Impact of Cyclic Wetting and Drying On Swelling Behaviour of Lime-Flyash Stabilised Soil

IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Expansive soils are highly fertile for agriculture purposes but they are treacherous for the
pavements, runways, embankments and light to medium loaded residential buildings resting
on them due to high swelling and shrinkage potentials of these soils caused by the moisture
fluctuations. This swelling shrinkage behaviour causes damage to the foundation systems,
structural elements and architectural features. The reason for this behaviour is the presence of
heaving mineral known as montmorillonite which possess an expanding lattice structure. This
clay mineral expands when it comes in contact with moisture. Those areas that have surface
deposit of clay, and climate characterised by alternating periods of rainfall and draught, causes
significant instability because of their wetting and drying cyclic process.Soils rich in these
minerals occur in many places all over the world especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
1.1.1 EXPANSIVE SOIL

Expansive soil deposits are problematic for engineering structures because of their swelling
and shrinkage. These soils occurring above the water table swell with increase in moisture
content and shrink with decrease in moisture content. This swell-shrink behaviour causes
differential movements accompanied by strength reduction, causes severe damage to the
foundation and to the structures which are founded on these types of soils. The predominant
reason for this swell shrink behaviour is seasonal variations as the soil swell during rainy season
and shrink during summer.
In India, black cotton soils cover a surface area of nearly 20% and are found in the states of
Maharashtra, Gujrat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu. These are derived from the weathering action of basalts and traps of Deccan
plateau. However, their occurrence on granite, gneiss, shales, sandstones, slates and limestones
is also recognised.
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
Fig. 1.1 black cotton soil in India

These soils are usually found near the surface with the layer thickness varying from 0.5m to 10
m. The name black cotton soils are derived because of their black colour and on account of the
fact that cotton grows very well. The colour is imparted due to presence of small quantities of
iron, and titanium that promote the growth of cotton very well in these soils.
The damage caused by the expansive soils to the structures built on them is immense. One of
the earlier National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored studies reported that the damage to
the structures caused by the expansive soils-particularly t light buildings and pavements is more
than any other natural disaster, including earthquakes and floods (Jones and Holtz,1973).
Those areas that have surface deposits of clay, and climates characterized by alternating periods
of rainfall and draught, cause significant instability because of their wetting and drying cyclic
process. As a result of this cyclic, swelling and shrinkage, the cracks and deformations can be
observed in the structures established at these zones. Determination of swell potential of
expansive soils is generally done by one cycle of wetting although it has been shown that
behavior of expansive soils is considerably affected by the number of wetting-drying cycles.
One should take the effects of number of cycles on the swelling and shrinking behavior of
expansive soils into consideration since continuous wetting-drying cycles are observed in soils
in nature as a result of environmental effects (Tawfiq and Nalbantolu, 2009). Changes in the
swelling behavior of natural expansive soils due to wetting-drying cycles are well documented
but studies performed to see the influence of cyclic wetting and drying on the swelling behavior
of chemically stabilized soils are insufficient. The long-term behavior of foundations and earth
structures should be assessed, employing chemically stabilized soils, by performing such a
study (Rao et al., 2001).
Ground improvement methods such as stabilization by chemical additives, pre-wetting,
squeezing control, overloading, water content prevention are general applied method for the
solution of swelling problems. The stabilization, especially with lime and flyash, is a common
applied method among the others due its effective and economic usage. The findings from the
previous studies show that when lime and flyash is added to clay soils in the presence of water,
reactions including cation exchange, flocculation and pozzolanic reaction take place which is
responsible for modification of engineering properties.
1.2 NEED OF THE PROJECT

Expansive soils, when subjected to moisture content fluctuations caused by rainfall events,
severe droughts, and plumbing leaks, generally undergo large soil movements. Such soil
movements cause extensive structural damages to pavements, runways, residential and
industrial structures and foundations. Several remedies such as soil replacement, pre-wetting,
chemical alteration, CNS layer technique, pile foundation, and moisture control were adopted.
There are lots of studies concerning the effect of chemical additives (lime, fly ash) on the swell
potential of expansive clays. However, the long-term performance of chemical additives on
reducing the swell potential of expansive clays is studied by only a few researchers. The aim
of this study is to investigate the effect of cyclic-wetting on the swell potential of an expansive
soil treated by lime and fly Ash.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

-To evaluate swelling pressure and swelling potential on lime and fly-ash stabilized soil
-To study the impact of cyclic wetting and drying on swelling behavior of lime and fly-ash
stabilized soil with different curing period.
- To investigate the mineralogical and morphological changes in the expansive soil due to
addition of lime and fly-ash and compare them.
1.4 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

Besides the introductory chapter, the work has been presented in to the following chapters.
Chapter one highlights the overall need and the objective of the project. The idea behind taking
of this project is to appreciate the use of lime and fly-ash technique in expansive soils.
In the second chapter, the detailed review of mechanisms, problems and remedial measures of
expansive clays is given. It also highlights past studies on the stabilization of expansive soils
by different additives, detailed review of the mechanism of stabilization by lime and fly-ash
addition.
Third chapter presents the details of laboratory experimentation, where the material properties
and detailed testing procedures are discussed.
In the fourth chapter, results of experimental investigation carried out and the discussion about
the results is presented.
Chapter five describes the summary and conclusions and future work of present study.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
Expansive soils are the soils which expand when the moisture content of the soils is increased.
The clay mineral montmorillonite is mainly responsible for this expanding nature. This
expanding nature causes severe movements in the soil. Structures built on such soils may
experience cracking and damage due to differential heave. When the water content is reduced,
it shrinks and cracks will develop. These cracks may develop into deep ground. Presence of
these cracks increases the permeability which will provide pathways for the water to enter into
deep soil.
2.2 Clay Mineralogy

The term clay is used as both a particle size and also to represent a family of minerals
(VELDE,1995). When representing particle size, it indicates the soil particles that have their
size less than 0.002mm. as aa mineral type it represents the minerals which have a) small
particle size, b) a net electrical negative charge and c) plasticity when mixed with water. Most
of the clay minerals are primarily hydrous aluminium silicates. Common clay minerals occur
in small particle sizes and their unit cells ordinarily have a residual negative charge. The
different clay mineral groups are characterized by stacking arrangements of sheets (Mitchell
and Soga,2005)
Chemically, clay minerals are silicates of aluminium and/or iron and magnesium (Grim 1959).
Most of the clay minerals have sheet or layered structures and can have various shapes. A
typical clay particle of expansive soil consists of a microscopic platelet having negative
electrical charges on its flat surfaces and positive electrical charges on its edges. The mineral
composition of clay can be depicted as being made up of combinations of two simple structural
units. In the description of the minerals that is presented in this chapter, the structural units are
represented by conceptual building blocks.
The two basic elemental units of the building blocks are the silicon tetrahedron and the
alumino-magnesium octahedron. They are depicted schematically in Figure 2.1. The silicon
tetrahedron is made up of silicon and oxygen atoms. Because the valence of silicon is 4+, it
can bond with negatively charged ions such as oxygen (O2-) or hydroxyl (OH-), as shown in
Figure 2.1(a). The relative sizes of the silicon and oxygen atoms cause this structural unit to
assume the shape of a tetrahedron. The alumino-magnesium octahedron consists of aluminium
or magnesium atoms surrounded by hydroxyls, as shown in Figure 2.1(d). These atoms are
arranged such that they can be thought of as forming an octahedral shape.
FIGURE 2.1. Atomic structure of silicon tetrahedral and alumino-magnesium

octahedral: (a) silicon tetrahedron; (b) silica sheet; (c) symbolic structure for silica sheet;
(d) alumino-magnesium octahedron; (e) octahedral sheet; (f) symbolic structure for
octahedral sheet (after Lambe and Whitman, 1969; Mitchell and Soga, 2005).
The octahedral units share hydroxyls to form a sheet structure, as shown in Figure 2.1e. The
arrangement of the octahedral units is such that the hydroxyls in the sheet structure do not have
unsatisfied chemical bonds. The central cation in the octahedral sheet can vary.
Figures 2.1c and 2.1f show schematic symbols that represent the building blocks that are used
to depict the crystalline structure of the different clay minerals. By varying the manner in which
these two building blocks are arranged, a variety of different clay minerals can be created. A
number of different minerals are depicted in Mitchell and Soga (2005). The various minerals
are classified into groups according to the stacking sequence of the sheets. Following are the
three basic minerals:
1. Kaolinite
2. Illite
3. Montmorillonite
Figure 2.2: Schematic diagrams of structure: (a) kaolinite; (b) illite; (c) montmorillonite.
The bonding between the different building blocks plays a very important part in the behaviour
of the different minerals.
2.3 Mechanisms of Swelling

Swelling of clay minerals is directly related with diffused double layer and cation exchange
capacity of them.
2.3.1 Diffuse Double Layer of Clay Minerals

