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Flight dynamics II

Stability and control

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara

Chapter 8
Dynamic stability analysis II Longitudinal motion - 3
Lecture 30
Topics
8.10 Equations of motion in state space or state variable form
8.11 Approximations to modes of longitudinal motion
8.11.1 Approximation to SPO
8.11.2 Approximation to LPO
8.10 Equations of motion in state space or state variable form
The governing equations for the longitudinal motion (Eqs.7.85, 7.86 and
7.87) are ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients. When such
equations are written as a system of first order differential equations, they are
called state space or state variable equations and are written as:

A. X + B.
X

(8.34)

where, X is the state vector, is the control vector and the matrices A and B
contain stability derivatives. The steps for expressing the governing equations of
longitudinal motions in state space variable form are as follows.
The equations of motion are reproduced below for ready reference.
(

d
- Xu )u - X w w + g cos0 = Xe e + XT T
dt

- Zu u + [(1-Z w )

d
d
- Z w ]w-[(u0 + Z q ) - g sin0 ]
dt
dt

= Ze e + ZT T
- Mu u - (Mw

(7.85)

d
d2
d
+Mw ) w + ( 2 - Mq ) = Me e + MT T
dt
dt
dt

(7.86)
(7.87)

To bring out the essential ideas of the state variable form, a simpler set of
equations is used. It is assumed that (a) 0 is zero i.e. the undisturbed flight is a
level flight and (b) Z w and Zq are taken as zero.

The aforesaid set of equations (i.e.Eqs.7.85 to 7.87) now reduces to :

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras

Flight dynamics II
Stability and control
(

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara

d
- Xu )u - X w w + g = Xe e + XT T
dt

- Zu u + [

d
d
- Z w ]w - [(u0
)] = Ze e + ZT T
dt
dt

- Mu u - (Mw

d
d2
d
+Mw ) w + ( 2 - Mq ) = Me e + MT T
dt
dt
dt

(8.34a)
(8.34b)
(8.34c)

It is observed that the third equation in the above set (i.e. Eq.8.34 c) involves
second derivative of . But, the state variable form of the equations has only the
d2
first derivative of the dependent variables. To overcome this difficulty, 2 is
dt

expressed as q and an additional equation, = q is introduced. Then, the


set of Eqs.(8.34a) to (8.34c), after some rearrangement, is expressed as:
u = Xu u + X w w + 0 q - g + Xe e + XT T

(8.35)

= Zu u + Z w w + u0 q +(0) + Ze e + ZT T
w

(8.36)

+ Mw w + Mq q + (0) + Me e + Mt T
q = Mu u + Mw w

(8.37)

= q

(8.38)

It is observed that Eq.(8.37) of this set involves the derivative of w on the right
hand side. This again is not in accordance with the state variable representation

in Eq.(8.37) is replaced by its


(i.e. Eq.8.34). To overcome this difficulty, w
expression as given by Eq.(8.36). Consequently, Eq.(8.37) is rewritten as :
q = Mu u + Mw { Zu u + Z w w + u0 q + (0)
+ Ze e + Zt T } + Mw w + Mq q + Me e + Mt T

Or q = (Mu +Mw Zu )u + (Mw +Mw Zw )w+(Mq +Mw u0 )q


+(0)+(Me +Mw Ze )e +(Mt +Mw Zt ) T

(8.39)

Equations (8.35), (8.36), (8.39) and (8.38) are the alternate form of the governing
equations for the longitudinal motion. These can be written in matrix form as:

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras

Flight dynamics II
Stability and control

Xu
Xw
u

Zu
Zw
w =
q Mu + Mw Zu Mw +Mw Z w

0
0

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara

0
u0
Mq +Mw u0
1

-g u

0 w

0 q

Xe
XT

e
+
Z e
ZT

T
Me +Mw Ze MT + Mw ZT

(8.40)

= A.X + B. where
i.e.,X
u
u

= w ,X = w , = e ,
X

q
q
T

(8.41)

Xu
Xw
0
- g

Zu
Zw
u0
0

A=
Mu +Mw Zu Mw +Mw Zw Mq +Mw u0 0

0
0
1
0

X e
X T

Z e
Z T
B =

M e +Mw Z e M T +Mw Z T

(8.42)

Remarks:
i) The quantities u, w, q and are called state variables and e and t
are called control variables.
ii) When = 0, Eq.(8.41) reduces to:

X = A. X.

(8.43)

This set of equations has a solution:


X X r e r t

(8.44)

Substituting Eq.(8.44) in Eq.(8.34) gives:

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras

Flight dynamics II
Stability and control

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara

( r I A)Xr 0

(8.45)

Where, the identity matrix I in this case is:


1

0
I
0

0 0 0

1 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 1

(8.46)

For a non-trivial solution to exist:


|r I - A| = 0.

