Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Developments
in Geotechnical
Engineering
33
ANCHORING
IN ROCK AND SOIL
second completely revised edition
by
Dr. Ing. LEOS HOBST
Research Institute oj Civil Engineering, Brno ( VU1S)
and
Ing. JOSEF ZAJIC CSc
Engineering Geology, Prague (Stavebni geologie)
Printed in Czechoslovakia
EDITION
XIV
RELATION
OF
Length
(metre)
(centimetre)
(millimetre)
(square metre)
Area
m
cm
mm
m2
cm 2
mm 2
Volume m 3
cm 3
Mass
kg
g
t
t/m 3
Force
N
kN
MN
Pressure Pa
(stress)
MPa
Static
Nm
moment
(work) kNm
SI U N I T S
TO
EARLIER
USED
UNITS
=
=
=
=
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The problems associated with anchoring into the ground are extensive
and new ones arise all the time. We would like in this work to present
a comprehensive summary of the development, principles, current state
of technology and methods of application of anchoring. In order to facilitate
the approach to these problems and ensure the reliability of information,
particularly for those construction experts whose familiarity with the anchoring method is limited, we have divided the subject into three principal parts
and 29 chapters.
The chapters of the first, introductory, part A deal with the main principles
of the anchoring method and its static analysis. Chapter 9 discusses the
geotechnical properties of rocks and soils and their evaluation from the
point of view of their capacity to take the tensile forces exerted by anchors.
Chapter 10 explains the results of research concerning the behaviour of
different types of the ground under the load of anchoring forces; it also
includes the formulae derived for making approximate determinations of the
anchor fixing depth both for individual anchors and grouped anchors, given
the tensile forces and the required safety margins against failure.
The second part of the book part B deals with anchoring technology. Materials for the preparation of anchors, the main technological procedures for the
fixing of anchors by different methods in different media, and the information needed for the design of the anchor root are described. Other
chapters of part B deal with the methods of fixing anchors to the surface
of the structure, the methods of drilling and checking the anchoring boreholes, and procedures and equipment used in the prestressing and testing
of anchors together with long term monitoring of their function under
various conditions.
The third and largest part of the publication, C, presents theoretical data
for anchorage design applied to various types of structures, and introduces
some typical examples of both underground and surface constructions. The
last chapter deals with the economics of anchoring by referring to several
examples.
-^
by siting of the anchors on the structure and correct location of the load
centre of the anchoring forces.
The most efficient, most widely used technique is a system of anchorage
in which forces are set up acting to lock together the structure with the rock.
(see Fig. 1-2.) With such an arrangement the rock is exploited to greater effect
and takes on the function of a proper construction material. The prestressed
anchors create forces of known direction and magnitude which contribute
to the stability of the superficial structure and tie together the entire complex
consisting of the structure and the co-operating rock medium. The rock
in which the structure is anchored takes the burden of the tensile and shear
forces which arise from the structure and its load (or from natural changes
in the superficial relief) more efficiently and to greater depths than occurs
in the case of structures which are not anchored. On the other hand, a compressive force acting towards the plane of contact with the rock also appears
in the structure, this force depending on the weight of the structure, or the
pressure of a supporting brace or strut as the case may be. The structural
complex created in this way is qualitatively superior, and exhibits mechanical
characteristics which make it more capable of fulfilling its function at a lower
capital cost.
Anchorage, as a means of locking together the structure with the ground mass,
makes it possible to choose with comparative ease on the basis of the static
analysis, the magnitude, direction, and load centre of the anchoring forces;
these forces, incorporated into the entire system of forces acting on the
structure, ensure the stability of the latter with the highest economy and
efficiency. Anchorage applied in this way secures the structure against vertical
displacement due to uplift, against turning over, tangential displacement along
the foot, shear failure along the critical surface within the underlying strata
and in more recent constructions, against seismic effect also.
The continued effectiveness of anchors can be checked easily, and the static
mechanics of anchoring forces is straightforward. Anchorage can therefore
be regarded as an efficient construction method.
The anchoring of structures to rock or soil ensures their mutual interconnection. This interconnection, which is capable of transferring tensile and
shear forces, is solely dependent on the use of anchors, a system of which
forms the total anchorage.
An anchor is a device with a static function, transferring forces in a given
direction from the structure to the rock or soil medium (the ground). An
anchor is composed of three parts: the anchor head, the tendon, and the
anchor root. Depending on the material used, anchors may comprise bars,
wires or strands. Several bars, wires or strands together form a cable.
The anchor head is situated at the external (free) end of the anchor; from
it the prestressing of the anchor is carried out, and when connected it transmits the anchoring forces to the structure.
The anchor tendon connects the anchor head with the root. The tendon
usually allows, by virtue of its elastic deformation, the prestressing of the
anchor during anchoring.
The anchor root is situated at the subterranean (distal) end of the anchor,
and transfers the tensile forces from the tendon to the ground. The root
must be adequately fixed in the ground for this purpose, the fixing being
achieved by the lateral pressure of a mechanical expanding device against
the borehole walls, by bonding with a cement, and by abutting the expanded
anchor end up against the ground.
The free length of an anchor (tendon) is determined by the distance between
the starting point of the fixing of the tendon in the anchor root, and the fixing
point of the tendon in the anchor head.
The fixed portion (root) of the anchor in the rock or soil is determined
by the length along which the force within the anchor is transferred to the
ground. This length constitutes the effective root length in prestressed anchors.
A temporary anchor has a service life not exceeding two years.
A permanent anchor has a service life longer than two years, and therefore
the safety demands of the latter are higher than those of temporary anchors.
A prestressed anchor is permanently tensioned due to the elastic extension
of the tendon over its free length.
A non-prestressed anchor is one that is left without prestressing, or one
that cannot in any case be prestressed because it is fixed in the ground along
its entire length.
An anchor that is capable of being monitored, measured, or checked, has
its free tendon length movable during its working life.
A test anchor is an anchor destined only for the testing of the properties
of a particular type of production anchor, which it represents. Test anchors
are most often used for determining the load limit by loading them to the
point of failure.
A working anchor is an anchor which fulfils a static function in the overall
structure.
The prestressing of an anchor is a process in which a tensile force is
introduced.
The anchoring force is the force which is transmitted by the anchor to the
ground.
