. This method is
named needling as it can be likened to inserting hundreds or
thousands of "needles", or drillholes, through the solids to see what the
solids contain (see Figure 10-11).
A needle is essentially a vector in 3D space that intersects selected
data objects (i.e., solids, surfaces, block models, and planes). By
checking the entrance and exit points of each needle through the
solids, the reserves reporting program determines which regions fall
within them. The length and area of each needle determines the
volume, grade and density information that pertains to those regions.
The total volume of each solid is the sum total of the volumes from all
the individual needles that pass through it. The summation of all
needle information provides the complete reserves report for the
selected solids (see Figure 10-12).
The needling process requires you to do the following:
1. Define the orientation, size and location of a 2D grid on a plane
from which the needles will be generated.
2. Specify what type of needle pattern you want to use.
3. Specify how many needles you want to use.
For each needle, Gemcom will then:
Page 3249
Geology solid
X
Figure 10-11: Sectional view of geology solid and coarse needle
spacing showing how intersections approximate solid volumes
Area inside
dotted line
shown in
greater detail
below.
Geology solid
Needles
Stope
X
Figure 10-12: Sectional view showing geology solid and stope being
intersected with horizontal needles
Modelling
Page 3250
Needle exits
geology
Needle
enters stope
Needle
enters
geology
Needle
exits stope
Volume (V ) =
NG
NG
k =1
l =1
i =1
j =1
Wk Wl Aij X (i , j , k , l )
where:
NrowG
NcolG
NG
k,l
Page 3251
Aij
Modelling
Page 3252
Perpendicula
r to the
strike
Parallel
to the
strike
Grid Pattern
Needles are generated on a 2D "grid" located on a 3D plane. The
specific plane is either the selected current view plane or a plane
relative to a block model. The location of the grid itself is either
determined automatically by the extents of the data, aligned with a
block model or defined manually by the user. Gemcom then generates
needles normal to the plane (in 3D), extending in both directions.
In general, needles oriented perpendicular to the "strike" of solids will
give more accurate volume results than needles oriented parallel to
the strike (see Figure 10-14). There are two main reasons for this:
more needles will have contact with the solid, therefore providing
a more accurate numerical approximation of the solid volume
Page 3253
The needle grid is made up of a matrix of rows and columns, the total
number of which is determined by the size of the grid cells and the
total area covered by the grid. The following parameters define each
grid:
cell height
cell width
number of rows
number of columns
starting XY location of the grid's lower left corner
grid rotation angle (optional)
Modelling
Page 3254
Block model
levels
Grid cell
height
Grid cell
width
Number of
grid rows
Number of
grid columns
Block model
columns
Grid lower
left corner
Block model
minimum X,
maximum Y,
minimum Z
Block model
minimum X,
minimum Y,
minimum Z
Block model
minimum X,
minimum Y,
maximum Z
Grid rotation
angle
0.0
0.0
Page 3255
Y
Figure 10-15: Needles oriented along block model rows
With the Rows method, the grid plane is created on the west side of
the block model and needles are generated west to east (see Figure 1015). This orientation is recommended for most solids/block model
reports for two reasons. Firstly, with any block model, rows are
generally oriented perpendicular to the strike. Secondly, because the
file structure of block models is based on rows, this method will be the
most efficient. Block model access may represent as much as 50
percent of the total processing time in reserves reporting. In most
cases, with this method block model access will be between 5 and 20
times more efficient using rows than with columns or levels.
With the Columns method, the grid plane is created on the south side
of the block model and needles are generated south to north (see
Figure 10-16). With certain irregular solids (e.g., a narrow vein
deposit), this method may be most appropriate. Computation times
will be slower however.
Modelling
Page 3256
Y
Figure 10-16: Needles oriented along block model columns
Y
Figure 10-17: Needles oriented along block model levels
With the Levels method, the grid plane is created on the top of the
block model and needles are generated top to bottom (see Figure 1017). Using needles parallel to levels is necessary for the evaluation of
Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation
Page 3257
Modelling
Page 3258
X
Figure 10-18: Auto-fit grid method
To create a user-defined grid, you must inspect your data onscreen on
the appropriate current view plane. Generally, the first step is to
decide on a suitable cell height and width. The smaller the size of cell
height and width, the more cells created. The number of cells created
multiplied by the density of needles generated within each cell (the
integration level) will ultimately determine the total number of
needles.
Both the cell size and the integration level control the total number of
needles generated. In general, any way the total density is derived will
produce the same result. That is, 400 cells with 1 needle per cell are
equivalent to 1 cell with 400 needles with the same total area.
You must then determine the XY location of the grids lower left-hand
corner. Calculate the number of rows and columns from the number of
cells needed to cover the total extents of the data.
Past experience has shown this method to be the most prone to error
as a simple data entry mistake can result in the needles being
Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation
Page 3259
Y
User has the
option of
defining a
counterclockwise
rotation angle
for the grid.