The negatively charged clay particle surface and the concentration of positive ions in solution
adjacent to the particle form what is referred to as a diffuse double layer or DDL (Bohn et al.
1985). Overlapping DDLs between clay particles generate inter-particle repulsive forces or
microscale swelling pressures. Interaction of the DDL and, hence, swelling potential,
increases as the thickness of the DDL increases (Mitchell, 1976). The thickness of DDL
isassociated with valence of cations, concentration of cations, temperature and pH.
a) Effect of valence of cations: The lower valences of cations result in increase in DDL
thickness. Thus, for the same soil mineralogy, more swelling would occur in a sample having
exchangeable sodium (Na+) cations than in a sample with calcium (Ca2+or magnesium Mg2+)
cations (Nelson and Miller,1992).
Figure 2.3 Double Layer of Clay Minerals (after Oweis and Khera, 1998)
b) Effect of concentration of cations: The high concentration of cationsnear the surface of clay
particle creates a repulsive force between the diffuse double layer system (Chen, 1975). In
general, a thicker DDL and greater swelling are associated with lower cation concentrations
(Mitchell, 1976).
c) Effect of temperature: An increase in temperature cause an increase in DDL thickness, thus
temperature change has effect on strength, compressibility and swelling of soils (Mitchell and
Soga, 2005).
d) Effect of pH: Hydroxyls (OH)- are exposed on the surfaces and edges of clay particles. The
tendency for hydroxyls to dissociate in water, SiOHSiO + H is strongly influenced by pH.
The higher pH, the greater is the tendency for H to go into solution, and the greater the effective
negative charge of the particle. Alumina, exposed at the edges of clay particles, is amphoteric
(capable of functioning either as an acid or a base), and it ionizes positively at low pH and
negatively at high pH. As a result, positive diffuse layers can develop at the edges of some clay
particles in an acid environment which promotes a positive edge to negative surface interaction,
often leading to flocculation from suspension (Mitchell and Soga, 2005).
2.3.2 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cations that neutralize the net negative charge on the surface of soil particles in water are
readily exchangeable with other cations. The exchange reaction depends mainly on the relative
concentrations of cations in the water and also on the electrovalence of cations (Terzaghi, Peck
and Mesri, 1996). The cation exchange capacity is the quantity of exchangeable cations
required to balance the negative charge on the surface of the clay particles. CEC is expressed
in milliequivalents per 100 grams of dry clay (Nelson and Miller,1992).
Table 2.1 CEC of Principle Clay Minerals (Terzaghi, Peck and Mesri, 1996)
Mineral
CEC (meq/100g)
Kaolinite
3-10
Illite
20-30
Montmorrilonite
80-120
Several investigators have attempted to understand the characteristics and mechanism of

swelling of expansive soils.
Grim (1959) presented the mineralogical details of clayey soils. It was reported that
argillaceous materials are composed essentially of extremely small particles known as clay
minerals. Chemically, clay minerals are silicates of aluminium and/or iron and magnesium.
Most of the clay minerals are crystalline and have sheet or layered structure. Some clay
minerals have elongate tubular or fibrous structure.
Taylor (1959) described the electrical charges carried by soil colloids and the influence of
exchangeable cations on the forces arising from these electrical charges in terms of the theory
of diffuse double layer. Isomorphous substitution of ions within clay crystal, broken bonds and
replacement of hydrogen of exposed hydroxyls are the main source of negative charge on
mineral surfaces. The exchangeable cations of the clay water system are attracted towards the
negatively charged particles and form a diffuse layer of positive charge.
Low (1959) explained the swelling based on the double layer theory and Vant Hoffs law. The
swelling of clays is due to the difference in osmotic pressure between the mid plane between
adjacent particles and external solution. In clay-water system, the electric field of clay particles
serves the purpose of semi permeable membrane which allows water to enter into the zone of
high ion concentration near particle surface but not the cation and causes clay to swell.
According to Ladd (1959) osmotic pressure can act in clays since there exists difference in
solute concentration in double layer and outside solution and osmotic pressure concept can
satisfactorily explain a good portion of swelling for samples compacted wet of optimum. On
dry side of optimum, swelling is influenced by other factors in addition to osmotic pressure.
As referred by Mitchell (1993), Low (1961) described five possible mechanism of soil-water
interaction that would in turn influence volume change behaviour. These include hydrogen
bonding, hydration of exchangeable cations, attraction by osmosis, dipole attraction and van
der wall forces. Bolt (1956) considered the swelling pressure as equal to the difference between
the osmotic pressure in the central plates and the osmotic pressure in equilibrium solution.
As referred by Agrawal (1977), Seed et al. (1962) have classified the conditions that give rise
to swelling tendency into two general categories(viz.) which are physio-chemical and
mechanical. Physio-chemical factors are functions of interparticle electrical forces, particles
structure, and pore fluid composition. Mechanical factors include the effect of elastically
deformed particles and the compression of air in voids during imbibition of water.
2.3.2 Factors Influencing Swelling

According to Nelson and Miller (1992), swelling mechanism of expansive clays is complex
and is influenced by some factors. Many of these factors also affect physical soil properties
(such as plasticity and density) or are affected by them. Shrink-swell potential of a soil is
considered to be influenced by the factors which can be considered in three different groups.
These groups can be listed as follows:
Soil Characteristics: Characteristics of soil by which the basic nature of the internal force
field is influenced.
Environmental Factors: Changes that may occur in the internal force system can be
influenced by some environmental factors. These factors also influence the shrink-swell
potential of a soil.
State of Stress: The aforementioned factors are given in Tables 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4, in short.
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Table 2.2 Soil Properties that influence shrink-swell potential (Nelson and Miller, 1992)
Montmorillonites, vermiculites, and some mixed layer minerals
Clay Mineralogy
cause volume changes. Although Illites and Kaolinites are

usually nonexpansive, these minerals cause volume changes
when particle sizes are extremely fine
Swelling is decreased by the increase in cation concentration and
Soil Water Chemistry
cation valence. For example, Mg+2 cations in the soil water

would result in less swelling than Na+ ions.
Soil suction is an independent effective stress variable,
represented by the negative pore pressure in unsaturated soils.
Soil Suction
Soil suction is related to saturation, gravity, pore size and shape,

surface tension, and electrical and chemical characteristics of the
soil particles and water.
In general, soils that exhibit plastic behaviour over wide ranges
Plasticity
of moisture content and that have high liquid limits have greater
potential for swelling and shrinking. Plasticity is an indicator of
swellpotential.
Flocculated clays tend to be more expansive than dispersed
clays. Cemented particles reduce swell. Structure are altered by
Soil Structure
compaction at higher water content or remoulding. Kneading

compaction has been shown to create dispersed structures with
lower swell potential than soils statically compacted at lower
water contents.
Higher densities usually indicate closer particle spacing, which
Dry Density
may mean greater repulsive forces between particles and larger

swellingpotential.
11
Table 2.3 Environmental Conditions that influence shrink-swell potential

(Nelson and Miller, 1992)
Initial Moisture
A desiccated expansive soil will have a higher affinity for

water, or higher suction, than the same soil at higher water
Conditioning
content, lower suction

Amount and variation of precipitation and evapotranspiration
greatly influence the moisture availability and depth of
Climate
seasonal moisture fluctuation. Greatest seasonal heave occurs

in semiarid climates rather that have pronounced, short wet
periods
Groundwater
Shallow water tables provide a source of moisture and

fluctuating water tables contribute to moisture
Surface drainage features, such as ponding around a poorly
Drainage and manmade
graded house foundation, provide sources of water at the
water sources
surface; leaky plumbing can give the soil access to water at

greater depth.
Trees, shrubs, and grasses deplete moisture from the soil
Vegetation
through transpiration, and cause the soil to be differentially

wetted in areas of varying vegetation
Soils with higher permeabilities, particularly due to fissures
Permeability
and cracks in the field soil mass, allow faster migration of

water and promotes faster rates of swell
Temperature
Increasing temperatures cause moisture to diffuse to cooler

areas beneath pavements and buildings
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Table 2.4 Stress Conditions that influence shrink-swell potential

(Nelson and Miller, 1992)
An over consolidated soil is more expansive than the same
soil at the same void ratio, but normally consolidated.
Stress History
Repeated wetting and drying tend to reduce swell in

laboratory samples, but after a certain number of wettingdrying cycles, swell is unaffected.
The initial stress state in a soil must be estimated in order to
evaluate the probable consequences of loading the soil mass
In Situ Conditions
and/or altering the moisture environment therein. The initial

effective stress can be roughly determined through
sampling and testing in a laboratory, or by making in situ
measurements and observations
Magnitude of surcharge load determines the amount of
Loading
volume change that will occur for a given moisture content

and density. An externally applied load acts to balance
inter-particle repulsive forces and reduces swell
The thickness and location of potentially expansive layers
in the profile considerably influence potential movement.
Greatest movement will occur in profiles that have
Soil Profile
expansive clays extending from the surface to depths below

the acting zone. Less movement will occur if expansive soil
is overlain by non-expansive material or overlies bedrock at
a shallow depth
2.4 Identification of Expansive Soils

Various guidelines to determine the potential of swelling of expansive soils by measureable
engineering soil properties are presented in this chapter. The most common soil properties use
to determine the swell potential of expansive soils include activity, Atterberg limits, clay
fractions, colloidal content, plasticity index, probable swell percent, shrinkage limit and the
13
shrinkage index. There are numerous guidelines posted in the literature; however, the ones
presented in this section are the major highlights that have been made throughout the past 50
plus years. Regardless of the swell potential classifications, it was found that once the swell
potential is considered medium or marginal, the potential for a geotechnical hazard is
significant.
In 1948, Skempton proposed a methodology to classify expanse potential for all types of soil.
His methodology uses the percent of clay fraction (percent passing 0.002 mm) and the plasticity
index. Shown in Figure 2.4 is the swell potential related to the plasticity index and the clay
fraction.
Figure 2.4: Swell potential related to PI and CF (Skempton 1953).

