CDB 3082

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY 4
MAY 2016 SEMESTER

LAB
REPORT
: 11- LOSS OF CONTAINMENT OF

Experiment

LIQUID
Group

: A3

Group Members
1. ABDUL MAJEED ABDURRAHMAN ISA
0019504
2. AINI FATIHAH BINTI ANUAR RIZAL
0019174
3. BHINITHA CHANDRASAGARAN
0018802
4. MUHAMMAD RAIS BIN ROSLI
0019461
Date of Experiment

: 19th July 2016

Venue

: 03-00-09

Lab Instructor

: Muhammad Shuaib Shaikh

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
It is common for the chemical plants to have disasters which usually result in spills
of toxic, combustible and touchy materials. Mischances start with an occurrence,
which for the most part results in the loss of control of material from the procedure.
The material has unsafe properties which may incorporate toxic properties and
energy content. Normal occurrences may incorporate the crack or break of a
pipeline, an opening in a tank or pipe, runaway response, or flame outside to the
vessel. Once the episode is known, source models are chosen to portray how
materials are released from the procedure.
This experiment is divided into two parts. First part is to study the effect of pressure
head on the mass flow rate for orifice that having same size but different level while
second part is to study the effect of pressure head on the mass flow rate for orifice
that having different size with same level. Few orifices that having same size but
different level and few having different size with same level has been used in this
experiment to compare them.
An orifice creates at certain height in a tank and causes drop in liquid level in the
tank. The flow of the liquid from the gap or orifice relies on the size of orifice, height
of liquid and pressure over the liquid surface. The instantaneous mass flow rate of
the liquid from the tank can be figured as takes after.

gcPg
(
)+ g h

Qm= ACo 2

Where: is the fluid density

A is the area of orifice
Co is the discharge coefficient
gc is the gravitational constant
g is the acceleration due to gravity
Pg is the pressure of the gas over the liquid surface
hL is the liquid height

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

During the transportation of fluid from one location to another, there is a difference
between mass transfer and the fluid flow that occurs in a macroscopic level. For the
case of mass transfer, it requires the presence of at least two regions at different
chemical compositions. Fluid flow on the other hand, refers to the movement of a
chemical species from a higher concentration to a lower concentration area in a
particular medium. For mass transfer, the primary driving force is the concentration
difference whereas for fluid flow it is related to the pressure difference. Because of
that, mass transfer is considered absent in a homogenous medium.
It is a common observation that whenever there is an imbalance of a commodity in
a medium, nature tends to redistribute it until a "balance" or "equality" is
established. This tendency is often referred to as the driving force, which is the
mechanism behind many naturally occurring transport phenomena. If we define the
amount of a commodity per unit volume as the concentration of that commodity,
we can say that the flow of a commodity is always in the direction of decreasing
concentration; that is, from the region of high concentration to the region of low
concentration. The commodity simply creeps away during redistribution, and thus
the flow is a diffusion process. The rate of flow of the commodity is proportional to
the concentration gradient dC/dx, which is the change in the concentration C per
unit length in the ow direction x, and the area A normal to flow direction and is
expressed as
Flow rate (Normal area)(concentration gradient)
Q = -kdif AdC/dx
Based on the equation, the proportionality constant k diff refers to the diffusion
coefficient of the medium, which is a measure of how fast a commodity diffuses in
the medium. The negative sign on the constant is to make the flow in the positive
direction into a positive quantity as dC/dx already is a negative value since
concentration decreases in the flow direction. The mechanisms of heat and mass
transfer are analogous or related to each other, thus we can develop an
understanding toward mass transfer much simpler by drawing parallels between
heat and mass transfer.
In light of the increasing emphasis on decreasing leakage of pollutants in the
industrial setting, there is a need to become informed about sealing equipment
under our control. Because pumps are generally considered to be more expensive
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than the piping, valves, and related accessories surrounding them, pumps are
considered to be very costly and much higher profile when they leak. Seal
manufacturers are gearing up to meet the challenge but have thus far focused on
centrifugal pump principles because they have a higher demand in the market.
Positive-displacement (PD) pumps may pose special sealing problems because they
have been designed to handle viscous, non-Newtonian, or other problem fluids
under a wide range of physical conditions.

CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY
METHODOLOGY
Experiment A: To determine the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of
liquid for orifice having same size but at different levels.
1. All On/Off ball valves (Ball valve 1, Ball Valve 2, Ball Valve 3 & Ball Valve 4, & Orifice
1, 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 3 & 4) was ensured that they were in close position.
2. The water supply was turned on to fill the liquid containment tank to a certain level
(the level is determined by opening up orifice 2D).
3. The water level in the liquid containment tank was observed using level sight tube
and closed the water supply valve when certain level is achieved.
4. The water level position in level sight tube was jotted down.
5. The compressed air inlet ball valve 1 was turned on and the liquid containment tank
was pressurized to 1 bar.
6. The compressed air inlet ball valve 1 was closed.
7. Orifice 2A was turned on and jotted down the time for water discharge until there is
no more water flow out of the orifice.
8. Step 2 to step 7 was repeated for orifice 2B, 2C & 2D having same size as of orifice
2A but at different levels.
9. The same experiment was repeated for pressure at 2 bar.
10. After completing the experiment, the vent ball valve 2 was opened to release the
pressure inside the tank and drained ball valve 4 to drain the water left in the tank.
Experiment B: To determine the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of
liquid for orifice having different size but at same level.
1. All On/Off ball valves (Ball valve 1, Ball Valve 2, Ball Valve 3 & Ball Valve 4, & Orifice
1, 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 3 & 4) was ensured that they were in close position.
3

2. The water supply was turned on to fill the liquid containment tank to a certain level.
3. The water level in the liquid containment tank was observed using level sight tube
and the water supply valve was closed when certain level is achieved (the level is
determined by opening up orifice 2D).
4. The water level position in level sight tube was jotted down.
5. The compressed air inlet ball valve 1 was turned on and the liquid containment tank
was pressurized to 1 bar.
6. The compressed air inlet ball valve 1 was closed.
7. Orifice 1 was turned on and the time for water discharge was jotted down until there
is no more water flow out of the orifice.
8. Step 2 to step 7 was repeated for orifice 2A, 3 & 4 having different sizes but located
at same level.
9. The same experiment was repeated for pressure at 2 bar.
10. After completing the experiment, the vent ball valve 2 was opened to release the
pressure inside the tank and drained ball valve 4 to drain the water left in the tank.

CHAPTER 4 : RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS
Part A: Same size, different level At P = 1 bar

Orifice
no.

Orifice
size
(mm)

Liquid level (cm)

Start

En
d

Liquid
Height
(m)

Dischar
ge time
(s)

Instantaneo
us mass
flow rate,
Qm (kg/s)

2A

2.8

38.5

22

0.165

446

0.05352559
4

2B

2.8

38

26.
5

0.115

131

0.05342205

2C

2.8

38

31

0.07

92

2D

2.8

38

36

0.02

46

Liquid
Height
(m)

Dischar
ge time
(s)

0.05330532
2
0.05317532
4

At P = 2 bar

Orifice
size
(mm)

Liquid level (cm)

Start

En
d

2A

2.8

37.5

22

0.155

323

2B

2.8

37.5

0.115

115

2C

2.8

38

26
31.
2

0.068

84

2D

2.8

38

36

0.02

57

Orifice
no.

Instantaneo
us mass
flow rate,
Qm (kg/s)
0.07541264
7
0.07533919
0.07525278
6
0.07516444
1

Part B
At P = 1 bar

Orifice
size
(mm)

Liquid level (cm)

39

3
2

3.8
2.8

39
38.5

39.2

Orifice
no.

Start

En
d
22.
5
22
22
21.
8

Liquid Height
(m)

Discharg
e time (s)

Instantaneous
mass flow
rate, Qm
(kg/s)

0.165

59

0.170772423

0.17
0.165

84
446

0.098661955
0.053554232

0.174

1101

0.006833864

Liquid Height
(m)

Discharg
e time (s)

Instantaneous
mass flow
rate, Qm
(kg/s)

0.165

49

0.240545027

0.167

67

0.138945567

0.165

115

0.07543492

0.172

679

0.009623439

At P = 2 bar

Orifice
size
(mm)

Liquid level (cm)

37.5

3.8

38

2.8

37.5

38.5

Orifice
no.

Start

En
d
21
21.
3
21
21.
3

Instantaneous mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s) vs orifice size (mm)

0.3
0.25
0.2
1 bar

Axis Title 0.15

2 bar

0.1
0.05
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Axis Title

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CALCULATION

The main objectives for this experiment are to determine the effect of
pressure head on mass flow rate of liquid for orifice having same size but at
different levels and to determine the effect of pressure head on mass flow rate of
liquid for orifice having different size but at same level. We divided this experiment
into two parts, which are A and B. For both part, liquid level in containment and time
for water discharged are recorded. Then, the instantaneous mass flow rate, Q m can
be calculated by using the formula;

Qm= pA C o 2

g c Pg
+2 gh .