- 30
Needle Pattern
The reserves reporting process provides different needle patterns that
control the location of individual needles within each cell of the needle
grid. Each pattern will give equally accurate results if enough needles
are used (as is the case with all numerical integration techniques).
However, each pattern will give superior results under certain
situations where a small number of needles are used.
There are three needle patterns available:
Regular grid
Irregular grid
Regular Gauss
Modelling
Page 3260
The patterns control the placement of needles within each cell, and
thus the different weighting of each individual needle. The weighting
is the 2D area that is represented by the pierce point of each needle.
The pierce point determines the density and grade information for the
total volume of the needle.
Choosing the appropriate needle pattern depends on the shape of your
solids. In general, regular solids should be needled with a varying
pattern (either irregular grid or regular Gauss). Irregular solids are
often best combined with the Gauss pattern; a narrow deposit benefits
from the irregular grid pattern. The regular grid works reasonably
well with all sizes and shapes of solids.
In cases where the reserves report contains combinations of the
various "shapes" of solids, you will have to make a decision about the
most appropriate pattern. For example, if you were evaluating several
hundred stopes and headings against one large irregular ore solid, the
best pattern type would probably be the irregular grid as the
excavation volume accuracy would be the more critical number.
Regular Grid
This pattern gives all needles within the cell equal weighting. All
needles are spaced equally apart over each cell and over the entire
needle grid. In most cases, this method always works reasonably with
any solid and has the advantage of being the most intuitive to
visualize (see Figure 10-20).
Level 3 (9 needles/cell)
Page 3261
Note that combining regular solids with a regular grid has the
potential for cumulative error (see Figure 10-21).
Modelling
Page 3262
Level 3 (9 needles/cell)
Page 3263
Integration Level
You can control the overall needle density by specifying how many
needles will be created for each individual cell of the needle grid.
The number of needles per cell is equal to the integration level
squared. The levels and the corresponding number of needles are
shown below:
Integration level
16
25
36
10
100
20
400
Page 3264
Page 3265
Modelling
Page 3266
Page 3267
Issuing a Report
It is always advisable to check that everything is set up correctly
before issuing a reserves report, as the process can be quite lengthy. If
the necessary data is inaccessible or if you have not defined all the
required parameters, Gemcom will display an appropriate error
message.
After defining all needle grid parameters, reporting profiles, report
contents, options and formats, and verifying needle accuracy, follow
these steps to issue a report.
1. Choose Solid }Data }Select Solids/Surfaces from List to
activate the solids and/or surfaces that you want to evaluate.
2. If you are using a defined grid or an auto-fit grid, select the view
plane on which you defined the needle grid (using View }Vertical
Section, Inclined Section, or Plan View).
Modelling
Page 3268
Meaning
Comments
Total Number
of Needles
Generated.
Number of grid
rows number of
grid columns
number of needles
per cell.
Number of
Intersecting
Needles.
Number of needles
that intersect at
least one solid (or
two surfaces if
applicable).
Number of
Invalid
Needles.
Needles that
contain an odd
number of
intersections and
are not used in the
report.
Number of
Nonintersecting
Needles.
Number of needles
that have no
intersections with
solids or surfaces.
Total
Accumulated
Volume
(*1000).
Page 3269
Data Item
Meaning
Comments
Vertical
Section
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
If the vertical
section corridors
overlap, the amount
of overlap volume
(in thousands).
Inclined
Section
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
If the inclined
sections corridors
overlap, the amount
of overlap volume
(in thousands).
Plan View
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
Excavation
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
Should remain at 0.0 in most cases. If a nonzero value appears (and the overlap is not
intentional), you may have to rebuild or edit
your excavation solids to make sure they have
no common volume. This number will also
appear in the report. Note that the report
totals will include these overlapping volumes.
Geology
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
The overlap volume Should remain at 0.0 in most cases. If a non(in thousands) of the zero value appears (and the overlap is not
active geology solids. intentional), you may have to rebuild or edit
your geology solids to make sure they have no
common volume. This number will also
appear in the report.
Note that with geology solids, the overlap of
volume, density and grade will not be
reported twice within the report totals.
Instead, solid precedence determines which
solid is assigned the material.
Mined/Filled
Volume
(*1000).
Accumulated mined
and filled volumes
(in thousands) of the
needles processed
(for reports using
surfaces.) Appears
also in the report.
Report
Generation is
% done.
The percentage of
the needles
processed thus far.
Modelling
Page 3270
Polygonal Reserves
If you have modelled your lithology using polygons, you may issue a
polygonal reserves report. Polygonal reserves are calculated by first
determining the areas of polygons which have been assigned material
types (rock code, grades, etc.). Area is then multiplied by plane
thickness to obtain volume. Volume is then multiplied by density to
yield tonnage.
The structure, formatting, and output options for a polygonal reserves
report are similar to those available for standard reserves reports. See
Report Structure earlier in this chapter.