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AUTOMATIC EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM

A project report submitted in a partial fulfillment of the requirement of the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY
B.NARESH

(312132920005)

CH.PRASANNA KRISHNA

(312132920013)

CH.VIJAY YASHWANTH

(312132920019)

Under the esteemed guidance of


Ms. M.ANUSHA RANI (Mtech)
Asst professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING


SANKETIKA VIDYA PARISHAD ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Affiliated To ANDHRA UNIVERSITY)
VISAKHAPATNAM - 530041
2016

SANKETIKA VIDYA PARISHAD ENGINEERING COLLEGE


Affiliated To ANDHRA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project work entitled AUTOMATIC EMERGENCY BRAKING
SYSTEM bonafide work done by,
B.NARESH

(312132920005)

CH.PRASANNA KRISHNA

(312132920013)

CH.VIJAY YASHWANTH

(312132920019)

during the academic year 2015-2016 under the guidance of M.ANUSHA RANI Assistant professor
is submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in
Mechanical Engineering .
PROJECT GUIDE

APPROVED BY
P.SRINIVAS REDDY (M.tech)

M.ANUSHA RANI(M.tech)
Assistant Professor

Head of the Department

Department of Mechanical Engineering


Engineering

Department of Mechanical

S.V.P Engineering College

S.V.P Engineering College

Visakhapatnam - 530041

Visakhapatnam 530041

INTERNAL EXAMINER
DEPARTMENT

Dt.

HEAD OF THE

EVALUATION SHEET

SANKETIKA VIDYA PARISHAD ENGINEERING COLLEGE


POTHINAMALLAYYAPALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM-530041

PROJECT TITLE:

AUTOMATIC EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude of our project guide M.ANUSHA RANI and to the
Head of Department of the Mechanical Engineering P.SRINIVAS REDDY his unique way of
Guidance and training throughout our project.
His association and guidance throughout our project work beginning from the selection of problem
to up to the completion of thesis writing will remain as a memorable event in our heart.
We also thank Dr.JETTI BABU Principal for extending his utmost support and cooperation in
providing all the provisions for the successful completion of the project.
We sincerely thank all the members of the staff in the department of mechanical engineering for
their sustained help in our pursuits.
We thank all those who have contributed directly or indirectly in successfully carrying out his
work.

SUBMITTED BY,

B.NARESH

(312132920005)

CH.PRASANNA KRISHNA

(312132920013)

CH.VIJAY YASWANTH

(312132920019)

DECLARATION

We declare that this project titled AUTOMATIC EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM is


the original work done by us in the Department of Mechanical Engineering in SANKETIKA VIDYA
PARISHAD ENGINEERING COLLEGE, Visakhapatnam and this project has not been submitted in
part or full for any degree or diploma in any university.

SUBMITTED BY,
B.NARESH

(312132920005)

CH.PRASANNA KRISHNA

(312132920013)

CH.VIJAY YASWANTH

(312132920019)

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
NO.

PARTICULARS

PAGE NO.

1.

ABSTRACT

2.

INTRODUCTION

3.

PROJECT OBJECTIVES

4.

EQUIPMENT USED

5.

OVERVIEW OF PROJECT

10-11

6.

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

12-26

7.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

27-32

8.

SENSORS

33-35

9.

SOFTWARE USED

36-39

10.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

11.

CONCLUSION

12.

FUTURE SCOPE

4-9

40

41
41

REFERENCES

13.

LIST OF FIGURES

42

Page no.

FIG 1: CHASSIS

FIG 2: WHEEL TYPES

FIG 3: OVERVIEW OF AUTO BRAKING SYSTEM

FIG 4: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT

10

FIG 5: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF PROJECT

11

FIG 6: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICRO CONTROLLER

13

FIG 7: MICROCONTROLLER

14

FIG 8: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MAX232

18

FIG 9: POWER SUPPLY

19

FIG 10: TEMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR

19

FIG 11: LED

21

FIG 12: L234D MOTOR DRIVER

22

FIG 13: MOTOR DRIVER

23

FIG 14: DRIVER CIRCUIT

24

FIG 15: DC MOTOR

25

FIG 16: EMBEDDED SYSTEM

27

FIG 17: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMMUNICATION INTERFACE