The working load of an anchor is the force which the anchor should be
capable of transmitting continuously throughout its service life.
The admissible load of an anchor is determined by the upper limit of its
bearing capacity, computed or ascertained during tests with subtraction
of a safety margin.
A testing load is a short-term loading to which the test anchor is subjected
in order to check the quality of its manufacture and establish its maximum
load.
The {limit) bearing capacity of an anchor is that load under which the
resistance of any functional part of the system (ground, anchor, anchored
structure) fails and the anchor ceases to function.
The safety factor is the ratio of the limit load or limit deformation load
of the anchor and of its admissible or working load.
Chapter 2
S E C U R I N G S T R U C T U R E S A G A I N S T VERTICAL
DISPLACEMENT
(2-1)
.JM! k3
' lil in u il H tl
Fig. 2-1. Securing a basin against vertical
displacement (uplift)
a) by increasing the volume of the
bottom, b) by anchoring into the
bedrock
Assuming that the structure is secured against the effect of uplift entirely
by the weight of the foundations (such being the case in all structures with
a large groundplan area), the thickness of the foundations must be increased
by a value t' (see Fig. 2-1) over and above that of the same structure anchored
in the underlying ground. This increase can be derived from the condition
of equilibrium of forces:
m F(h + t')yvSF(tp
+ t')yb,
10
, =
yb.tp-mv.h.yv
^22)
Wv-Jv-yb
The additional weight for the whole foundation floor area required to protect
the structure against vertical displacement, is given by:
G' = yb. t'.F =
v yv - yb
ft7'*""''*'7'F*
(2-3)
h.yv
= F. tp. yb + P
so that:
P = F(mv . h . y v -
tpyb).
= ybIr
v yb
so that, after simplification:
Z = m.y-'*-
'*.
m0.h
+ tp.yb9
(2-4)
11
in rock. Had this technique not been employed, the entire concrete bottom
would have had to be removed, the footing excavated (more than an extra
2 m, as can be verified from the formula 2-2), and the bottom newly concreted (the new one being thicker than the original bottom). Such reconstruction would undoubtedly cost more and take more time than the anchoring procedure.
Chapter 3
SECURING STRUCTURES AGAINST
OVERTURNING
l + L*
(3-1)
The negative moment, which favours stability, depends above all on the
weight of the structure and on the distance of its centre of gravity from the
edge of the foundation. Consequently, the stability of a structure may be
improved efficiently by introducing anchoring forces (Fig. 3-1).
13
- M
tn
(3-2)
where Pp = anchoring force required to secure the structure against overturning, acting perpendicularly to the base of the structure (kN),
mp = safety factor for overturning (mp = 1.5 to 2),
Af, + I, M 1 "' = sum of positive or negative moments, respectively, acting on
the structure prior to anchoring (kNm),
tp = radius of the moment of anchoring forces, determined according to the shape of the structure (m).
If the anchoring forces are deflected from the perpendicular to the footing
base by an angle , the value of the required anchoring force increases to
p
(3-3)
cos
dkz9
*)
C/3
^HJJJIJ
i
d
i||
1
J
14
Fig. 3-3. Anchored retaining walls of a highway cutting near Lyon (France) (photo Solatanche)
15
Fig. 3-4. Anchored sheeting around a construction pit in the middle of a city protects the
surrounding buildings against settlement and facilitates the use of machines for excavation
(documentation Losinger Co)
16
anchoring forces near the edge that is closest to the loaded face, particularly
if the anchoring forces are introduced into the structure gradually by loading
it with fill material, by the pressure of water, etc.
Thus a more uniform distribution of stress is achieved at the base of the
structure, and consequently an increased load-bearing capacity of the foundation is arrived at.
Slender dams can be successfully anchored against overturning under
hydrostatic pressure (see Fig. 1-2). The retaining walls in railway and highway cuttings are secured against overturning under lateral earth pressure
(Fig. 3-3).
Other constructions which are threatened with overturning under the
influence of external forces are sheetings and similar structures built around
foundation pits and trenches (Fig. 3-4). These structures are fixed in the
ground and the width of their foundations is minimal. The external force
tending to cave in the sheeting, is primarily the pressure of the earth (Fig. 3-5).
ground
'9.00
*6M
The structure of the sheeting resists the external force on account of the back
pressure on the load bearing elements of the sheeting in the restrained section,
and (when the structure is anchored) by virtue of the tensile forces acting
within the anchors; the anchors hold the sheeting and are fixed into the ground
17
behind the sheeting (tie-back method). The values of the anchoring forces
and the safety factor are determined from the moment equilibrium of forces
acting on the structure with respect to the centre of rotation at point L,
according to equations (3-1) and (3-2).
When the sheeting is secured by anchors, these can be placed in the most
suitable positions in the course of the excavation, the great advantage being
that struts and braces can be omitted in the pit; this leaves the entire space
of the pit free for the movement of earth moving machines and thus the
progress of work is speeded up. (see Fig. 3-4 and Figs, in Chap. 22)
Anchoring has been also used with growing frequency and success in the
construction of quays (Fig. 3-6) and retaining walls installed by the slurry
trench method or by the so called "pile wall" method.
Chapter 4
SECURING STRUCTURES AGAINST
DISPLACEMENT
ALONG THE F O U N D A T I O N L I N E
(4-1)
Fig. 4-1. Values of anchoring forces in relation to the angle between their resultant and the
perpendicular to the foundation plane
p
Pb anchoring force of optimum angle of inclination y>;
value of anchoring force
cos
acting perpendicularly to the foundation plane
19
(4-2)
P. = ^- - **.
When additional forces are employed to secure the structure against shear
failure and these forces are acting at an angle from the perpendicular to the
foundation plane, the formula is modified thus:
P ; - .TrfN
5
(4-3)
,,
sin + cos
Pl =
sin H
f
j
cos
(4-4)
The optimum angle of deflection of the anchoring forces from the perpendicular to the foundation plane is determined by differentiating equation
(4-3) and equating it to zero:
(cos / sin ) _
( sin + / cos ) 2
By simplification of this equation, the relationship between the optimum
inclination of the anchoring forces and the coefficient of friction is obtained:
tg = = cotg .
The tangent of the optimum angle of deflection of the additional forces,
measured from the perpendicular.ta4he foundation plane, equals the cotangent of the angle of friction (shear resistance) in the foundation plane
(see Fig. 4-1).