In 1959, The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) created a method that used direct correlation
of the volume change with the plasticity index, shrinkage limit, and the colloidal content (Holtz
1959). Holtz recorded the volume change of the material from an air-dry state to a saturated
state under a 1-psi (7-kPa) surcharge pressure in an odometer apparatus. The swell potential
criterion that was determined by Holtz is located in Table 2.5
14
Table 2.5: Swell Potential Criteria per USBR 1959.

Swell potential
% swell
Colloidal
Plasticity Index
Shrinkage Limit
content
Low
<10
<15
<18
>15
Medium
20
13-23
15-28
10-16
High
30
20-31
25-41
7-12
Very high
>30
>28
>35
<11
Prior to the 1959 USBR method for determining the swell potential of questionable soils, Holtz,
R.D. and Gibbs, H.J., in 1956, developed a method. This method was the basis of the USBR
method. The Holtz and Gibbs swell potential criteria is shown in Table 2.6
Table 2.6: Swell Potential Criteria per Holtz and Gibbs 1956.
Swell
% Swell under
Colloidal
Plasticity
Shrinkage
Potential
1 PSI
content
Index
Limit
Low
<10
<17
<20
> 13
Medium
20
12-27
12-34
8-18
High
30
18-37
23-45
6-12
Very High
>30
27
>32
<10
In 1955, Altmeyer had major criticisms of USBR method for classifying expansive soils and
suggested a new method based on correlations between the linear shrinkage, shrinkage limit
and the percent swell. His recommendations are shown in Table 2.7
15
Table 2.7: Swell Potential Criteria per Altmeyer 1955.

Linear Shrinkage
Shrinkage limit
Probable Swell
Degree of Expansion
<5
>12
<0.5
Non critical
5-8
10-12
0.5-1.5
Marginal
>8
<10
>1.5
Critical
In 1965, Ranganathan and Satyanarayana were the first researchers to use the concept of the
shrinkage index (i.e. SI = LL-SL) (Snethen et al. 1977). There suggestions for potential swell
classification based upon the shrinkage index are shown in Table 2.8
Table 2.8: Swell Potential per Ranganathan and Satyanarayan 1965.
Shrinkage Index
Potential Swell Classification
<20
Low
20-30
Medium
30-60
High
>60
Very high
In 1967, Terzaghi and Peck tried to relate the swell potential of an expansive soil with the
plasticity index of the soil. There results were determined by analysing the results found from
Seed, Woodword, and Lundgren 1962. The Terzaghi and Peck swell potential criteria is located
in Table 2.9
16
Table 2.9: Swell Potential Criteria per Terzaghi and Peck 1967.
Plasticity Index
Swell Potential
0-15
Low
10-35
Medium
20-55
High
55 and greater
Very high
In 1973, Dakshanamurthy and Raman proposed another method to predict swell potential
using the same methodology that Casagrande outline back in 1948. Nevertheless,
Dakshanamurthy and Raman used engineering judgment and posted literature values to
generate the swell potential per the plasticity index liquid limit chart. The chart that
Dakshanamurthy and Raman proposed is shown in Figure 2.5
17
Figure 2.5: Swell potential per the plasticity chart (Dakshanamurthy and Raman 1973)
As one can see the, the guidelines for swell potential ranges are different for the different
authors as well as the engineering index property that is correlated to the swell potential.
Nevertheless, these are the guidelines that have been set forth by the various authors have been
used in by different agencies. The underlying factors that have been used for correlation include
the Atterberg limits, the shrinkage limit up until the late-seventies and after the late seventies
the matric suction of the soil was added. It is interesting to note that when the suction was
added, the suction limit that as selected for the high classification is located near the air entry
value for expansive clays.
2.5 Remedial Measures to Expansive Soil

2.5.1 Soil Replacement
It consists of removing expansive soil entirely or to a considerable depth and backfilling with
granular materials (Zeitlen, 1969; Chaturvedi, 1977; Ordemir et al., 1977; Snethen et al., 1979;
Chen, 1988). This method is practicable only when expansive soil extends to a shallow depth
and granular material is available in abundance in the vicinity of construction. In case of partial
replacement, care should be taken to prevent the entry of surface drainage into the underlying
expansive soil.
2.5.2 Application of Surcharge Pressure

In this method, the expansive soil is loaded with a pressure equal to or greater than the swell
pressure to counteract swelling. However, this method can be adopted in low swelling clays
and for structures where adequate superimposed loads can be exerted on the foundation. Chen
(1988) claims that at a relatively shallow depth beneath the foundation, the intensity of added
stress are small and swelling may occur below this level.
2.5.3 Pre-Wetting
The principle of pre-wetting is based on the assumption that if soil is allowed to swell by
wetting prior to construction and if the high soil moisture content is maintained, the soil volume
will remain essentially constant, achieving a non-heave state; therefore, structural damage will
not occur. Pre-wetting is usually done by method of ponding. Some successful and
unsuccessful application of this method are reported (Mc Dowell, 1965; Blight and Wet, 1965;
Williams, 1965; Bara, 1969; Gromco, 1974; Datye, 1977; SubbaRao and Satyadas, 1980) and
18
it is generally felt that a great deal of time is required to stabilise the required thickness of
highly impermeable expansive soil bed ( Snethen, 1979; Chen, 1988). In order to quicken the
process and to facilitate wetting with depth, a grid of boreholes can be installed before ponding
(Blight and Wet, 1965; SubbaRao, 1986).
It has also been felt that it is possible to change the swelling characteristics of expansive soils
by means of flooding a given site with proper choice of electrolyte solution of expansive soils
by means of flooding a given site with proper choice of electrolyte solution. (Katti, 1966; Ho,
1968; Frydman, 1977; SubbaRao, 1994).
2.5.4 CNS-Layer Technique

This technique is developed by Katti (1969). Field observations by Katti and his colleagues
indicated that even in the case of swelling soils, the swelling phenomenon is confined only
within a small depth, 1.0 to 1.5 m below the surface of expansive soil and on its own can
develop enough cohesion to counteract swelling pressure. Based on this observation, it is found
that if an environment similar to that existing at 1 m depth in the black cotton soil with
equivalent cohesion is produced and at the same time the system used in producing this
environment does not swell or exert swelling pressure, then it may be possible to counteract
the swelling pressure and heave of a swelling soil mass.
Hence, it has been proposed to interpose adequate thickness of cohesive non-swelling layer
between the structure and the swelling soil base. When such a layer comes into contact with
B.C. soil prior to saturation, it develops an electrical environment at the interface and below.
This environment and the weight of the CNS together helps in developing absorbed water
bonds during saturation in the black cotton soil system. Further, it is stated that due to
development of cohesive forces by CNS and to some extent its weight, effect a reduction in the
void ratio of the expansive soil at the interface, thereby increasing the expansive soil cohesion,
although the cohesion of CNS and that developed in swelling soil at the interface need not
necessarily be the same. Under the influence of a certain minimum thickness of CNS layer, the
void ratio and the consequent increase in the expansive soil cohesion reach the requisite limits
needed for counteracting the swelling pressure of the soil.
2.5.5 Chemical Stabilization

The oldest and widespread method of ground improvement is using chemical admixtures for
soil stabilization (Chen, 1975). To stabilize expansive soils, generally, lime, cement and fly ash
19
are used as admixtures. Physical and chemical conditions of the natural soil, workability of
agent, economic and safety constraints, and specific conditions of the construction are the
factors that affect the application of these agents (Fang, 1991).
2.5.5.1 Lime Stabilization

Stabilizing subgrade soil by using lime is a well-known method all over the world for a long
time (Chen, 1975). Three basic chemical reactions occur when lime and pozzolonic clays are
mixed in presence of water. These reactions are cation exchange and flocculationagglomeration, cementation (pozzolanic reaction) and carbonation (Fang, 1991).
Cation Exchange and Flocculation-Agglomeration
The replacement of univalent sodium (Na+) and hydrogen (H+) ions of soil with divalent (Ca2+)
calcium ions of lime results in cation exchange and flocculation-agglomeration reactions. Clay
content and plasticity is bound by these reactions. Agglomeration reaction of lime and soil is
used to destroycollapsible characteristics of some silts (Fang, 1991).
Cementation or Pozzolanic Reactions
Soil-lime pozzolonic reactions are the ones which occur between lime, water, and soil silica
and alumina to form cementing material types. In nature, sources of alumina and silica may
possibly be clay minerals, quartz, feldspars, micas, and other silicates or alumino-silicate
minerals, either crystalline or amorphous. The clay minerals are crucial sources because lime
is effective as a stabilizer only in soils which contain clay. Sufficient addition of lime to a soil
results in an increase in the pH of the soil-lime mixture. Hence, the solubility of silica, alumina,
and clay minerals is also increased. Therefore, these materials become available for reacting
with lime. A simplified qualitative representationof some typical soil-lime reactions is
presented below. (Walker et al, 1992).
Ca(OH)2
Ca2+ + 2 OH
Ca2+ + 2OH- + SiO2 (Clay Silica)