29

FIG 18: INFRARED SENSOR

33

FIG 19: TEMPERATURE SENSOR

34

TABLE 1: 8051 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS

17

TABLE 2: TRUTH TABLE OF MOTOR DRIVER

24

ABSTRACT

The project is designed to build a which can detect any obstacle and fire using
IR sensors and Fire sensors. A microcontroller of 8051 family is used to
achieve the desired operation.
A robot is a machine that can perform task automatically or with guidance.
Robotics is generally a combination of computational intelligence and
physical machines (motors). Computational intelligence involves the
programmed instructions. It is an semi automatic vehicle as we are controlling
the robot using RF remote.
The project proposes robotic vehicle that has an intelligence built in it such
that whenever an obstacle comes ahead of it, it stops and also detects the fire
and stops the vehicle
Depending on the input signal received, the microcontroller redirects the robot
to move in an alternate direction by actuating the motors interfaced to it
through a motor driver IC.

INTRODUCTION

Automatic braking by the system after sensing an obstacle can be executed in two
modes. In collision avoidance, the collision is avoided by the automatic braking,
but the driver will not be warned by this type of system.
There is a very good chance of wrongly interpreting the signals, especially in the
case of radars or lasers. In a collision mitigation system, the sensors detect the
possibility of collision but will not take immediate action.
A warning will be sent to the driver in the form of a signal or a voice message.
There is a threshold safe distance calculated by the system, and if the driver fails
to respond even when the vehicle crosses that region, then only brakes will be
applied automatically.
Even if there is a mis-interpretation of signals, there is no problem, because the
decision to apply brakes is left with the driver and the brakes are applied
automatically only in the most emergency situations. Many vehicles are provided
with the option of turning on or off the automatic system based on their
surroundings.
In some automobiles, even though they cannot be completely disabled, they can
be limited to warning the driver about a coming obstacle. Even this emergency
braking initiates ABS which help the driver to retain the control over vehicle
without any skidding. An automatic braking system is only effective if the mode
of sensing the obstacles is reliable, or else any kind of false interpretation may
cause a lot of damage.

PROJECT OBJECTIVES
To avoid accidents in automobiles we are developing this project.
The main aim of this project is to automatically apply brake when any
emergency is occurred.
We consider two emergency situation
1)when any vehicle is too close to our vehicle
2)when any fire accident happens.
The vehicle is controlled manually through remote but when any emergency
situation occurs the manual controlling is shifted to automatic and breaks are
applied.

EQUIPMENT USED

MECHANICAL

Chassis
Wheels
Braking system

ELECTRONIC

AT89S52 microcontroller
L293D motor driver
IR sensor- obstracle detection
FIRE sensor
RF receiver and transmitter
RF encoder
RF decoder
Dc motor(60rpm-1kg torque)
Battery (12v-1A)

CHASSIS
A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports a manmade object in its
construction and use.
It is similar to an animal's skeleton. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor
vehicle, consisting of the frame (on which the body is mounted).
If the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the driver's seat, are
included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis.

In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other internal supporting structure on
which the circuit boards and other electronics are mounted.
In the absence of a metal frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components
themselves, not the physical structure.

FIG 1. CHASSIS

WHEELS
Wheels and tires form an integral part of a vehicle. The smooth functioning of a vehicle
depends majorly upon the kind of automotive wheels and tires used. Automotive wheels have
circular frames that have the capability of rotating on their axis thereby helping in the
movement of a vehicle. Wheels are available in a wide variety of sizes, designs, and styles.
Wheels are attached to an axle, which are used for moving or turning wheels in a circular
motion around a point or fulcrum. There are different types of wheels available in the market
namely alloy wheel, wire wheel, chrome wheels, rubber wheels, aluminum wheel, magnesium
wheel and steel wheel. Apart from wheels, different wheel parts are also found in the market.

FIG 2 TYPES OF WHEELS


Automotive tires are usually rubber tubes or more specifically pneumatic enclosures affixed
around a wheel which helps in facilitating rotation of a vehicle. Almost all types of
automobiles ranging from two wheelers, cars to airplanes use tires. Tires are filled with air,
which ultimately offers a flexible support to the vehicle. Tires enhance the performance of an
automobile by providing a smooth and comfortable grip of the road. Mostly, auto tires are
manufactured using ductile elastomer material like rubber, fabric and wire. Presently, more
than one billion automotive tires are manufactured annually in the world with the three leading
automobile wheel manufacturers occupying more than 60% of a global market share. New
innovations in terms of material, design and wheels parts in the auto industry have helped the
auto wheels and auto tires manufacturers to put forth an extensive array of improved and high
performing auto parts.