The effect of the angle of inclination and the coefficient of friction in the
foundation plane on the required anchoring forces is illustrated in Fig. 4-2.
The slanting of the direction of the anchoring forces has a more favourable
effect if structures are founded on a substratum with a lower angle of friction.
The greatest reduction in the magnitude of the required anchoring forces is
obtained with a small deflection of the anchors from the perpendicular to the
foundation surface. Thus, for example, in a structure with a coefficient of
friction / = 0.50 in the foundation plane, a deflection of the anchoring
forces by 10 reduces them by 35 per cent. When/ = 0.75, the economy is
about 25 per cent. Further increases of 10 bring smaller reductions, i.e.
20
an angle of 20 yields only 16 per cent, and an angle of 30, 13 per cent.
Thus it is clear that the effect of the deflection progressively diminishes.
Beyond approximately 50, and with a coefficient of friction / = 0.50,
further increases in the inclination of the anchoring forces have practically
no effect on the value of these forces.
15
10
I
i
1 1
7-25MN
N = 30MN
"ft5
r"
p **
<^
F^fc
21
Fig. 4-3. Heightening of the a) El Sancho Dam (Spain) using an additional weight of concrete
and prestressed anchors and of the b) Kuroda Dam (Japan) using an additional weight of
concrete only
1 heightening of the dam, 2 anchors, 3 average chipping on the upstream face
30 cm, on the downstream face 5 cm, 4 new concrete mass
Fig. 4-4. Sectional elevation of the deteriorated spillway of Milton Lake Dam (USA constructed
191317). A helicopter was selected to transport rock-anchors from the fabrication area
(see next figure)
1 rock anchors, 2 embedded anchor block, 3 secondary grouting zone
22
Fig. 4-5. Stabilization of reconstructed Milton Lake Dam (USA, Ohio). The anchors are
installed at the spillway crest (documentation Losinger International)
23
664.00
657.00
\\
ff \
666 00
600.00
drainage holes
a)
i\
b)
24
136.00
Fig. 4-7. Pillars of suspended footbridge in Switzerland secured against failure by means
of prestressed BBR V anchors
A cross-section,
Fig. 4-7.
b) view of the footbridge
b)
Chapter 5
SECURING STRUCTURES AGAINST SHEAR
ALONG A C R I T I C A L S U R F A C E I N T H E
FAILURE
GROUND
26
Fig. 5-2. Securing by anchoring of a retaining wall against shear failure along critical
cylindrical slide surfaces KUK2 in the underlying soil beds
anchoring increases the depth of potential shear surfaces and reduces the
danger of shear failure (see Fig. 5-2).
Stability at the shear surface is threatened by the tangential components
of forces arising from the weight of the ground above the surface, from the
load contribution of the structure, and from the pressure of permeating
water. The stability is increased by cohesion and friction along the shear
surface.
The anchoring forces required for situations involving plane shear surfaces
are computed in the same way as those for protecting structures against shear
failure along the foundation plane, that is, according to equation (4-2) and the
formulae which follow. For the stabilization of slopes, graphic analysis is
frequently used (see Chapter 21).
The anchoring depth must be great enough to ensure that there is sufficient
resistance to uprooting of the anchors from the ground both below and
behind the shear zone. The critical shear surfaces in soil are often cylindrical
in shape (see Fig. 5-2). In this case, the stability problem is usually solved
by the strip method of Pettersson which involves comparing the moments
of forces acting at the centre of the cylindrical surface. The safety factor is
determined by the forces contributing towards stability in ratio with the
forces acting against stability:
27
_ f(ZAN
Ms
+ Pn) +
IATPt
Zc.Al
'
Fig. 5-4. Stabilization of the unstable slope of a dam reservoir in South Africa using
prestressed anchors
1 system of cable anchors (62 wires of 7 mm dia) 39.6 m long, 2 cable anchors (10 wires
7 mm dia) 26 m long, 3 phyllite beds
28
Fig. 5-5. High slope cutting in Switzerland threatened by sliding secured by BBR V anchors
resting on concrete slabs
a) view of the anchored cutting, b) typical cross-section of the slope
J, 2 possible sliding surfaces, 3 underlying rock, 4 loamy slope material, 5 anchors,
6 railway, 7 motorway
Chapter 6
S T A B I L I Z A T I O N OF R O C K S
A N D THE S E C U R I N G OF U N D E R G R O U N D
S T R U C T U R E S A G A I N S T CAVING I N
The stability of rock and structures built in rock must be established by
special means in all those cases in which marked changes in the state of stress
occur due to external influences, such as the driving of galleries or tunnels,
the excavation of cuttings, loading under the weight of constructions, or
sometimes purely the effects of atmospheric agents.
There are two basic principles in the stabilization of the rock medium
by anchoring: first, the rock is reinforced by steel elements which take over
the tensile, and to some extent the shear stresses also; second, the rock
medium is locked by the prestressing of anchored bolts, and this brings into
effect the frictional forces along the natural planes of discontinuity. The
prestressed anchorage draws the unstable superficial layer of the solid rock
towards the deeper parts of the rock mass which have not been affected by
breakage and which still have an untapped load-carrying capacity; alternatively the anchorage restructures the superficial loosened layers of rock
and converts them into a reinforced compressed mass capable of bearing
its own weight and preventing any loosening of the rock deeper down in the
mass. The rock overlying a break is supported and interlocked, hence the
effect of anchorage is considerably more than just that of passive support
and lining.
The effect of prestressed anchorage on loosened rock material is well
demonstrated in laboratory tests on crushed stone performed by Lang in the
USA [113]. An ordinary metal bucket was filled with gravel consisting of stones up to 1 cm. Bolts were placed in the bucket before it was filled, the gravel
was compacted to some extent by vibration, and the bolts were prestressed
on the surface of the gravel by means of nuts (Fig. 6-la). When the bucket
was turned upside down, not only did the contents remain inside, but owing
to the effect of lateral pressure caused by the prestressing, the gravel was
able to transfer a significant load from its centre on to the walls of the bucket
(Fig. 6-lb).
When non-prestressed anchorage is used for the stabilization of rock in
most cases bars embedded in concrete or resin along the entire length of the
borehole its effect is much smaller. The anchorage serves in the first place
to resist by its shear strength any displacement along the joints that are
crossed by the anchorage, and in the second place as a tensile reinforcement
after further deformation of the rock.