Ca2+ + 2OH- + Al2O3 (Clay Alumina)
CSH
CAH
2.5.5.2 Carbonation
Carbonation is seen when the lime added to soil draws CO2 from air or soil to form CaCO3
instead of reacting with soil. This situation is observed when excessive amount of lime is added
or insufficient amount of pozzolonic clay presents in the soil. CaCO3 is a plastic material and
20
increases the soil plasticity. It also binds lime so that reactions between lime and
pozzolonicmaterials cannot occur. Therefore, beneficial results are not produces in thecase of
addition of excessive lime (Fang, 1991).
Types of lime
Lime, produced by burning the limestone in kilns at elevated temperatures, is a product which
is used for stabilization of highly expansive soils. The quality of lime depends on the parent
material and the production process. Types of lime used for stabilization purposes are quick
lime and hydrated lime.
Quick lime is more effective as stabilizer than the hydrated lime; but the latter is more safe and
convenient to handle. Generally, the hydrated lime is used which is also known as slaked lime.
The higher the magnesium content of lime, the less is the affinity for water and less is the heat
generated during mixing. Quick lime is used extensively for subgrade stabilization of heavy
clays.
2.5.5.3 Flyash Treatment

Fly ash is a fine-grained residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal in
powerplant boilers, and which is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases
(NLA 2004). Fly ash consists of spherical non-crystalline silica, aluminium, and iron oxides
and un-oxidized carbon. It is classified as non-plastic fine silt in accordance with the Unified
SoilClassification System.
The use of fly ash reduces the plasticity index, permeability, and expansion potential of the
soil. It increases the stiffness, strength, and freeze-thaw resistance. There are a wide variety of
types of fly ash having different mechanical and chemical properties. Therefore, for a specific
application, a comprehensive testing program should be performed to determine the design
criteria necessary for optimum treatment. An understanding of the influence of both
compaction and water control of the treated material is essential to achieving the optimum
benefit from fly ash addition (Little et al. 2000).
Classification of Flyash
According to ASTM C-618-08a (Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolona for Use in Concrete), fly ashes are divided into two classes. These classes
are named as Class F and Class C and theyare explained below.
21
Class F: Production of Class F fly ash is typically made by burning bituminous coal or
anthracite. It can also be produced from lignite and subbituminous coal. Pozzolonic properties
are exhibited by this class offly ash but it has no self-cementing properties. This material can
be used for many soil stabilization applications by adding some activators (lime etc.) into fly
ash to obtain cementitious properties.
Class C: Typically, burning of lignite or subbituminous coal results in Class C type of fly
ash. This class can also be produced from anthracite or bituminous coal. Total calcium content,
expressed as calcium oxide (CaO), of this type of fly ash is more than 10%. In addition to
having pozzolonic properties, Class C fly ash also has some cementitious properties.
In this study, Fly Ash taken from Soma Thermal Power Plant is used.
Cokca (2001) showed that the swelling potential of expansive soils was reduced by
approximately 68 percent when Class C fly ash was added. Puppala, Punthutaecha,
andVanapalli (2006) showed that treatment with Class F fly ash reduced the swelling pressures
of expansive soils by as much as 65 percent.
2.6 Previous Studies On Cyclic Swell-Shrink Behaviour of Soils

2.6.1 General
In the previous studies two methods have been used for determining the cyclic swell-shrink
behaviour of expansive soils. These are the full swell-full shrink and full swell-partial shrink
(Guney et al., 2007)
Full Swell-Full Shrink: Samples are allowed to swell until the primary swell completed or no
more swell is observed, and dried fully or until the water content comes below the shrinkage
limit.
Full Swell-Partial Shrink: Samples are allowed to swell until the primary swell completed or
no more swell is observed, and dried to their initial moisture content.
2.6.2 Studies On Non-Stabilized Soils

Day, (1994) performed cyclic swell-shrink tests on silty clay soil with liquid and plastic limits
of 46% and 24%, respectively. Full swell-full shrink tests were conducted where the soils were
allowed to dry below their shrinkage limit. The author found out that full swell-full shrink
cycles caused an increase in swell potential and this increase was explained by destruction of
22
the flocculated structure of clay and formation of more expansive and permeable soil having a
dispersed structure.
In the study performed by Al-Homoud et al, (1995), expansive characteristicsof soils which
were exposed to swell-shrink cycles were investigated. Tests were conducted on six different
soils with liquid, plastic, and shrinkage limits varying between 65-90%, 15-40% and 10-20%,
respectively. During the experiments full swell-partial shrink method were used. The results
showed that as the number of cycle increases, swell potential decreases. Furthermore, it was
noted that first cycle caused the maximum reduction in swelling potential and swell percent
reached to equilibrium after conducting 4-5 cycles. The authors explained the swell reduction
with the soil particles rearrangement.
Basma, (1996) studied on four different soils to determine the effect of cyclicswellshrink on
expansive soils. Both partial and full shrink methods were applied. For partial shrink, samples
were allowed to dry at room temperature, and for full shrink, samples were exposed to sunlight.
The results of the experiments showed that an increase in the swell potential was observed after
full shrink and a decrease was seen after partial shrink. Swell potential came to a constant value
at the end of 4-5 cycles. Apart from the other researchers, Basma (1996) performed ultra sound
investigation test on samples, and found out that void ratio of samples that were exposed to full
shrink cycles increased and that of ones which were exposed to partial shrink cycles decreased.
Doostmohammadi et al, (2009) investigated the effect of cyclic wetting drying on swelling
potential and swelling pressure of mudstone composed of sediments with silt and clay sized
particles. Full swell-full shrink tests were applied on samples and the results showed that both
swell potential and pressure increased. The tested samples were taken from an area where the
hydroelectric power plant called Masjed-Soleiman had been constructed. Power house of that
project intersected with mudstone interlayers. In order to monitor the swell pressure on
concrete linings, during construction of the power house, total pressure cells were installed
behind linings. Records were taken during six-year period to evaluate the cyclic swell-shrink
behaviour of mudstone. The results of the laboratory and field tests were consistent in showing
an increase in swell potential after cyclic wetting-drying.
Tawfiq & Nalbantolu, (2009), studied the effect of the cyclic wetting anddrying on the
swelling behaviour of a natural expansive soil with liquid limit and plasticity index values of
64% and 36%, respectively. During the experiments both full swell-full shrink and full swellpartial shrink methods were applied. Results of the experiments showed that swell potential
23
increased after full swell-full shrink cycles and decreased after full swell-partial shrink cycles.
Authors explained the swell potential increase after full shrink cycles with the decrease in the
water content and development of macro cracks at the end of the second cycle that allowed
water to penetrate into soil pores. Also, swell potential decrease due to partial shrink method
was explained by the high water content existing before the wetting procedure. For the full
swell full shrink and full swell-partial shrink cycles swell potential come into equilibrium
after the fifth and the first cycle, respectively.
Figure 2.6 Effect of full swell-full shrink and full swell-partial shrink on swell
potential of an expansive soil (Tawfiq & Nalbantolu, 2009)
Tripathy& Rao, (2009) carried out cyclic swellshrink tests under 50 kPa of surcharge
pressure on a compacted expansive clay with liquid limit and plasticity index of 100% and
58%, respectively. In this study, both of theshrinkage methods were used as that of
Tawfiq&Nalbantolu, (2009) studies. Increase in swell potential was observed after full
shrink cycles even after the first cycle and swell potential decreased for partial shrink cycles.
Swell potential came into equilibrium after five or more cycles.
Turkoz, (2009) conducted tests on an expansive soil obtained by mixing different percentages
of bentonite with high plasticity Silty Clay to determine the effect of wetting-drying on
microstructure. Samples were allowed to swell fully and then dried to shrinkage limit. Only the
swell values were presented in the study. Swell percentages could not be presented due to the
deformations occurred on the surface of samples during drying. The results showed that after
24
each cycle, swell amount decreased. The reduction was explained by the flocculation of
particles.
In addition to these researchers, the studies of Popesco (1980) and Osipov et al. (1987) on
non- stabilized soils showed that full swell-full shrink cycles caused an increase in the swelling
potential of soils and also the studies of Chen (1965), Chen et al. (1985) and Blumel (1991)
showed that reduction occurred in swelling potential of expansive soils that exposed to full
swell-partial shrink cycles (Basma, 1996).
2.6.3 Studies On Stabilized Soils