BRAKING SYSTEM
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving
system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its
motion, most often accomplished by means of friction
Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert
the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion
7

may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical
energy, which may be stored for later use.
Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized
air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into
electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking
methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the
energy to a rotating flywheel.

The braking system used in the project is

Automatic Emergency Braking system

Emergency Brake Assist City (EBA-City) uses an optical sensor with infrared beams to
monitor the road ahead for a distance of up to around ten meters. The electronics calculate the
distance to the car in front. If this distance decreases so rapidly that a rear-end collision seems
likely, the system intervenes by alerting the braking system. If the driver does not immediately
let up on the gas pedal and apply sufficient braking force, the emergency brake assist helps by
reducing the braking systems response time or automatically initiating emergency braking if
the driver does not brake at all.
At low speeds of up to 20 kilometers per hour, rear-end collisions can be prevented in most
situations. At higher speeds, automatic emergency braking dramatically reduces the impact,
helping to protect passengers in the car in front as well.

FIG 3 AUTO BRAKING SYSTEM

OVERVIEW OF PROJECT
BLOCK DIAGRAM

FIG 4: BLOCK DIAGRAM

10

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

FIG 5 :SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

INTERFACES USED

Embedded controller AT89S52

SOFTWARE USED:

KEIL software for compiling and linking the code written for 89S52 controller
Express PCB for layout designing

11

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The basic circuit diagram of the project describes the necessary connections that are to be
made while designing the hardware module of the project. They are:
1. AT89S52 microcontroller
2. MAX232
3. Power supply board
4. Metal detector circuit
5. Obstacle avoider circuit
6. L293D IC (DC Motor Driver)
7. DC motor
MICROCONTROLLER
A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory,
various I/O interfaces such as serial port, parallel port timer or counter, interrupt controller,
data acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital converter, Digital to Analog converter, integrated
on to a single silicon chip. Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded
systems products.

The Intel 8051 is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (C) which was
developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s and early
1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices with 8051compatible processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20 independent manufacturers
including Atmel, Infineon Technologies and Maxim Integrated Products.

8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data at a
time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be processed by the CPU.
8051 is available in different memory types such as UV-EPROM, Flash and NV-RAM.
12

If a system is developed with a microprocessor, the designer has to go for external


memory such as RAM, ROM, EPROM and peripherals. But controller is provided with all
these facilities on a single chip. Development of a Micro controller reduces PCB size and cost
of design.
One of the major differences between a Microprocessor and a Micro controller is that a
controller often deals with bits not bytes as in the real world application.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

FIG 6 :BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

13

FIG 7 : MICROCONTROLLER
Oscillator Characteristics:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier
which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic
resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be
left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the
external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-bytwo flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be
observed.
REGISTERS:
In the CPU, registers are used to store information temporarily. That information could
be a byte of data to be processed, or an address pointing to the data to be fetched. The vast
majority of 8051 registers are 8bit registers. In the 8051 there is only one data type: 8bits.
14

The 8bits of a register are shown in the diagram from the MSB (most significant bit) D7 to the
LSB (least significant bit) D0. With an 8-bit data type, any data larger than 8bits must be
broken into 8-bit chunks before it is processed. Since there are a large number of registers in
the 8051, we will concentrate on some of the widely used general-purpose registers and cover
special registers in future chapters.

D7

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

D0

The most widely used registers of the 8051 are A (accumulator), B, R0, R1, R2, R3, R4,
R5, R6, R7, DPTR (data pointer), and PC (program counter). All of the above registers are 8bits, except DPTR and the program counter. The accumulator, register A, is used for all
arithmetic and logic instructions.
SFRs (Special Function Registers)
Among the registers R0-R7 is part of the 128 bytes of RAM memory. What about
registers A, B, PSW, and DPTR? Do they also have addresses? The answer is yes. In the
8051, registers A, B, PSW and DPTR are part of the group of registers commonly referred to as
SFR (special function registers). There are many special function registers and they are widely
used. The SFR can be accessed by the names (which is much easier) or by their addresses. For
example, register A has address E0h, and register B has been ignited the address F0H, as
shown in table.
The following two points should noted about the SFR addresses.
1

The Special function registers have addresses between 80H and FFH.