30
a)
b)
Fig. 6-2. Anchoring diagram for a rock cutting and simple graphic analysis of the anchoring
forces required with a stratification inclined away from the cutting ( is the angle of friction
on the bedding joints)
31
on slopes are, in most cases, the dead weight of the rock, and the pressure
of water or ice in the joints of the rock. The calculation of the anchoring
forces required to establish equilibrium may be carried out using the basic
equations (4-2) and (3-2). A graphic solution is used more often, however.
(Fig. 6-2). Several examples of stabilization achieved by means of anchors
on rock slopes and walls are shown in Figs. 6-3, 6-4, 6-5.
Underground excavations demand a different approach to the equilibrium
of the rock medium. Disturbance of the equilibrium manifests as rock
pressure which may lead to the caving in of underground spaces. Anchoring
provides an efficient remedy in these cases also.
The dead weight of the rock over the excavated space is the main source
of rock pressure, but sometimes there is also a residual internal pressure
Fig. 6-3. Simple strengthening by means of bolts of some thick rock beds on the face of an
excavation
32
j.W
'" S i * 4*
t f ;v' %\^V" k V%-x$
*^8&&% itf&i
. V , *.M^
' .10-/*:
Fig. 6-4. Anchoring of a rock face in the railway cutting at Hofolpe (GFR)
(photo K. Bauer KG)
Fig. 6-5. Securing of the unstable part of a rock slope at the shoulders of the Kawamatu
arch dam in Japan, using long anchors (documentation of Dywidag Co.)
33
in the mass as a result of orogenic processes and changes in the surface relief.
If the cavern is sufficiently deep below the surface of the ground, it is usually
protected against the overlying rock pressure by a natural rock arch situated
above the ceiling of the cavern. The anchorage then takes the load only of
the rock beneath the natural arch (Fig. 6-6). The sooner the face of the
cavern is strengthened, the smaller is the degree of settling of the natural arch.
The magnitude of the anchoring forces required to lock the loosened rock
to the zone of the natural arch, is determined from the unit volume weight
of the rock which is to be secured by each anchored tensile element, or bolt:
(6-1)
Pz = mz . Fh. y . A,
where mz
Fh
y
h
=
=
=
=
34
Fig. 6-8. Anchoring used in the excavation of the Taloro underground pump-storage power
plant (Sardinia) (documentation of Losinger Co.)
a) view into the cavern, b) arrangement of VSL rock anchors
35
The number and length of the anchors are then adjusted while work is in
progress, according to the measured deformation of the rock mass around the
cavern reinforced in this way. A system of long, prestressed anchors is the most
effective stabilizing method in very large underground caverns constructed
for power houses or storage (Fig. 6-8) as documented in Section 20.3.4.
Chapter 7
T H E U S E OF A N C H O R S
FOR THE P R E C O N S O L I D A T I O N OF THE G R O U N D
37
boundary areas around the base of these structures, the reactions are transferred towards the centre of the foundation slab, and consequently the
highest moment loads appear in the middle of the slab. In some cases,
therefore, it is economically justifiable and technically sound to compress
the ground under the middle of the foundation by means of prestressed
anchors. A similar effect can be achieved to some extent by preconsolidation
of parts of the footings.
The anchoring forces required to pre consolidate the substratum are determined according to the permanent load which will act upon the substratum
after the erection of the structure, and the length of the period during which
the substratum is allowed to consolidate before construction commences.
Where a short period is allowed for preconsolidation, the anchoring forces
must be greater than those that would be required were a longer period
allowed.
The magnitude of the load and the length of the period during which the
load continues to influence the consolidation process are not linearly related.
This relationship depends primarily on the pore water content of plastic
soils and the soil permeability. Consequently, loading factors and the
corresponding periods of their influence cannot be simply obtained. From
experience of the consolidating process it would appear that in the case of
soils of low permeability it is useful to let consolidation continue for a long
period under preloading, while in the case of more permeable soils, a heavier
consolidating load may be used for a shorter time.
In all cases the anchoring forces for the preliminary consolidation should
be larger than the subsequent loading of the substratum by the structure
itself.
Chapter 8
E F F E C T OF A N C H O R I N G ON T H E S E I S M I C
STABILITY
OF S T R U C T U R E S
39
where
a
a = ,
= 77-,
30
25
20
S
v\J5
1
10
5\
0.05
_]
010
0.15
$-0
{=0.10
=0.20
W\
=0.30
20
"A
/ A
1-050
-0.50
= 0.60
=\
=0.30
J'a2C\
^=QK\
0.20
0.25
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
030
a
9
Fig. 8-1. Required increase in weight, AG,
of a structure exposed to earthquakes, =
_ P
. (1 + a).
40
about changes in horizontal loading forces, and at the same time acts on the
mass of the structure through the effect of inertia, thus producing an additional
horizontal force proportional to the mass of the structure. Therefore
horizontal acceleration is a greater threat to vertical structures, even when
there is no lateral loading, as in the case of towers, piers, etc.
In structures supporting horizontal loads, the danger to stability is yet
more acute. Here also it is evident that relying on anchoring forces rather
than the mass of the structure contributes to safety much more effectively.
To prove this general observation would require a lengthy structuraldynamic analysis which cannot be entered into in this book. This brief
excursion into the field of earthquake engineering has to be limited to the
following considerations:
a. The structure is regarded as completely rigid, having only one degree
of freedom, viz. horizontal displacement; thus rotational inertia and/or
possible deformation of the foundations by moment influences are not
considered;
b. the earthquake essentially involves a horizontal acceleration with
amplitude a, acting at all mass point of the structure at the same time;
c. the amplitude value, a, is taken as the same for both unanchored and
anchored structures; thus natural differences occurring between the dynamic
characteristics of the reduced-mass anchored structure and those of the
original unanchored version are not taken into account;
d. the anchoring force and its effect on the static stability of the anchored
structure are assessed in such a way as to preserve the same safety margins
against shear failure in the foundation plane, and against overturning, as
those for the unanchored structure. Thus, it may reasonably be assumed
that the necessary weight, G, of the unanchored structure (larger than that
of the anchored one) is given by:
G = GA + P
(the subscript A stands for "anchored"). Similarly, the static moment
which restores equilibrium against active load moments is of the same value
in both cases:
MG =
MGA
+ Ptp
where tp is the effective eccentricity of the vertical component of the prestressing force P in the foundation plane.