Rao et al, (2001) studied the effect of wetting-drying cycles on the lime-treated soils index
properties. Hydrometer and Atterberg limit tests were applied to lime-treated soil. Hydrated
lime was used in the experiments with the percentages 2%, 4% and 7%. Full swell-full shrink
method was used and specimens were exposed to 20 wetting drying cycles during the tests.
At the end of the experiments, clay content and liquid limit increased and plastic limit and
shrinkage limit of treated samples decreased. The author explained the corresponding increase
and reduction in the index properties by breakdown of cementation and flocculation of particles
and by the increase in the thickness of diffuse double layer.
Figure 2.7 Effect of wetting-drying cycles on plastic limit of lime treated soils (Rao,
2001)
25
Another study was also performed by Rao et al, (2001) on lime-treated expansive soils. This
time,the effect of cyclic wetting drying cycles on swell potential of lime treated expansive
soils was investigated. Full swell-full shrink method was used as in the previous study. The
results of the experiments indicated that the effect of lime treatment was partially reduced after
four wetting-drying cycles.
Guney et al, (2007) also conducted cyclic swell shrink tests to determine the long term
behaviour of lime-treated clayey soils. During the tests, samples were dried to their initial
moisture content. Tests were carried out on three different soils. During the study two different
proportions of lime; 3% and 6%, were used. At the end of the tests, swell potential of untreated
Soils reduced in the first cycle and reached to equilibrium after the fourth cycle. However,
swell potentials of 3% and 6% lime treated soils increased(fig 2.8).
Figure 2.8 Change of Swell Percent for Soil A and lime treated Soil A (Guney et al,
2007)
The beneficiary effect of lime stabilization in controlling the swelling potential of lime treated
soil is partially lost on subjecting them to cycles of wetting and drying. Author explained that
this behaviour is a result of cyclic wetting and drying, which leads to gradual destruction of
pozzolanic reaction of lime treated specimens and partial breakdown of inter-particle
cementation.
26
Rao A. & Rao M., (2008) investigated the effect of cyclic drying-wetting on the swelling
behaviour of expansive soil stabilized by using fly ash cushions that were treated with cement
and lime. Full swell-full shrink procedure was applied during the tests. Reduction in swell
potential was observed at the end of the tests. The reduction in swell potential increased with
an increase in cushion thickness. Also fly ash cushions treated with cement showed more
reduction in heave compared to the ones treated with lime. Swell potential reached to
equilibrium after three and four cycles for the fly ash cushions treated with cement and lime,
respectively.
In the study performed by Akcanca & Aytekin, (2011), effects of wetting drying cycles on
the lime treated samples prepared by mixing sand and bentonite in different percentages were
investigated. Only swell pressure testswere performed and samples were allowed to dry until
their moisture content reaches to a value slightly smaller than their initial moisture content.
Test results showed that there was a partial loss of the beneficiary effect of chemical treatment.
Figure 2.9: Cyclic swell-shrink behavior of samples containg 20% bentonite treated
with lime (Akcanca & Aytekin, 2011) Kalkan,
Kalkan, (2011) studied the effect of cyclic swell-shrink on natural expansive clay samples
stabilized by silica fume. During the experiments full swell-partial shrink procedures were
applied. An improvement in the durability of treated samples against wetting-drying was
observed at the end of the tests. Furthermore, the results of the experiments showed that as the
percent of the stabilizer increased, swell potentials of samples reached to equilibrium more
rapidly.
27
FatemeYazdandoust,(2010) studied the effect of cyclic wetting and drying on swelling

behaviour of polymer-stabilized expansive clays. Partial shrinkage method was used on three
soil types stabilized with fibres. The first cycle caused the most reduction in swelling behaviour
of all specimens and the value of swelling potential and pressure of treated specimens were
less than those quantities of un-treated specimens and reached equilibrium after fourth cycle.
By SEM analysis, author mentioned that in the presence of polymers, the particles move closer
to each other, to form aggregates and reduce swelling potential.
28
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTATION AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 General
This chapter deals with the materials used and detailed experimental procedures adopted in the
laboratory.
3.2 Materials and Equipment

In the present work the following materials and equipment were used.
3.2.1. Expansive Soil

According to IS classification system, the soil was classified as high plasticity clay (CH). The
elemental physical properties of soil are shown in table 3.1. The standard proctor results show
that optimum moisture content was 19% corresponding to a maximum dry density of 1.64g/cc.
Table 3.1: Properties of Black Cotton Soil
S.No.
Soil Properties
Specific Gravity
Grain size analysis
2.64
Gravel
Sand
3.6
Silt
45.4
clay
51
Liquid Limit
76%
Plastic Limit
22%
Plasticity Index
54%
IS Soil Classification
CH
Compaction Properties
29
Maximum Dry Density
1.64
Optimum Moisture Content
19%
Free Swell Index
135%
3.2.2 Lime
Calcium Oxide (lime) was purchased in local market, Hanumakonda, which is having 95% purity
of CaO and remaining 5% impurities.
3.2.3 Flyash
The fly ash used in the present study was brought from NTPC Ramagundam power plant in
Telangana. The flyash was classified as Class F with CaO percentage of 3.14 (which is less
than 10%) by conducting EDAX test in NFTDC Hyderabad. Further, it was having the
following chemical composition.
Table 3.2: Chemical composition of fly-ash
S.No.
Components
Composition (%)
1.
SiO2
61.5
2.
Al2O3
10.27
3.
Fe2O3
3.12
4.
CaO
3.14
5.
TiO2
0.99
6.
MgO
0.42
3.3. Experiments Performed in This Investigation

1. Specific Gravity
2. Free Swell Index
3. Grain size analysis
30
4. Atterbergs Limits
5. Standard Proctor Compaction
6. Swell Potential test
7. Swell Pressure test
8. X-ray Diffraction Analysis
3.3.1 Specific Gravity Test

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at a standard temperature to the
mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at a standard temperature. The specific
gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship of air, water, and solids in a given volume of
the soil. Specific gravity test was carried out by Pycnometer as per IS 2720 Part 3 (1980).
3.3.2 Grain Size Analysis Test

The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size
analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in classifying the soil. Grain size
analysis tests are still some of the most valuable guides to the engineering behaviour of soils
in the context of geotechnical engineering. Coarse particle and fine particle size distributions
were determined, in this study, in accordance with test methods IS 2720 Part 4 (1985)
respectively. Hydrometer analysis was carried out for size of particles less than 75micron in
accordance with IS 2720 Part 4 (1985).
3.3.3 Free Swell Index Test

Free swell or differential free swell, also termed as free swell index, is the increase in volume
of soil without any external constraint when subjected to submergence in water. The Free Swell
Index of the soil was carried in accordance with the IS.2720 part 40(1977)
3.3.4 Atterbergs Limits

Liquid limit and plastic limit are termed as Atterbergs limits. Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as
the moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a liquid material and begins to flow.
Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a plastic
material. Liquid limit and plastic limit tests were carried out as per IS 2720 Part 5 (1985).
Liquid limit tests were conducted using cone penetration apparatus.
The soil was mixed with stabilizers and kept for 24 hours before testing it for liquid limit and
31
plastic limit tests.
Fig.3.1 Cone Penetration Apparatus for Liquid Limit
3.3.5 Standard Proctor Test

Compaction tests are still some of the most valuable guides to the engineering behaviour of
soils. Standard Compaction Test was used to determine the OMC (optimum moisture content)
and the maximum dry density to which various mixes can be compacted at this moisture
content. Although these tests form a part of the procedures of other tests used, they were
performed primarily to determine whether or not there was an increase in density upon the
addition of various additives to the soil. Improvement of grading and/or compaction of soil to
higher density results in reduction in settlement, reduction in permeability and an increase in
shear strength.
Standard proctor compaction tests were conducted as per IS: 2720 Part 7 (1980) on various
mixes prepared on basis of dry weight.
32
3.3.6 Swelling Potential and Swelling Pressure Test

Swelling potential - It was calculated to determine the increase or decrease in axial swell at
the end of each cycle, using the formula given below:
Swelling Potential (%) = (Hi/Hid) *100
where;
Hi = Height difference between dry and wet state in a cycle
Hid = Height at dry state
Swelling Pressure - The pressure which the expansive soil exerts ifthe soil is not allowed to
swell or the volume change of the soil is arrested.
Swelling potential and swelling pressure for soil samples is carried out in accordance with
IS.2720 Part 41(1977). The method used was consolidometer method.
3.3.7 Powder X-Ray Diffraction