These

addresses are above 80H, since the addresses 00 to 7FH are addresses of RAM
memory inside the 8051.
2

Not all the address space of 80H to FFH is used by the SFR. The unused locations
80H to FFH are reserved and must not be used by the 8051 programmer.

15

Regarding direct addressing mode, notice the following two points: (a) the address
value is limited to one byte, 00-FFH, which means this addressing mode is limited to accessing
RAM locations and registers located inside the 8051. (b) If you examine the l

st

file for an

assembly language program, you will see that the SFR registers names are replaced with their
addresses as listed in table.

Symbol

Name

Address

ACC

Accumulator

0E0H

B register

0F0H

PSW

Program status word

0D0H

SP

Stack pointer

81H

DPTR

Data pointer 2 bytes

DPL

Low byte

82H

DPH

High byte

83H

P0

Port0

80H

P1

Port1

90H

P2

Port2

0A0H

P3

Port3

0B0H

IP

Interrupt priority control

0B8H

IE

Interrupt enable control

0A8H

TMOD

Timer/counter mode control

89H

TCON

Timer/counter control

88H

T2CON

Timer/counter 2 control

0C8H

T2MOD

Timer/counter mode2 control

0C9H

TH0

Timer/counter 0high byte

8CH

TL0

Timer/counter 0 low byte

8AH

TH1

Timer/counter 1 high byte

8DH
16

TL1

Timer/counter 1 low byte

8BH

TH2

Timer/counter 2 high byte

0CDH

TL2

Timer/counter 2 low byte

0CCH

RCAP2H

T/C 2 capture register high byte

0CBH

RCAP2L

T/C 2 capture register low byte

0CAH

SCON

Serial control

98H

SBUF

Serial data buffer

99H

PCON

Power control

87H

Table 1: 8051 Special function register Address


APPLICATIONS
TIA/EIA-232-F
Battery-Powered Systems
Terminals
Modems
Computers
MAX232
Description
The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver that includes a capacitive voltage generator to supply
EIA-232 voltage levels from a single 5-V supply. Each receiver converts EIA-232 inputs to 5V TTL/CMOS levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V and a typical hysteresis
of 0.5 V, and can accept 30-V inputs. Each driver converts TTL/CMOS input levels into
EIA-232 levels. The driver, receiver, and voltage-generator functions are available as cells in
the Texas Instruments Lin ASIC library.
17

FIG 8 :PIN DIAGRAM OF MAX232

POWER SUPPLY
The power supply is designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low
voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down
into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A D.C. power supply
which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of the A.C. mains fluctuations or load
variations is known as Regulated D.C. Power Supply.
For example a 5V regulated supply:

18

FIG 9 : POWER SUPPLY


REGULATOR (7805):
Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some
automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal
protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown. You simply connect the positive lead of
your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect
the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt
supply from the Output pin.

Fig 10: A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator(7805)


Features:
Output Current of 1.5A
Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%
Internal thermal overload protection

19

Internal Short-Circuit Limited


No External Component
Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V,12V, 15V, 18V, 24V
Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263
Direct Replacement for LM78XX
LIGHT EMITING DIODES:
It is a semiconductor diode having radioactive recombination .It requires a definite
amount of energy to generate an electron-hole pair. The same energy is released when an
electron recombines with a hole. This released energy may result in the emission of photon and
such a recombination. Hear the amount of energy released when the electro reverts from the
conduction band to the valence band appears in the form of radiation. Alternatively the
released energy may result in a series of phonons causing lattice vibration. Finally the released
energy may be transferred to another electron. The recombination radiation may be lie in the
infra-red and visible light spectrum. In forward is peaked around the band gap energy and the
phenomenon is called injection luminescence. I n a junction biased in the avalanche break
down region, there results a spectrum of photons carrying much higher energies. Almost White
light then gets emitted from micro-plasma breakdown region in silicon junction. Diodes having
radioactive recombination are termed as Light Emitting Diode, abbreviated as LEDs.
In gallium arsenide diode , recombination is predominantly a radiation recombination
and the probability of this radioactive recombination far exceeds that in either germanium or
silicon . Hence GaAs LED has much higher efficiency in terms of
Photons emitted per carrier. The internal efficiency of GaAs LED may ba very close to
100% but because of high index of refraction, only a small fraction of the internal radiation can
usually come out of the device surface. In spite of this low efficiency of actually radiated light,
these LEDs are efficiency used as light emitters in visual display units and in optically coupled
circuits, The efficiency of light generation increases with the increase of injected current and
with decreases in temperature. The light so generated is concentrated near the junction since
most of the charge carriers are obtained within one diffusion length of the diode junction.