For Part A, the aim is to determine the effect of pressure head on mass flow
rate of liquid for orifice having same size but at different levels. The size of all orifice
are constant which is 2.8mm. However, the level of the orifice are different which at
level labeled 2A is the lowest level followed respectively by 2B, 2C and 2D that is
the highest level. The experiment for this part are conducted twice as the pressure
is change for 1 bar and 2 bar. Based on the results obtained, the instantaneous
mass flow rate, Qm can be calculated. Then, a graph can be plotted where liquid
height act as x-axis and Qm act as y-axis, as shown in figure 1. The height of liquid
level in the graph represents the pressure head.
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From the graph plotted, it shows that as the liquid height increase, the Qm
value also increases for both pressure. Orifice 2D which is the lowest orifice have
the highest value of Qm. It is probably because, it is situated at the lowest level
hence the differential pressure would be higher thus increase the value of Qm. As
comparison between pressures adjusted, higher pressure which is 2 bar gives higher
Qm reading compared to 1 bar. It is because the higher pressure will increase the
flowrate as in the formula, they are directly proportional to each other.
In terms of discharging time, for both pressure, the higher the level of liquid
height, the longer discharging time. 2A takes the longest time to discharge water
while 2D takes the shortest time to discharge water, eventhough based on the
calculated flowrate, the result should be vice versa. It is probably because the
flowrate are just slightly difference from each other which does not impact so much
to discharging time compared to other factors such as pressure. The flowrates are
just slightly differ from each other because of the distance between liquid height to
each other is just slightly different.
On the other hand, the second experiment is conducted with the same
objectives but it is conducted at the same level of orifice but different size. The
graph of instantaneous mass flow rate versus orifice size is plotted for both 1 bar
and 2 bar pressure. From the graph, it can be seen that the orifice with the largest
size which is 5 has the highest instantaneous mass flow rate, Qm compared to the
other size. When the size of orifice get larger, the mass that can flow out will be
higher. That explains why discharging time for larger size of orifice, which is 5mm, is
faster.
As comparison between 1 bar pressure and 2 bar pressure, 2 bar pressure
gives higher reading of Qm. It is because the higher pressure will increase the
flowrate as in the formula, they are directly proportional to each other.
The importance of this experiment in context of handling liquid materials at
the workplace are we to prevent any accidents that caused by piping leaking or
problems like that due to too much pressure. Some liquid produces more pressure
thus causing leaking or piping problems. When we know the properties of the orifice
we can identify the best orifice for solutions. We can identify what size of the orifice
we can use and also at what level the orifice should be used.
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Calculations
1. Area = D2/4
Sample calculation:
For part A, orifice 2A at 1 bar:
Area = x (0.0028m)2/4
Area = 6.158 x 10-6 m
2. Liquid height, hL = liquid level at start liquid level at end
Sample calculation:
For part A, orifice 2A at 1 bar:
Liquid height, hL = 38.5mm 22mm
Liquid height, hL = 16.5mm

3. Instantaneous mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s)

g P
(
)+2 gh
c

Qm= pA C o 2

Where,
Density of water, = 1000 kg/m3
C0 = 0.61
gc = 1 kg.m.N-1.s-2
g = 9.81 m/s2
1 bar = 100000 N/m2
Sample calculation:
For part A, orifice 2A at 1 bar:

(1)(100000)
(
1000 )+ 2(1)(0.165)

Qm=(1000)(6.158 x 106 )(0.61) 2

Qm= 0.053525594 kg/s

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
In experiment A, orifices with same size which is 2.8mm but different levels were
used. From the results, orifice 2D has the lowest liquid level and fastest discharge
and also lowest mass flow rate. This is because the orifice is located at the highest
level. Meanwhile for Experiment B, orifice 1 with the diameter of 5mm takes the
shortest time to discharge. This is because orifice 1 has the largest diameter
compare to other orifices. Orifice 4 spends the longest time to discharge because
the diameter of the orifice is very small compare to other orifices. We can conclude
that the larger the diameter of orifices the faster the time to discharge.
For both the A and B, the graphs were plotted individually in light of the information
got. As expressed in Bernoulli's principle, pressure and mass flow rate have inverse
association with each other which is obviously appeared in our test results.
Conclusively, the objectives have been achieved by taking into account the error
that happened when conducting the experiment.

CHAPTER 7 : ERROR AND RECOMMENDATION

1

The eyes of the observer must be perpendicular to the scale of the tube to
avoid parallax error.

To get a better result, the tube needs to be changed to the new one so that
the water level can be seen clearly.

The observer needs to be alert when to start and stop the stopwatch in order
to avoid this error.

CHAPTER 8 : REFERENCES
1) Pipe Elevation Changes and Effect on Pressure Loss. (n.d.). Retrieved 5 June,
2016, from pipeflow: http://www.pipeflow.com/pipe-pressure-dropcalculations/pipe-elevation-changes
2) Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N. (2007). Transport Phenomena
(Revised Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
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