Mineralogical studies are conducted using PAN analytical X-pert powder diffractometer.
Samples were scan from 6 (2) and 70 (2) angle using copper K alpha radiation at a scanning
rate of 2 degrees per minute. The data obtained is analysed using X-pert high score plus
software, to identify minerals by comparing the standard diffraction patterns of minerals.
3.4 Methodology
The index and engineering properties of the black cotton soil were analysed. From the index
and engineering properties soil was found to be very expansive. Soil stabilization with
chemicals was chosen in order to improve the properties of soil. The methodology is described
below
Preparation of Test Samples
Samples were obtained by mixing soil with different percentages of Fly Ash varying from 10%
to 20% and lime changing between 2% and 8% (by dry weight of soil). Before the preparation
of samples, soil was air-dried, grounded and then oven-dried at 110 C for one day. After that
the materials were sieved through 2mm sieve. Then predetermined amount of each material
33
was put into bowl and mixed with a plastic spoon. After dry mixing, they were mixed with
optimum amount of water. After mixing with water, materials that sticked to each other were
separated by hand.
Finally, the sample was put into plastic bag and allowed to wait one day in desiccator to have
homogeneous water distribution. For the cured samples, samples that were prepared according
to above procedure, were kept 7 days and 28 days in the desiccators.
Phase 1: Index properties
The phase 1 dealt with finding the index properties of soil.
The lime was thoroughly mixed by hand in different composition (2%, 4%, 6%,
8%)until homogeneity was reached, and the mixture was quickly stored in a large plastic bag
to prevent loss of moisture content. All lime-treated soil specimens were tested compaction
characteristics. The same is done with fly-ash mixed samples (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%) and limeflyash mixed samples (6% lime and varying fly-ash content) at different proportions.
Atterbergs limits test were carried out after 1-day curing period and optimum lime
content is found from it.
The optimum content of Lime obtained from experimental results is 6%.
Phase 2: Procedures for Cyclic Swell and Shrink Tests

Compaction of Specimens
Samples were compacted directly into consolidation rings statically with a dry density of 1.64
g/cm3. At the end of the static compaction, samples with height slightly larger than 2 cm were
obtained. After compaction, top of the samples was trimmed by means.
Cyclic Swell Shrink Tests
Free swell tests were performed for determining the swell potential of samples according to
IS.2720.41.1977. The procedure of the test was as follows; firstly, porous stone was placed on
the oedometer, then sample, which was compacted in the consolidation ring as explained
above, was placed in the oedometer after placing filter papers on top and bottom of it. After
that another porous stone placed at the top of the sample. Then, the oedometer was put into a
consolidation cell and mounted and the initial reading of dial gauge was recorded (Figure 3.2).
The sample was inundated by filling the consolidation cell with water. Distilled water was used
to eliminate ion effects during testing. Swelling of the sample started right after the inundation
of water. The sample was allowed to swell freely under a pressure of nearly 0.05kgf/cm2.
34
Deflection values were recorded at least until the primary swell was completed (3-4 days)..
After the completion of swelling, the water in the cell was poured out and the oedometer was
dismantled. Then the sample was taken and weighed.
Fig 3.2 Oedometer during testing

During shrinkage procedure, the samples were allowed to dry at room temperature and allowed
to shrink until they reached to their initial water content. Weight of the samples was controlled
from time to time to understand if they reached to their initial water content or not. When the
samples were dried until their initial water content, they were taken and finally samples were
again put into oedometers and allowed to swell freely. These procedures were repeated four
times to determine the long-term behavior of unstabilized and stabilized samples.
The cyclic tests are performed for curing period of 1, 7, 21 days.
X-ray diffraction test was carried out on all soil samples treated with lime, flyash, lime-flyash
samples before first cycle and after fourth cycle to compare the effect of cycles on it.
35
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 GENERAL
In this chapter a detail discussion on the results obtained from various laboratory tests are
presented.
4.2 ATTERBERGS LIMITS

4.2.1 Effect of lime on consistency limits
The test results from Figure 4.1 shows that liquid limit(LL) and plasticity index (PI) decreased,
whereas PL increased for BC soil mixed with lime. It is known by addition of lime to BC Soil
that,
Reduces the thickness of the diffuse double layer clay particles,
Cause flocculation of clay particles, and
Increase the coarser particles content by substitute finer soil particles with coarser
particle.
These reasons of all together causes the decrease in LL and PI, and the increase in PL. Mitchell
(1993) indicated that PI is a good indicator of swell potential, the lower PI, and the lower swell
potential will be, addition of lime to BC soil decreased the plasticity index of expansive soil
significantly. This implies there is a significant reduction in swell potential by addition of lime
to BC Soil. From the Atterbergs limits, optimum lime content is fixed as 6% for further lime-
LL/PL/PI (%)
flyash mix.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
LL
PL
PI
LIME (%)
Fig. 4.1 Effect of lime on consistency limits
36
4.2.2 Effect of fly ash on consistency limits:

Atterbergs limits were tested with various fly ash content, and the results are shown in Figure
2. Liquid limit decreased with increasing fly ash content, and the plastic limit decreased with
increasing fly ash content, thereby resulting in a decrease in plasticity index. A possible
explanation of the above results may be related to the addition of fly ash, which aids
flocculation, and aggregation of the clay particles. Furthermore, fly ash inclusion diminished
the clay size fraction of soil in view of flocculation of the clay particles by cementation. Thus,
fly ash treatment made the soil more granular due to the reduction of Atterbergs limits.
80
70
60
LL/PL/PI
50
LL
40
PL
30
PI
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
Flyash (%)
Fig. 4.2 Effect of flyash on consistency limits

Even with the addition of fly-ash to the lime stabilized Black cotton soil, Liquid limit and
plasticity index are decreasing while plastic limit is increasing but to the lesser extent. Table
4.1 shows the variation of liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index with addition of 4%
lime and different percentages of fly-ash to black cotton soil. Lime itself is giving significant
reduction to the expansive nature of black cotton soil.
37
Table 4.1 Atterbergs limits of lime-flyash stabilised samples

Composition
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
BC+ 0% Lime + 0 % FA
76
22
54
56
27
29
BC+ 6% Lime + 10 % FA
52
28
24
BC+ 6% Lime + 15 % FA
51
30
21
BC+ 6% Lime + 20% FA
50
31
19
4.3 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST

4.3.1 Effect of lime on compaction characteristics:
The standard proctor tests were conducted by mixing different percentages of lime, flyash, and
lime-flyash to the Black cotton soil. BC soil is mixed by varying lime content from 2% to 8%,
and flyash content of 10% to 20% and standard proctor tests were conducted on the mixes.
After selecting suitable proportion of lime, flyash content was mixed from 10% to 20% in
increments of 5% and standard proctor tests were conducted on these mixes.
From figure 4.3, it observed that there is an increase in the optimum water content and decrease
in maximum dry unit weight when lime is added to BC Soil, this can be explained as follows:
The decrease in the dry unit weight is attributed to the fact that lime reacts quickly with the
black cotton soil resulting in a Base Exchange aggregation and flocculation, which leads to an
increase in the void ratio of the mixture and leads to a decrease in the dry unit weight of the
black cotton soil-lime mixture.. This decrease in maximum dry density is associated with
corresponding increase in optimum moisture content. As lime content increases, the water
sensitivity of lime stabilized clay decreases i.e., causing only a minor change in dry density
with large increase in water content. The reduced dry density therefore reduces the swellshrinkage properties of the compacted expansive soils.
38
Fig 4.3 Compaction curve of lime mix
4.3.2 Effect of fly ash on compaction characteristics:

It was observed that with the addition of flyash there was increase in optimum water content
and decrease in maximum dry density. This was due to the aggregation and flocculation of the
soil treated with flyash, which increases the void space thus decreasing the dry unit weight of
the samples. Figure 4.4 shows the compaction curve for flyash mix
Fig 4.4 Compaction curve of flyash mix

Even after addition of flyash to fixed amount of lime (6%), same pattern of results was
recorded. Table 4.2 shows the effect of addition of different percent of flyash to fixed lime
content mixed soil.
39
Table 4.2 Compaction properties of lime-flyash stabilised samples

Composition
OMC (%)
MDD (g/cc)
20
1.64
25
1.31
BC+ 6% Lime + 10 % FA
28
1.28
BC+ 6% Lime + 15 % FA
30
1.24
BC+ 6% Lime + 20% FA
31
1.24
4.4 EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON SWELL POTENTIAL

Figure 4.5 shows variation of swell potential with different stabilizers.
9
8
Swell potential (%)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
Lime
10
15
20
Flyash
L=0 0 10
15 20
Lime(6)-flyash
Fig 4.5 Effect of stabilisers on Swell potential
40
The improvement is due to the following two basic reactions: short-term reaction including
cation exchange and flocculation and long-term reaction including pozzolanic reaction.
The fly ash has potential to provide multivalent cations (Ca2+, Al3+, Fe3+, etc.), which promote
flocculation of clay particles by cation exchange (Mitchell 1993). As a result, the specific
surface area and water affinity of the samples decrease, which implies a reduction in the values
of swelling.
Adding a small amount of lime (6%, by dry weight of soils) in addition to the fly ash decreases
the swell potential further This may be attributed to the presence of quick lime, which ensures
a quick pozzolanic reaction leading to the formation of a cemented matrix.
4.5 CYCLIC SWELL SHRINK TESTS