20

The following are the merits of LEDs over conventional incandescent and other types
of lamps
1. Low working voltages and currents
2. Less power consumption
3. Very fast action
4. Emission of monochromatic light
5. small size and weight
6. No effect of mechanical vibrations
7. Extremely long life

Fig11 : LED

Typical

LED uses a forward voltage of about 2V

and

current of 5 to 10mA.

GaAs LED produces infra-red light while red, green and orange lights are produced by gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAs) and gallium phosphide (Gap) .
L293D IC (DC MOTOR DRIVER):

21

FIG 12: L293D Driver IC


The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36
V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar
stepping motors, as well as other high- current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply
applications. All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit,
with a Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs,
with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN. When an enable
input is high, the associated drivers are enabled and also their outputs are active as well as in
phase with their inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their
outputs are off and in the high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of
suppression. drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor
applications

22

FIG 13: MOTOR DRIVER


.
On the L293, external high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient A
VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device
power dissipation. The L293and L293D are characterized for operation from 0C to 70C.

23

FIG 14: DRIVER CIRCUIT

TABLE 2: TRUTH TABLE OF MOTOR DRIVER


DC MOTOR:
DC motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brush less, servo, and
gear motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator. The
magnetic field is maintained using either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings. DC
motors are most commonly used in variable speed and torque.

24

Motors are the devices that provide the actual speed and torque in a drive system. This family
includes AC motor types (single and multiphase motors, universal, servo motors, induction,
synchronous, and gear motor) and DC motors (brush less, servo motor, and gear motor) as well
as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and starters.
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying
conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it
will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the
external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite
(North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South)
repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction
between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational
motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or
winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a
"South" polarization).

FIG 15: DC MOTOR


Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field
magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see), the
external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the
stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent
magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotates with
respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being
electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets. The geometry of the brushes, commutator
25

contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the
energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is
almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes
move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example twopole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a
"flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, and driving it to continue rotating. In real life, though, DC
motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common number). In particular,
this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole
motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field
magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where
the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts
simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor
components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a
high amount of torque ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the rotor
position.

26

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Introduction to Embedded Systems
An embedded system is an electrical or electromechanical which is specifically
designed for an application catering to a specific domain. It is a collaboration of specialized
hardware and firmware which is tailored to meet the requirements of an application under
consideration. They are highly domain and application specific in nature, meaning; they are
designed for certain set of applications like consumer electronics, telecom, automotive etc.
The design of embedded systems has two aspects: the hardware design which takes care of the
selection of the processing unit, the I/O sub-systems and the communication interface and the
interconnection among them.

FIG 16: EMBEDDED SYSTEM

27

The embedded system contains a processing unit which can be a microprocessor or a


microcontroller or a System on Chip (SoC) or an Application Specific Integrated Circuit or a
Programmable Logic Device like CPLD or FPGA an I/O system which facilitates the functions
of sensors and actuators which act as messengers from and to the Real World for which the
embedded system is interfaced.
There exists an embedded system without our knowledge as the genius players working behind
the special features and security systems offered by the vehicle to the user. In our daily
automotive lies an embedded system acting from an head lamp controllers, engine controllers,
ignition control systems to complex air bag controls during unexpected accidents. They are
always concealed and are dedicated to their assigned task till they last.
Communication interfaces:
The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may
have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with
one or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus
(USB), IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.
PERIPHERALS:
Peripherals are the various devices that are connected to the CPU, for performing
various functions. Embedded systems talk with the outside world via peripherals, such as:

Serial communication interfaces (SCI): RS-232, RS-422, RS-458 etc.