Following from these considerations, the safety factor, ma9 against shear
failure in the foundation plane may be determined from the formula:
ZH + . J b(x) ax
j
41
*rvl
hen taking its unit depth, the width b(x) becomes equivalent to the crossection area. The volume mass, , is taken as being constant.
Since the width b(x) of an anchored wall is less than that of an unanchored
wall, it may be concluded from the formula for ms that the anchored wall
is the safer with respect to shear failure caused by an earthquake.
Taking cohesion, C, in the foundation plane into account, the formula
for m. must be modified as follows:
mc
G/+C6(0)
ZH + a . j" b(x) ax
42
where Mz is the active static moment of the load. The second term in the
denominator is the seismic inertial moment of the structure. Analogous
considerations apply to both mp and ms.
The danger of resonance in massive structures such as retaining walls
and dams is relatively small. It may occur in very large dams (higher than
150 m) and in very thin dams (multiple arches). By making an anchored
structure more slender, the danger of resonance is increased.
A stress state is created in rock in the vicinity of an anchor, producing
a failure in rock strength close to the anchor; in the neighbourhood of this
failure zone an area is created in which the stresses are approaching the rock
strength. In an earthquake, the stress pattern in the rock may change, and
this can result in an expansion of the failure zone into the surroundings
of the anchor, and a reduction in the fixing strength of the latter. This danger,
however, is relatively small, because the oscillations produced by the vibration of the wall are attenuated in the comparatively long anchor tendon.
One may conclude that anchoring is an economic and effective means
of increasing the resistance to shear failure during earthquakes in structures
supporting vertical and horizontal loads. It increases the safety of the structure
against overturning, too. Its advantage is particularly noticeable when the
foundation width can be kept the same as that of an equivalent unanchored
structure (assuming that the masonry which the anchoring forces replace
is taken away from the core of the structure where hollows can be formed).
It must, however, be stressed that in the case of a dam, for example, proper
location of the load centre of the anchoring forces near to the upstream face
of the dam leads to a higher degree of safety against overturning, but not
so much against shear failure. The unequivocal conclusion is that anchored
structures are safer from the effects of earthquakes than are unanchored
structures.
Chapter 9
SUITABILITY OF ROCKS
A N D S O I L S FOR A N C H O R I N G
The capacity of rock and soil under natural conditions to withstand the
tensile forces transmitted by anchors from structures above, is considerable.
Fixed anchors, having a relatively small area of contact with the ground,
utilize its strength to a much greater extent than other foundation structures
such as piles [153]. This is possible because the tensile forces from the
anchors act.at a greater depth below the ground surface, and because in the
fixing zone of anchors, radial stress perpendicular to the tensile force is
induced in the ground; this stress considerably increases the resistance of the
ground to disruption. Even if the ground is disrupted near to the anchor
fixing and some such damage may be allowable considering the depth
of this zone below the ground surface the resistance to possible tearing
out of the anchor continues to increase, as has been proved by experiment
(see Chapter 10).
The capacity of rock or soil to take anchoring forces obviously depends
on its properties. Generally, an increase in the in situ rock or soil strength
means an increase in the strength of the anchor fixing and a decrease in the
minimum depth of anchor burial in the ground. The converse applies when
the strength of the rock or soil decreases.
Four basic types can be recognized: solid rocks (both hard and soft),
and gravelly, sandy, and cohesive soils. The most relevant of their physical
and mechanical properties are the unit volume weight, the compressive
strength, the modulus of deformation, the coefficient of transverse dilatability,
the angle of internal friction and cohesion, or directly the shear strength.
The hard rock category includes those types whose compressive strength,
as determined from samples, exceeds 10 MPa. A more detailed classification
requires a consideration of further properties, such as the mode of origin,
and the degree of weathering and fracturing. This group includes the majority
of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Soft rocks have less strength and greater compressibility compared with
hard rocks. The former include, for example, various kinds of predominantly
clayey and calcareous shales, tuffs, and friable sandstones. A more detailed
44
r/+c
(9-1)
45
TABLE 9-1
Hard and soft rocks
Class
Strength
in simple
pressure)1
Values after
M. M. Protodja konov
[105 Pa]
small
medium
large
20,000
to
50,000
5,000
to
20,000
20
to
10
90
to
82
80
to
to
75
hard rocks
1
more than
600
b) sound sedimentary
and thick bedded
2
larger
than
50,000
v = 0.10
a) partly weathered,
igneous and metamorphic
b) partly weathered
sedimentary and
thick bsdded
more than
150
larger
than
20,000
a) weathered igneous
and metamorphic
b) weathered sedimentary and thick bedded
c) partly weathered
sedimentary, flaggy
more than
100
5
larger
than
5,000
d) sound sedimentary
thin bedded
4
1,000
to
5,000
70
500
to
1,000
300
to
500
65
500 to 1,000
v = 0.25
60
300 to 500
v = 0.30
to
to
200 to 300
v = 0.35
55
to
v = 0.20
1,000
to
5,000
v = 0.15
c) sound sedimentary,
flaggy
3
5,000
to
20,000
more than
100
500
to
1,000
v = 0.25
soft rocks
5
6
7
soundconsolidated
20 to 100
partly weathered
medium consolidated
10 to 20
weatheredlittle
consolidated
3 to 10
*) The strength in terms of a simple pressure is measured using 5 cm rock cubes. Watersaturated samples of rock are tested.
2
) Decomposed igneous or metamorphic rocks are classified as soils.
46
s^
fir\
fa
Jtf < 1* J
CZ=
c^^"""~
i_
^ J
Modulus of
Unit
volume deformation, EQ
weight [105 Pa]
[kg/m 3 ]
Values after
M. M. Protodjakonov
[] c [105 Pa]
Coarse grains
in mutual contact, pores filledI
with soil
8
sandy
cohesive
1,800
to
2,000
1,000 to 5,000
36
to
45
0.30
500 to 1,000
32
to
38
0.33
15
Coarse grains
not in contact,
matrix filled
with soil
10
11
sandy
cohesive
0.36
1,700
to
2,000
1,900
to
2,100
500 to 2,000
(values determined ace. to
Table 9-IV for
cohesive soils);
22
to
32
0.1
to
0.2
0.40
60
47
soil matrices. In class 11 the values are similar to values for cohesive soils,
but the modulus of deformation increasingly depends on the percentage of
coarse material.