Free swell tests were performed for determining the swell potential of samples as explained in
previous chapter. Free swell values of soil samples and treated samples were shown in
following figures.
4.5.1 Lime stabilised samples
Lime was added to the soil in proportions varying from 0% to 8%. The swell potential and
swelling pressure tests were conducted on optimum mixes which were selected from standard
proctor compaction tests. The swelling behaviour of samples at different curing period are
shown in following figs.4.6 to 4.11.
9
Swell potential (%)
8
7
6
L=0
L=2
L=4
L=6
L=8
1
0
cycles
Fig 4.6 Swell potential of lime stabilised soil with 1-day curing
41
Swell Pressure (kg/cm2)
2.5
2
L=0
L=2
1.5
L=4
L=6
L=8
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
cycles
Fig 4.7 Swell pressure of lime stabilised soil with 1-day curing
9
8
7
6
Swell Potential (%)
L=0
L=2
L=4
L=6
3
L=8
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.8 Swell potential of lime stabilised soil with 7-day curing
42
Swell Pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
2
L=0
L=2
1.5
L=4
L=6
L=8
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.9 Swell pressure of lime stabilised soil with 7 days curing
9
8
Swell Potential (%)
7
6
L=0
L=2
4
L=4
L=6
L=8
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.10 Swell potential of lime stabilised soil with 28 days curing
43
2.5
2
L=0
L=2
1.5
L=4
L=6
L=8
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.11 Swell pressure of lime stabilised soil with 28 days curing
The wettingdrying cycling effect on swelling potential and swelling pressure for all Soil of
samples are given in Figs. 4.5 to 4.10, respectively. From these figures, it can be seen that both
of the swelling potential and swelling pressure decrease with increasing number of cycles, for
untreated soil sample. The most reduction is recorded after the first cycle and the reduction
gradually reaches to equilibrium at the fourth cycle. On the other side, the lime-stabilized soil
samples, show a gradual increase in swelling percent and pressure from the first cycle to the
fourth cycle. One of the reasons of the low swell potentials of lime-treated samples is their
chemical stabilization. It notably reduces the swell potential and pressure of the expansive soil
samples. Because of short-term lime modification, the swell potentials lime-treated expansive
soil samples reduced remarkably. The increment of swell potential and pressure for the limetreated clayey soil samples, probably suggests partial breakdown of cemented soil aggregates
due to cyclic wetting and drying process. This could also be responsible for the small to
moderate swelling.
4.5.2 Flyash stabilised samples
Flyash was added to the soil in proportions varying from 10% to 20%. The swell potential and
swelling pressure tests were conducted on optimum mixes which were obtained from standard
44
proctor compaction tests. The swelling behaviour of samples at different curing period are
shown in following figs.4.12 to 4.17.
9
8
Swell Potential(%)
7
6
5
FA=0
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
cycles
Fig 4.12 Swell potential of flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
2.5
2
FA=0
FA=10
1.5
FA=15
1
FA=20
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.13 Swell pressure of flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
45
9
8
Swell Potential (%)
7
6
5
FA=0
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
2
1
0
1
Cycles
Fig 4.14 Swell potential of flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
2.5
2
FA=0
1.5
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.15 Swell pressure of flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
46
9
8
Swell potential(%)
7
6
5
FA=0
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
2
1
0
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.16 Swell potential of flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
Swell pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
2
FA=0
1.5
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.17 Swell pressure of flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
Variation in swell potential and swell pressure with no of cycles for soil treated with different
stabilizers are presented in graphical form and shown above. It was observed that the swell
potential and swell pressure increases with number of cycles for stabilised samples. The
47
decreased values of swell potential and pressure in first cycle is due to flocculation and
aggregation. This aggregate bond breaks with application of number of cycles causing increase
in swelling.
4.5.3 Lime-flyash stabilised samples:
The optimum lime content was found to be 6% from liquid limit testing of the lime stabilised
soil samples. For the samples of lime-flyash stabilised soil, the optimum lime content,6% is
mixed with different percentage of flyash, 10%, 15%, 20%. The swelling behaviour results are
shown in figures below from fig. 4.18 to fig.4.23, for different curing period.
9
Swell Potential (%)
8
7
6
5
L=6 FA=10
L=6 FA=15
L=6 FA=20
L=0 FA=0
1
0
I
II
III
IV
cycles
Fig 4.18 Swell potential of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
3
2.5
2
L=6 FA=10
1.5
L=6 FA=15
L=6 FA=20
L=0 FA=0
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycle
Fig 4.19 Swell pressure of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
48
9
8
7
Swell potential (%)
6
5
L=0 FA=0
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
3
L=6% FA=20%
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.20 Swell potential of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
Swell pressure (kg/cm2)
2.5
2
L=0 FA=0
1.5
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
L=6% FA=20%
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.21 Swell pressure of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
49
Swell potential(%)
7
6
5
L=0 FA=0
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
L=6% FA=20%
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.22 Swell potential of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
Swell pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
L=0 FA=0
1.5
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
L=6% FA=20%
0.5
0
1
Cycles
Fig 4.23 Swell pressure of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
50
4.5.4 Effect on swelling after fourth cycle on one day cured samples
6
Swelling potential(%)
Lime
10
15
20
Flyash
L=0
10
15
20
Lime(6)-flyash
Fig. 4.24 Effect of four cycles on stabilised samples for 1-day curing
It was observed that after fourth cycle, swelling potential of lime stabilised samples decreases
with increase in lime content. It means that lime stabilised soil is still effective after breakdown
of cemented soil aggregates. But in case of flyash, after fourth cycle, the swelling of 10% flyash
is more than swelling of soil after fourth cycle. And swelling values of other flyash content is
also high. It means that it has lost the stabilisation effect due to breaking of bonds. But in case
of lime-flyash samples, the swelling values are very low. It means the pozzolanic effect of lime
and flyash is preserved in this case.
4.6 EFFECT OF CURING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR

The swell potential and swelling pressure results for the soils with 1 day, 7 days and 28 days
curing are presented in above figures. Comparing the curing results, it is seen that there is a
significant decrease in swelling pressure with the increase in the curing time from 1 to 28 days.
Effect of curing on swell potential of first cycle for all three stabilizers is tabulated below in
Table 4.3.
51
Table 4.3 Effect of curing on swell potential of first cycle

Swell Potential(%)
Amount of stabilizer(%)
1-day
7-days
28-days
LIME=0
8.3
8.1
7.8
LIME=2
0.8
0.7
LIME=4
0.53
0.45
0.41
LIME=6
0.35
0.28
0.25
LIME=8
0.26
0.21
0.18
FLYASH =0
8.3
8.1
7.8
FLYASH =10
4.5
3.4
FLYASH =15
3.8
3.4
2.8
FLYASH =20
2.5
1.9
1.7
LIME=6, FLYASH=0
0.35
0.28
0.25
LIME=6, FLYASH=10
0.25
0.2
0.16
LIME=6, FLYASH=15
0.1
0.08
0.07
LIME=6, FLYASH=20
0.08
0.08
0.079
It was observed that there was decrease in swell potential of the soil with increase in curing
period. The percentage decrease of swell potential in case of lime was between 15% -20%. And
52
that in case of flyash stabilised samples was between 25% to 35%. The decrease in swelling
potential due to curing can be attributed to the time-dependent pozzolanic and self-hardening
properties (formation of cementitious compounds) of fly ashes.
The percentage decrease in lime-flyash mixes was observed to be 1% to 36%.
Table 4.4 Effect of curing on swell potential of last cycle
Swell Potential(%)
1-day
7-days
28-days
LIME=0
4.9
4.9
4.8
LIME=2
3.5
2.9
2.7
LIME=4
2.25
2.1
LIME=6
2.66
2.2
LIME=8
2.5
1.9
1.9
FLYASH =0
4.9
4.9
4.8
FLYASH =10
5.4
5.1
4.2
FLYASH =15
4.6
4.4
3.7
FLYASH =20
3.6
3.3
LIME=6, FLYASH=0
2.66
2.2
LIME=6, FLYASH=10
2.47
1.99
1.46
LIME=6, FLYASH=15
1.45
1.23
1.2
LIME=6, FLYASH=20
0.67
0.51
0.49
53
The percentage decrease in swell potential of lime treated samples after fourth cycle was
observed to between 20% to 30%, and in flyash, it was 15% to 20%. The effect in case of limeflyash mixed samples were h, between 15% to 40%.
The main reason for this is pozzolanic reaction, which is time and temperature dependent.
During this period, high pH in the treated soils causes dissolution of silica and alumina from
the structure of the clay minerals and combine with calcium to produce new cemented chemical
compounds, calcium silicate hydrates (CSH), and calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH), which
mainly contribute to the increase in the long-term shear strength of expansive soils.
4.7 MINERALOGICAL STUDIES