Synchronous Serial communication interfaces (SSCI): I2C, JTAG, SPI, SSC and

ESSI
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Networks: Controller Area Network, etc.
Timers: PLL(s), Capture/Compare and Time Processing units.
Discrete I/O: General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO).

28

Fig 17: block diagram of


communication interference
b/w microprocessor and
memory device

PROCCESORS:
Processors are the key elements in any embedded system. They interact with the
memory, where the various instructions of useful functions into a single IC package.
These functions are:

The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry out user defined tasks.

The ability to be able to access external memory chips to both read and writes data
from and to the memory.

RELIABILITY:
Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for
years without errors and in some cases recover by themselves if any error occurs. Therefore
the software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for PC, and unreliable
mechanical moving parts such as Disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.
Specific reliability issues may include:

The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair.
Solutions may involve subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to, or
software limp modes that provide partial function. Examples include space systems,
undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole systems and automobiles.

The system must be kept running for safety reasons. Limp modes are less tolerable.
Often backups are selected by an operator. Examples include Aircraft, Navigation, Reactor

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control systems, safety-critical Chemical factory controls, Train signals and engines on
single-engine Aircraft.

The system will loose large amounts of money when shutdown: Telephone switches,
Factory controls, Bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making,
automated sales and service.

Applications of Embedded Systems:


a.

Manufacturing and process control:


Manufacturing plants.
Water and sewage systems.
Power stations.
Power grid systems.
Oil refineries and related storage facilities.
Bottling plants.
Automated factories.
Simulators.
Test equipment for control system development, maintenance and testing.

b. Construction industry:
Surveying and location Equipment.
Construction Plant.
c. Transport:
Aero planes
Trains and Buses.
Marine craft (known cases include: radar mapping; ballast monitoring; cargo
loading; ship main control system)
Automobiles
Fuel services.
Air Traffic Control Systems.
Signaling system.
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Radar Systems.
Traffic Lights.
Ticketing systems and Machines.
Car Parking and other meters.
d. Buildings and premises:
Electrically supply- supply, measurement, control, protection.
Backing lighting and generators.
Fire control systems.
Heating and ventilating systems.
Lifts Elevators, escalators.
Security Systems.
Security Cameras.
Door locks.
e. Domestic service:
Catering.
Cleaning.
f. Communications:
Telephone.
Cable systems.
Telephone switches.
Satellites.
g. Office systems and mobile management:
Telephone systems
Faxes and Copier.
Time recording systems.
Mobile telephones
Still and Video Cameras.
h. Banking, Finance and Commercial:

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Automated teller systems.


Credit card Systems.
Point of scale systems including scanner / cash systems.

As an endorsement, we present an overview of the embedded system as an inclination


to our project-(Autonomous Robot for Military Systems); the various steps involved in their
design and development and in their major domains where they are deployed.

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SENSORS
INFRARED SENSOR:
The cheapest way to remotely control a device within a visible range is via InfraRed light. Almost all audio and video equipment can be controlled this way nowadays. Due
to this wide spread use the required components are quite cheap, thus making it ideal for us
to use IR control for our own projects. Infra-Red actually is normal light with a particular
color. We humans can't see this color because its wave length of 950nm is below the visible
spectrum. That's one of the reasons why IR is chosen for remote control purposes, we want to
use it but we're not interested in seeing it. Another reason is because IR LEDs are quite easy
to make, and therefore can be very cheap.

FIG 18: INFRARED SENSOR


Wireless communication, as the term implies, allows information to be exchanged between
two devices without the use of wire or cable. In all such cases, information is being
transmitted and received using electromagnetic energy, also referred to as electromagnetic
radiation.

THERMISTOR (TEMPERATURE SENSOR)

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The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of the
wordsTHERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor which
changes its physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

FIG 19: TEMPERATURE SENSOR


Thermistor
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or
cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over snapaction types is their speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and
repeatability.
Most types of thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC),
that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature, and of course
there are some which have aPositive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance
value goes UP with an increase in temperature.
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal oxide
technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material is generally
formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give a relatively fast
response to any changes in temperature.
Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25oC), their time
constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with respect to the
current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with resistance values at
room temperature from 10s of M down to just a few Ohms, but for sensing purposes those
types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.