(8.47)

Thus, rs are the eigen values of matrix A. These are also the roots of the
characteristics equation (Eq.8.9). Thus, the roots of the characteristic equation
can be obtained by finding out the eigen values of matrix A using packages like
Mathematica, Matlab etc.
i)

For the general aviation airplane of example 8.1, the matrix A is :

- 0.045

- 0.369
A =
0.00612

0.036
- 2.02

0
53.64

- 0.1298

- 2.9862

- 9.80665

The roots of the equations using Matlab are:


-2.5085 i 2.5931
-0.01709 i 0.2124
which are almost the same as those obtained by the iterative procedure in
example 8.2.

8.11 Approximations to modes of longitudinal motion


The response of an airplane to disturbances, discussed in section 8.9,
shows that the changes in or w take place in the first few moments of the
disturbed motion. During this, the changes in u are negligible. In the
subsequent motion, the angle of attack remains fairly constant and the velocity
changes in a periodic manner. This change in velocity is accompanied by a
change in the altitude of the airplane. This implies a gradual exchange between
the kinetic energy and potential energy. These observations suggest that the

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras

Flight dynamics II
Stability and control

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara

analysis of SPO and LPO can be done by making simplifying assumptions.


These simplified analyses are called approximations to SPO and LPO.

8.11.1 Approximation to SPO


From the aforesaid discussion the analysis of SPO is simplified by
assuming that u is zero during this phase of motion. This results in the following
simplifications.
a) In the set of governing equations (Eqs.7.85 to 7.87) the equation
corresponding to X-force i.e. Eq (7.85) can be dropped.
b) From the other two equations the terms multiplied by u can be ignored.
c) Writing as q, the following set of two equations is obtained.
d
w - Zw w -u0 q = 0
dt

(8.48)

dq
- (Mw +Mw Z w )w - (Mq +Mw u0 ) q = 0
dt

(8.49)

Zw

w
or
=

q
Mw +Mw Z w

w
Mq +Mw u0 q
u0

(8.50)

Now, w can be replaced by u0 .


Further,

M =

u M
1 M 1
M
=
= 0
= u0 Mw
Iyy Iyy (w/u0 ) Iyy w

(8.51)

Similarly, Z = u0 Zw and M = u0Mw . Substituting these, the simplified equations


for SPO become:
Z

1

uo

=


Z
q
q (M +M ) Mq +M
u0

(8.52)

The characteristic equation for this mode can be obtained from |I - A| = 0 or


-

Z
u0

Z
-M -M
u0

-1
=0

(8.53)

-(Mq +M )

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras

Flight dynamics II
Stability and control

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara

Expanding this, gives:


2 - (Mq + M +

Z
Z
) + (Mq - M ) = 0
u0
u0

(8.54)

Solving Eq.(8.54) yields:


SPO =

Z
Z
Z
1
[ {Mq +M + } {(Mq +M + )2 -4(Mq -M )}1/2 ]
2
u0
u0
u0

(8.55)

Remark:
Substituting in Eq.(8.55), the values of stability derivatives for the airplane
in example 8.1, gives :
SPO = - 2.503 i 2.594 whereas the exact roots for SPO are -2.508 i 2.577.

8.11.2 Approximation to LPO


Here, it is assumed that or w/u0 is small and changes occur only in
u and . Changes in d/dt are also slow. Hence, the moment equation i.e.
Eq.(7.87) is ignored. Retaining only u and in the remaining equations of
motion, gives:
(

d
- Xu )u + g = 0
dt

- Zu u - u0

d
= 0
dt

Xu
u
Or = - Zu

u0

- g
u
0

(8.56)
(8.57)

(8.58)

The characteristic equation for this mode is obtained from |I - A| = 0 or


-Xu

Zu
u0

Or 2 -Xu+
LPO =

Zug
=0
u0

Zg
1
[ Xu { Xu2 - 4 u }1/2 ]
2
u0

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras

(8.59)
(8.60)

Flight dynamics II
Stability and control

Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara

Remarks:
i) Substituting in Eq.(8.60) the values of the stability derivatives for the airplane in
example 8.1, gives :
LP0 = - 0.0225 i 0.257 as compared to the exact value of - 0.01715 i 0.2135
ii) From Eq.(8.60) the damping of LPO is Xu.
It may be recalled that

Xu = -

2 Q S CD
m u0

(8.61)

Hence, damping of phugoid depends on CD. Thus, a streamlined airplane has


lower damping.
iii) The frequency of phugoid depends on
Z g
1 2
{Xu - 4 u }1/2
2
u0

Since, Xu2 is much smaller than (4Zu g / u0) the frequency (LPO) is roughly equal
to (-Zu g /u0)1/2
Recall that:
Zu = -

2QSCL
2QS 2mg
2g
=
=mu0
mu0
QS
u0

(8.62)

Hence, the frequency of phugoid is given approximately by:

LP0 2

g
u0

(8.63)

Thus, the period of phugoid is proportional to flight speed (uo) or the period is
longer at higher flight speeds. This result is the same as arrived at in subsection
8.9.1.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras

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