Sandy soils are unconsolidated sediments in which more than 50 per cent.
of the grains are less than 2 mm, and the plasticity index is less than 1. This
group includes fine-grained and coarse-grained sands and the sandy weathering products of solid rocks. Typical values for the physical and mechanical
properties of sandy soils are given in Table 9-III.
Cohesive soils are unconsolidated sediments containing a significant
proportion of clay, and showing a plasticity index greater than 1. A more
detailed classification takes into account the plasticity index and the consistency which relate to the content of the smallest clay particles, and the
water content respectively. This group includes various types of clays and
loams, loamy and clayey sands and gravels, and the clayey weathering
products of solid rocks. Typical values for their physical and mechanical
properties are given in Table 9-IV.
The approximate shear strength of soils is found from Coulomb's equation,
= of + c, by inserting the characteristic values for the angle of internal
friction or cohesion. More precise values may be obtained from laboratory
test on undamaged samples, or directly from in situ field tests.
9.2. I N V E S T I G A T I O N O F R O C K
AND
SOIL
18
1,900 to 2,000
50 to 100
0.39
80 to 150
0.36
1,650 to 1,850
17
100 to 200
0.33
1,900 to 2,000
16
150 to 300
0.33
150 to 300
0.35
1,650 to 1,850
15
14
2,000 to 2,100
13
0.30
150 to 300
0.31
0.33
1,950
uniform grain
300 to 600
1,700
non-uniform grain
600 to 1,000
medium
compact
[kg/m 3 ]
100 to 200
0.36
150 to 250
0.33
200 to 400
0.30
300 to 500
0.30
300 to 500
0.32
300 to 500
0.28
compact
Modulus of deformation, E0
[105 Pa],
and Poissorfs ratio, v
Unit
volume weight
12
Corse-grained sand
Sandy soils
TABLE 9-III
0.33
0.30
0.28
0.28
0.30
0.27
0.28
>200
>250
>400
> 500
>500
>500
> 1,000
25 to 30
27 to 32
31 to 36
32 to 38
31 to 36
32 to 37
35 to 42
Effective
angle
of internal
0.1 to 0.2
0.1 to 0.2
0.5
0.8
30
40
Effective
Values after
cohesion, M. M. Proc [105 Pa] todjakonov
Unit
volume
weight
[kg/m 3 ]
2,000
to
2,100
2,000
to
2,150
2,000
to
2,200
Cohesive
soil type
with low
plasticity
with medium
plasticity
with high
plasticity
Class
19
20
21
Cohesive soils
TABLE 9-IV
to
30
0.46
10
15
to
40
0.46
20
to
60
0.46
soft
30
to
60
0.45
40
to
80
0.45
60
to
120
0.45
solid
100
0.35 to 0.43
60
80
to
150
0.35 to 0.43
120
to
200
0.35 to 0.43
strong
21
0
to
25
0
to
30
Effective
angle of
internal
friction,
<p[]
to
0.8
0.2
0.1
to
0.5
0.1
to
0.4
Effective
cohesion,
c
(10 5 Pa)
45
Values after
M. M. Protodjakonov
50
its strength, its cohesion with cement (Figs. 9-3, 4), and if necessary, its
coefficient of friction with steel, as well as other factors. An idea of the
structural condition of the ground is also gained, depending on the length
and number of cores taken and their respective losses. Judging by the
appearance of the joints, their density, angle of inclination and surface
properties, the lowest shear strength of the rock may be estimated and the
most suitable direction of the anchors selected.
Fig. 9-3. Laboratory testing of the load-bearing capacity of anchors in samples of rock.
Cement: polyester resin CHS 104; fixing length: 10 cm; setting time: 1 hour at a temperature
of7C
a) in sandstone (10.8, 15.2 kN), b) in crystalline limestone (27.5, 21.5, 38.3 kN)
51
Fig. 9-4. Samples of rock
prepared for laboratory testing
of bonding with grout
are analysed, and particular note must be taken of any corrosive action of the
water on the concrete and metallic parts of the anchor.
With regard to soils, a knowledge of the geological profile at the anchoring
site is particularly important, as frequent changes occur in the composition
of the overlying soil formations together with large differences in their
mechanical properties. For the investigation of soils, large diameter holes
are usually drilled using either rotary or vibratory equipment, so as to obtain
a sufficiently large quantity of soil for petrographic analysis and laboratory
testing of its physical properties. Undamaged samples from the proposed
fixing site are particularly valuable. Laboratory tests on these samples
provide the values by which the soil shear strength and its cohesion with the
cement that is to be used for the fixing of the anchor (Fig. 9-5) can be assessed.
Exploratory holes in soils are used for load tests carried out with a presiometer, and for groutability tests. The load test using the Menard presiometer
leads to determination of the soil limit stress, pt, and with the aid of the
conversion graph (Fig. 9-6), to determination of the corresponding values
of the surface friction resistance for concrete piles [132], which for a preliminary design may also be safely used as long anchor roots. The following
table lists' the ranges of values of the limit stress, /?,, and the deformation
modulus, E, obtained from presiometric tests in different types of soil
and rock.
Careful measurements and investigation of the ground water in the soil
are very important, not only for the design of protection of the anchors
against corrosion, but also for estimating the effect of water on the mechanical
properties of the soil, and introducing the effect of upward hydrostatic
pressure into the static analysis of the anchorage.
The geological investigation of the anchoring site is most suitably supplemented by the installation of a number of test anchors (at least three) which
52
Fig. 9-5. Samples of loess after
a pull out test
liiS^Mftii"
0.15t
"0.1
0JU5\
/ f/
0.5
limit pressure IpJ
_L
MPa
1.5
are loaded by tensile forces until they are torn out of the ground. The
procedure adopted in such loading tests is described in Chapter 17. Test
anchors fixed in cohesive soils have to be subjected to lengthy monitoring
of the time-dependent reduction in anchor prestressing owing to soil creep
in the vicinity of the root (see Chapter 19); a time schedule for the restoration
of the stressing in the anchors can be worked out on the basis of the
data recorded there.