Mineralogical studies are conducted using PAN analytical X-pert powder diffractometer.
Samples were scan from 6 (2) and 70 (2) angle using copper K alpha radiation at a scanning
rate of 2 degrees per minute. The data obtained is analysed using X-pert high score plus
software, to identify minerals by comparing the standard diffraction patterns of minerals. Prior
to testing all the samples were oven dried for a period of 24 hours. Then the oven dried samples
were powdered and passed through 75-micron sieve. This powder is used for X-ray diffraction
analysis.
In figure 4.25, X-ray diffraction pattern of soil sample 14 (Natural Soil) and sample 15 (Lime
= 6% and after 4 cycle) have been compared. X-ray diffraction pattern shows that the natural
soil contains Volkonskoite (Peaks at 4.49, 2.56 and 15.0 []) along with Quartz (Peaks at 3.34,
4.25 and 1.81 []) as their major minerals and sample 15 shows presence of Volkonskoite but
considerable reduction is observed in count, which explains that reduction in swelling of
sample 14 to 15. A new mineral Nontronite (Peaks at 4.48, 2.56 and 15.2 []) is also formed.
In figure 4.26, X-ray diffraction pattern of soil sample 16 (Fly ash treated soil) and sample 14
(Natural Soil) have been compared. It can be seen that that the natural soil contains
Volkonskoite (Peaks at 4.49, 2.56 and 15.0 []) along with Quartz (Peaks at 3.34, 4.25 and
1.81 []) as their major minerals and sample 16 shows presence of Volkonskoite but
considerable reduction is observed in count, which explains that reduction in swelling of
sample 14 to 16. Since soil is treated with fly ash, hence presence of Calcite (Peaks at 3.02,
1.87 and 2.28 []) and a non-swelling mineral Microcline (Peaks at 3.24, 21.07 and 27.11 [])
is found.
54
Fig. 4.25 XRD comparison of untreated soil and lime treated soil
Fig. 4.26 XRD comparison of untreated soil and fly ash treated soil
In figure 4.27, X-ray diffraction pattern of soil sample 10 (Lime-Fly ash treated soil) in shown.
It can be observed that lime treated soil contains Quartz (Peaks at 3.34, 4.25 and 1.81 []),
Calcite (Peaks at 3.02, 1.87 and 2.28 []) and Illite (Peaks at 20.02, 35.02 and 24.29 []).
Since soil is treated with fly ash, hence presence of Calcite is traced and presence of Illite
indicating the reduction in swelling.
55
Fig. 4.27 XRD pattern of lime-flyash treated soil

In figure 4.28, X-ray diffraction pattern of soil sample 14 (Natural Soil) and sample 13 (Natural
soil after 4 cycle) have been compared. X-ray diffraction pattern shows that the natural soil
contains Volkonskoite (Peaks at 4.49, 2.56 and 15.0 []) along with Quartz (Peaks at 3.34,
4.25 and 1.81 []) as their major minerals and sample 13 also shows presence of Volkonskoite
but considerable reduction is observed in count, which explains that reduction in swelling of
sample 14 to 13.
Fig. 4.28 XRD comparison of untreated soil before cycles and after fourth cycle
In figure 4.29, X-ray diffraction pattern of soil sample 12 (Lime = 6% Fly ash = 15% without
cycle) and sample 11 (Lime = 6% Fly ash 15% and after 4 cycle) have been compared. X-ray
diffraction pattern shows that sample 12 contains Volkonskoite (Peaks at 4.49, 2.56 and 15.0
56
[]) and Quartz (Peaks at 3.34, 4.25 and 1.81 []); and sample 11 shows presence of
Nontronite (Peaks at 4.48, 2.56 and 15.2 []) and Halloysite (Peaks at 10.10, 4.46 and 3.4 []).
Nontronite and Halloysite, both are swelling minerals confirming the increase in swelling of
sample 11 more than sample 12.
Fig. 4.29 XRD comparison of lime-flyash treated soil before cycles and after fourth cycle
Table 4.5 is showing swelling potential for 1-day, 7 days and 28 days cured soil sample with
amount of stabilizers.
Table 4.5 Swelling potential for 1-day, 7 days and 28 days cured soil sample
Swell Potential(%)
1-day
7-days
28-days
LIME=0
8.3
5.7 5.1 4.9
8.1
5.5
4.9
7.8
5.4
4.9
4.8
LIME=2
3.4 3.5 3.5
0.8
2.8
2.9
0.7
2.5
2.7
2.7
1.9
2.1
LIME=4
0.53 2.8 2.8
LIME=6
0.35 2.4 2.66 2.66 0.28 1.8
2.1
2.2
0.25
1.5
LIME=8
0.26 2.1 2.49 2.5 0.21 1.5
1.8
1.9
0.18
1.3
1.8
1.9
0.45 2.3
2.5 2.25 0.41
57
FLYASH =0
8.3
5.7 5.1 4.9
8.1
5.5
4.9
7.8
5.4
4.9
4.8
FLYASH =10
4.5
5.2 5.6 5.4
4.9
5.1
5.1
3.4
4.2
4.2
FLYASH =15
3.8
4.6 4.8 4.6
3.4
4.1
4.3
4.4
2.8
3.4
3.7
3.7
FLYASH =20
2.5
3.5 3.7 3.6
1.9
2.9
3.2
3.3
1.7
2.5
2.7
LIME=6, FLYASH=0
0.35 2.4 2.66 2.66 0.28 1.8
2.1
2.2
0.25
1.5
LIME=6, FLYASH=10
0.25 2.1 2.46 2.47 0.2
1.8
1.9 1.99 0.16
1.4 1.45 1.46
LIME=6, FLYASH=15
0.1
1.41 1.45 0.08 0.9
1.2 1.23 0.07
0.9
LIME=6, FLYASH=20
0.08 0.5 0.56 0.67 0.08 0.45 0.5 0.51 0.079 0.43 0.48 0.49
1.1
58
1.2
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn based on the laboratory studies carried out in this
work.
1. The swelling potential and swelling pressure of black cotton soil treated with lime and
flyash is decreased effectively with increase of lime, flyash and lime-flyash content.
However, the value of swelling potential and swelling pressure became almost 0 after
addition of lime 6%-flyash 15% and lime 6%-flyash 20%.
2. On application of number of cycles, the swelling behaviour of lime stabilized, flyash
stabilized and lime-flyash stabilized samples increases.
The increase in flyash
stabilized samples was very high, the beneficial effect of stabilization in controlling the
swelling potential of treated samples is partially lost, on subjecting them to cycles of
wetting and drying.
3. When the swelling behavior of soils were compared for different curing period, 1day,7days and 28 days, there was significant decrease in the swelling behavior of the
treated soil in 28 days as compared to the 1-day swelling.
4. The X-Ray diffraction studies have shown that formation of Calcium Aluminium
Silicates and Calcium Sulphate Hydrate minerals, which evidence the formation of
cementing agents, which are responsible for reduced swelling of soil.
5. From this study it is suggested to use 8% lime or 6% of lime+15% flyash or 6% lime

+20% flyash to the areas subjected to the cyclic wetting and drying.
59

Impact of Cyclic Wetting and Drying On Swelling Behaviour of Lime-Flyash Stabilised Soil

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Impact of Cyclic Wetting and Drying On Swelling Behaviour of Lime-Flyash Stabilised Soil

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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL

1.1.1 EXPANSIVE SOIL

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Fig. 1.1 black cotton soil in India

1.2 NEED OF THE PROJECT

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

1.4 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

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2.2 Clay Mineralogy

FIGURE 2.1. Atomic structure of silicon tetrahedral and alumino-magnesium

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2.3 Mechanisms of Swelling

2.3.1 Diffuse Double Layer of Clay Minerals

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2.3.2 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Several investigators have attempted to understand the characteristics and mechanism of

2.3.2 Factors Influencing Swelling

cause volume changes. Although Illites and Kaolinites are

Soil Water Chemistry

cation valence. For example, Mg+2 cations in the soil water

Soil suction is related to saturation, gravity, pore size and shape,

compaction at higher water content or remoulding. Kneading

may mean greater repulsive forces between particles and larger

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Table 2.3 Environmental Conditions that influence shrink-swell potential

A desiccated expansive soil will have a higher affinity for

content, lower suction

seasonal moisture fluctuation. Greatest seasonal heave occurs

Shallow water tables provide a source of moisture and

Drainage and manmade

graded house foundation, provide sources of water at the

surface; leaky plumbing can give the soil access to water at

through transpiration, and cause the soil to be differentially

and cracks in the field soil mass, allow faster migration of

Increasing temperatures cause moisture to diffuse to cooler

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Table 2.4 Stress Conditions that influence shrink-swell potential

Repeated wetting and drying tend to reduce swell in

and/or altering the moisture environment therein. The initial

volume change that will occur for a given moisture content

expansive clays extending from the surface to depths below

2.4 Identification of Expansive Soils

Figure 2.4: Swell potential related to PI and CF (Skempton 1953).

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Table 2.5: Swell Potential Criteria per USBR 1959.

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Table 2.7: Swell Potential Criteria per Altmeyer 1955.

Potential Swell Classification

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2.5 Remedial Measures to Expansive Soil

2.5.2 Application of Surcharge Pressure

2.5.4 CNS-Layer Technique

2.5.5 Chemical Stabilization

2.5.5.1 Lime Stabilization

Cation Exchange and Flocculation-Agglomeration

Cementation or Pozzolanic Reactions

Ca2+ + 2OH- + SiO2 (Clay Silica)

2.5.5.3 Flyash Treatment

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2.6 Previous Studies On Cyclic Swell-Shrink Behaviour of Soils

2.6.2 Studies On Non-Stabilized Soils

2.6.3 Studies On Stabilized Soils