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Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through it to
produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in series with a
suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice of resistor gives a
voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value for example:
Temperature Sensors Example No1
The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10K at 25oC and a resistance value of
100 at 100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output voltage
(Vout) for both temperatures when connected in series with a 1k resistor across a 12v power
supply.

By changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1k) to a potentiometer or preset, a
voltage output can be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for example, 5v output
at 60oC and by varying the potentiometer a particular output voltage level can be obtained over
a wider temperature range.
It needs to be noted however, that thermistors are non-linear devices and their standard
resistance values at room temperature is different between different thermistors, which is due
mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made from. The Thermistor, have an
exponential change with temperature and therefore have a Beta temperature constant ( )
which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.
However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or Whetstone
Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied to the
divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across the resistor
becomes linear with temperature.

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SOFTWARE USED
Softwares used are:

Keil software for assembly programming


Express PCB for layout designing

KEIL SOFTWARE:

Keil development tools for the 8051 Microcontroller Architecture support every level
of software developer from the professional applications engineer to the student just learning
about embedded software development.
Many companies provide the 8051 assembler, some of them provide shareware version of their
product on the Web, Kiel is one of them. We can download them from their Websites.
However, the size of code for these shareware versions is limited and we have to consider
which assembler is suitable for our application.

KEIL VISION 2:
This is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps you write, compile,
and debug embedded programs. It encapsulates the following components:
.

A project manager

A make facility

Tool configuration

Editor

A powerful debugger

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BUILDING AN APPLICATION IN VISION 2:


To build (compile, assemble, and link) an application in Vision2, you must:
1

Select Project-(for example, 166\EXAMPLES\HELLO\HELLO.UV2).

Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.

Vision2 compiles, assembles, and links the files in your project.


CREATING YOUR OWN APPLICATION IN VISION 2:
To create a new project in Vision2, you must:
1

Select Project - New Project.

Select a directory and enter the name of the project file.

Select Project - Select Device and select an 8051, 251, or C16x/ST10 device from the
Device Database.

Create source files to add to the project.

Select Project - Targets, Groups, Files. Add/Files, select Source Group1, and add the
source files to the project.

Select Project - Options and set the tool options. Note when you select the target device
from the Device Database all special options are set automatically. You typically only
need to configure the memory map of your target hardware. Default memory model
settings are optimal for most applications.

Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.

DEBUGGING AN APPLICATION IN VISION 2:


To debug an application created using Vision2, you must:
1

Select Debug - Start/Stop Debug Session.

Use the Step toolbar buttons to single-step through your program. You may enter G,
main in the Output Window to execute to the main C function.

Open the Serial Window using the Serial #1 button on the toolbar.

Debug your program using standard options like Step, Go, Break, and so on.
STARTING VISION AND CREATING A PROJECT:
37

Vision2 is a standard Windows application and started by clicking on the program icon. To
create a new project file select from the Vision2 menu
Project New Project. This opens a standard Windows dialog that asks you for the new
project file name. We suggest that you use a separate folder for each project. You can simply
use the icon Create New Folder in this dialog to get a new empty folder. Then select this folder
and enter the file name for the new project, i.e. Project1.
Vision2 creates a new project file with the name PROJECT1.UV2 which contains a
default target and file group name. You can see these names in the Project.
Window Files.
Now use from the menu Project Select Device for Target and select a CPU for your
project. The Select Device dialog box shows the Vision2 device database. Just select the
microcontroller you use. We are using for our examples the Philips 80C51RD+ CPU. This
selection sets necessary tool options for the 80C51RD+ device and simplifies in this way the
tool Configuration.
BUILDING PROJECTS AND CREATING A HEX FILES
Typical, the tool settings under Options Target are all you need to start a new
application. You may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the Build
Target toolbar icon. When you build an application with syntax errors, Vision2 will display
errors and warning messages in the Output Window Build page. A double click on a message
line opens the source file on the correct location in a Vision2 editor window. Once you have
successfully generated your application you can start debugging.
After you have tested your application, it is required to create an Intel HEX file to
download the software into an EPROM programmer or simulator. Vision2 creates HEX files
with each build process when Create HEX files under Options for Target Output is enabled.
You may start your PROM programming utility after the make process when you specify the
program under the option Run User Program #1.