53
TABLE 9-V
Deformation moduli (E) and limit stresses (pi) of some rock and soil types
Soil or rock
Pi [MPa]
E [MPa]
moist clay
loam
consolidated loam
marl
silt
saturated fine-grained sand
consolidated sand
gravelly sand and gravel
limestone
0.050.3
0.30.8
0.62
0.64
0.21.5
0.10.5
15
1.25
310 or more
0.53
38
840
560
210
0.52
7.540
840
8020,000
Bracing of anchors
Bracing the anchor against the walls of the borehole stresses the rock
(up to 10 MPa), usually in the short section of several centimetres length
over which the anchor is fixed. Thus, the use of this method is limited to
strong rocks where relatively small tensile forces (up to 0.2 MN) are involved.
The fixing of the anchor in the borehole is achieved by a mechanical expanding or bracing device (base), which works on the principle of a wedge and
which is fixed at the anchor foot in the borehole (Fig. 9-7). The device is
expanded in the borehole by driving in, pulling out, or turning the anchor
rod, depending on the mechanism employed. The tensile force is transferred
from the anchor to the rock by friction at those points where the foot has
been forced nto the borehole wall. The advantage of mechanical anchoring
is its immediacy: as soon as the anchor is inserted and fixed, it may be loaded
or prestressed.
54
Fig. 9-7. The fixing of an
anchor in the rock by
mechanical means. Bracing
of the foot against the
borehole walls is achieved
a)by ramming a wedge into
the split rod end, b) by
pulling a cone into the
expanded sleeve
9.3.2
The second method of fixing the anchor in the ground is based on the
cohesive bonding of a suitable cement (usually concrete or synthetic resin)
with the steel tendon of the anchor, as well as with the rock or soil in a long
section of the borehole (Fig. 9-8). At the embedded end of the anchor tendon,
a long root is formed from the grout which is poured, or more often forced
under pressure, into the borehole. This root, after it has hardened, transfers
the tensile force from the anchor tendon to the ground by exerting a shear
force on the contact surfaces. The fixing of anchors with cement is the most
frequently used fixing method nowadays, and may be applied to all types
of rock and soil. The length of the anchor root required (from 1 to 10 metres)
depends on the strength of the rock or soil and the magnitude of the tensile
force; if necessary, the diameter of the borehole can be increased to give
a greater area of contact. The cohesion between the cement and the ground
does not have a constant value. By analogy with the drop in cohesion with
increasing length of bars embedded in concrete, there is a marked drop
in the cohesion between cement and rock or soil in boreholes, as has been
shown by experimental tests. The drop in the cohesion of the cement grout
in an anchor embedded in strong rock is shown in the graph in Fig. 9-9.
When the increase in the area of contact occurs over a low range (i.e. from
very small to small), cohesion drops considerably; over a higher range, the
increase does not affect cohesion so markedly. Similar results have been
Fig. 9-8. The fixing of an
anchor in rock or soil by
cementing into the distal
end of the borehole.
Shear stress acts on the
surfaces of contact between
cement and steel, and
cement and ground
55
5 3
~2
<u
-fLLL.
7
Oft
Q O O
Uli
f
*^
to
CM
II
j
[cm2]
Fig. 9-9. Relationship between the cohesion of a hardened cement mortar in a borehole in
strong rock, and the extent of the fixing area
WOO
800
- V
*-
600
&
W0
200
B-l
'
2-
T3
~ 1 "?^ :.^
n
" ~
10
56
load [kN]
200 300 WO 500 600 700 800
WO
900 1000
Fig. 9-11. Ranges of anchor loading curves prior to the attainment of ultimate bearing
capacity in various types of non-cohesive soils (after H. Ostermayer)
1 compacted gravel, grain-size variability number U = 60 to 150, 2 fine to medium
grained, compact sand, U = 3.0 to 7.9, 3 sand with small-grained gravel, medium compact,
U = 2.6 to 3.5, 4 medium grained sand, medium compact, uniform grain-size, U = 1.6
to 2.0
1
1
/
>
' //
u/1/l
I
k
/J 1
N
/ *\/l
yfMiR
J
/
1/
A '
9.3.3
il1
//
i)
'//
ST/ /
N1/
l|l
"
Alt
11
n\
I'' 1 i III |
'
?!
\ 1
\/l
\l
V
r
t/
' ^1
i/K
//
JJ
100
200
300
WO
extraction of head [mm]
500
600
The third method of anchor fixing, the abutting of the anchor foot against
the ground, is a continuation of the earlier practice of connecting structures
to rammed-in sheet piling, concreted trenches or pits (Fig. 9-13), by steel
plates or draw bars, in order to secure the structures against displacement.
Nowadays, such unwieldy and elaborate systems are dispensed with in favour
of a thick root, or bulb, concreted in at the expanded distal section of the
57
Fig. 9-13. The fixing of an anchor in the ground by means of an abutting structure formed
_ by rammed-in sheet piling, b) by steel plate, concreted trench, or concreted pit,
c) by concrete bulb in expanded borehole section
a)
Strong hard rocks, unweathered and technically little damaged, are best
suited for taking the tensile forces transmitted by anchors. They are able
58
59
technology and correct root parameters are used. Serious problems may
arise in sensitive clays by deformation of the entire earth mass into which
many of the tensile forces from the anchored structure are transferred (see
Chapter 22).
Extremely hard conditions for the fixing of anchors are encountered
in young slope sediments and fluvial sediments which may be loose, heterogeneous, often saturated, and partially composed of organic remains. Made-up
ground and deposits of industrial waste have similar characteristics.
Chapter 10
E M B E D D I N G D E P T H OF A N C H O R S I N R O C K S
AND SOILS
*,-/^r
CD
In a line of anchors (Fig. 10-lb) where the anchoring influences a prismshaped zone of triangular cross-section and apex angle 90 along the line
of the anchors the necessary depth is given by the relation:
h,
_mjf_
_^P
(10.2)
00-3)
61
The symbols used in the formulae (10-1) to (10-3) denote the following
quantities:
P
/
y
mk
=
=
=
=
=
In formulae (10-1) and (10-2) mk ranges from 2.0 to 4.0, and in formula
(10-3), from 1.2 to 1.5.