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CPU SIMULATION:
Vision2 simulates up to 16 Mbytes of memory from which areas can be mapped for
read, write, or code execution access. The Vision2 simulator traps and reports illegal memory
accesses. In addition to memory mapping, the simulator also provides support for the
Integrated peripherals of the various 8051 derivatives. The on-chip peripherals of the CPU you
have selected are configured from the Device
DATABASE SELECTION:
you have made when you create your project target. Refer to page 58 for more
information about selecting a device. You may select and display the on-chip peripheral
components using the Debug menu. You can also change the aspects of each peripheral using
the controls in the dialog boxes.
START DEBUGGING:
You start the debug mode of Vision2 with the Debug Start/Stop Debug Session
command. Depending on the Options for Target Debug configuration, Vision2 will load the
application program and run the startup code Vision2 saves the editor screen layout and
restores the screen layout of the last debug session. If the program execution stops, Vision2
opens an editor window with the source text or shows CPU instructions in the disassembly
window. The next executable statement is marked with a yellow arrow .During debugging;
most editor features are still available.
For example, you can use the find command or correct program errors. Program source text of
your application is shown in the same windows. The Vision2 debug mode differs from the
edit mode in the following aspects:
_ The Debug Menu and Debug Commands described on page 28 are available. The
additional debug windows are discussed in the following.

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_ The project structure or tool parameters cannot be modified. All build commands are
disabled.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES :


ADVANTAGES :
Forward collision mitigation, which uses forward-looking sensors and applies the brakes
automatically when it detects an imminent collision.
Lane departure warning, which uses a forward looking camera to detect if the car is drifting out
of its lane without the driver activating the turn signal.
Safety of passenger by decreasing the collision intensity at high speeds.
Intelligent closed loop servo mechanism which can take decisions on its own at emergency.

DISADVANTAGES:
Stop Times - the stopping distances for regular conditions are lengthened by this system, either
because there may be errors in the system, or because the clunking or noise of the system may
contribute to the driver not braking at the same rate.
Delicate Systems - Problems include disorientation of the system, where a compensating brake
sensor causes the vehicle to shudder, make loud noise or generally brake worse.
Cost These systems require significantly more parts than a traditional braking system,
meaning there are more opportunities for damage to occur. With regular maintenance and care,
repair costs may be kept to a minimum, but if left alone for a significant amount of time, small
problems can become larger and more expensive to fix.

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CONCLUSION :
Successful demonstration of the automatic breaking system has been performed using a
model of appropriate scale. The sensor sends continuous pulses of signals ahead , and upon
detection of any obstruction within closer limits , the microprocessor calculates the time
required to stop and sends the signal to motor drive , which inturn brings the dc motor to a
hault.
This is a model experimentation and cannot be directly applied to practical purpose
onto automobiles as further integration of electronics and mechanical equipment has to be dealt
in depth.

FUTURE SCOPE:
With the advent of electronics in the late 20th century , technology is pacing up and a
high degree of automation can be seen in every aspect of industry including the automobile
industry.
In coming 30 years or so more regulations will be placed to avoid collisions and
damage which bring in the requirement for technologies like automatic braking system.
Although top automobile companies like audi ,bmw ,Porsche etc provide these systems ,they
have to deployed even for other vehicles also. So almost all vehicles can be expected to be fit
with such systems as global number of onroad traffic is increasing exponentially each year.

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REFERENCES
The 8051 Microcontroller Architecture, Programming & Applications
The 8051 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems
Author Muhammad Ali Mazidi & Janice Gillispi Mazidi
Raj Kamal, Embedded Systems, Pearson Education Publications, 2007.
ATMEL Dtasheet
R. Cassinis, G. Bianco, A. Cavagnini, P. Ransenigo, Strategies for Navigation of
Robot Swarms to Be Used in Landmine Detection, 1999 Third European Workshop on
Advanced Mobile Robots (Eurobot99). Proceedings IEEE, pp. 211-21
J. Veganay, Outlier Rejection for Autonomous Acoustic Navigation, Proceedings of the
1996 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

WEBSITES

www.atmel.com

www.engineersgarage.com

www.keil.com

Wikipedia the Free encyclopedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/

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