Formulae (10-2) and (10-3) are used to calculate the anchoring depth
when / is less than the product of Af as determined in formula (10-1), and the
tangent of the angle of internal friction:
/ ht. tg .
The resistance to the uprooting of anchors embedded in rock has been
tested at several sites. Very accurate results were obtained from the Allt-naLairige Dam site in Scotland; the relatively sound granite bedrock yielded
a compression strength figure of 130.9 MPa, and a shear strength of 9.8 MPa.
A borehole 120 cm in diameter and 5.4 m deep was made for the test,
with a cone-shaped widening at a depth of 3.3 m. Anchor tension was
62
3. SOU
<
7ST 750 KN
600
1
/
1
/
1 /
1 /
V.
S400
co
<t
100
u
1 //
1
5
veriicol
10
displacement
15
of head
[mmj
20
22
Fig. 10-2. Load characteristic of an anchor with 30 cm long tendon, fixed in an anchoring
cavity 21.0 cm dia, 30 cm deep. The anchor was fixed in a trial gallery in the dolomites of the
Cierny Vh river valley
63
v(10-4)
>
Fig. 10-3. Form and extent of the influence of anchoring on the rock medium in relation to the
angle between the axis of the anchor and the planes of discontinuity of a hard rock
a)axis of anchors perpendicular to the planes of discontinuity, b)axis of anchors parallel
to the planes of discontinuity, c) axis of anchors forming an acute angle with the planes
of discontinuity
Thus, wherever possibh, the anchors should form the greatest angle with
the bedding planes in order to spread the load on to the maximum number
of beds. However, rock masses usually have two or more systems of discontinuity planes, which means that if the anchors are unfavourably placed,
there is a further reduction in their resistance to extraction. In rocks with
dense irregular jointing, and in rocks of lower strength, the anchoring depth
is determined using a formula derived by L. Hobst, in which it is assumed
that the friction at the lateral faces of a supposed geometrical body of the
rock (cone, prism), on to which the stress from the anchor is transferred,
acts against extraction. The apex angle of this supposed body is equal to
twice the angle of friction, . The magnitude of the frictional force depends
on lateral stress resulting from the upward pressure of the fixed root, this
pressure increasing from zero near the ground surface to a final value, <,
at the root level (Fig. 10-4). is given by:
ah = .
kQ,
64
K **
f*^7
\ \
>
/*
/'
1/
/
^
1
f 'f
where
fc0 =
F '
v
K -/-*s4-.
(10-5)
V . tg
/ UP
If the axial interval, /, in a line of anchors is larger than / < /
,
if/ <
/
, then the following is used
*
B +
2tg(p
(10-6)
2lah
where
l2(fh
^"
l2n&h\
65
66
within them. If anchors are correctly dimensioned, shear failure of the soil
will occur when the ultimate shear strength is reached at that conical surface
which is inclined at half the angle of internal friction , as shown by earlier
tests [86].
The load-bearing capacity of the anchor depends on the degree of soil
compaction. In the more compacted soils, the angles of internal friction and
the coefficients of transverse expansion are greater than those of uncompacted
types. Similarly, larger radial stresses are created in more compacted soils
by the wedge of the mass into which stress has been introduced by the root,
and thus the shear strength of the soil is greater as well as the resistance to
anchor extraction. At the point of shear failure, compacted soils also show
an increase in volume (dilatancy), and therefore increased pressures are
produced in the ground, further preventing anchor extraction.
In less compacted soils, on the other hand, an increase in compaction
may take place on shear failure, thereby reducing the soil volume. In uncompacted soils, therefore, it is difficult to ensure sufficiently high resistances
to anchor extraction. When the anchor is pulled out, no shearing occurs
above the root, and in most cases the soil rather flows around it.
These considerations were fully verified in tests carried out on slot and
spatial models, as well as in field tests (Figs. 10-5, 10-6) [68]. On account
of the pressure of the root or anchor plate on the compacted soil, a relatively
solid body is formed which extends the influence of the pressure further into
the ground in the direction of the anchor tension. The shear surface above
Fig. 10-5. Experimental arrangement for tensile tests on anchors fixed in the soil (according
to the Research Institute of Civil Engineering, VUIS 1958). The results are not affected
by the transfer of reactions from the stressing equipment to the soil
67
Fig. 10-6. Jack used to test the resistance of the soil to uprooting
of the anchor base. The jack is placed in a retracted position
at the bottom of the borehole and is then gradually covered
with compacted soil. Pressure oil is delivered through a pipe
at the front of the jack (according to VUIS)
-7.3^m
the tensioned root is clearly delimited (Figs. 10-7, 10-8). The failure zone is
funnel-shaped, its lower part following the path of extraction of the root,
and its upper part forming a cone the flanks of which are inclined at the
minimum angle of internal friction of the soil, . In uncompacted and
saturated loose soils, extraction of the anchor causes the soil grains to move
to the sides in an approximately circular path around the anchoring plate.
The resistance of non-cohesive soils to anchor extraction also depends
to a considerable degree on their structural arrangement in the fixing region.
There is a fundamental difference between anchors fixed in the soil with
long roots of approximately uniform cross-section, and anchors with short
68
Fig. 10-8. Body of soil torn out
by the upward pressure
of the root
of a tensioned anchor
in model tests
U4
expanded roots. This difference is most marked, as has been shown in tests,
when the long root extends up to the ground surface. When anchors were
provided with projections along the entire length of the embedded tendon
(Fig. 10-9b), simulating fixing of the first type, the failure zone was limited
to a narrow cylinder around the anchor. In scale model tests, the resistance
of this type of anchor to extraction from a compacted soil was only slightly
less than that of anchors comprising a base plate at the end of the tendon
(Fig. 10-9a); in field tests, however, the difference between the two was
considerable.
69
Anchor fixing strength in soil is increased when the borehole above the
root is filled to the top with loose soil rather than with concrete. With the
use of concrete, the stronger fixing of an expanded root is lost in favour of
the weaker fixing of a long section, this difference in strength being
substantially greater in less compacted soils (see Fig. 10-16).
In further laboratory tests several other anchors were tried, including one
composed of a tendon and plain base plate, another comprising a tendon
with cross-plates secured to it along its entire length, and finally one with
a tendon of greater cross-sectional area, with indentations around the
circumference to simulate the penetration of grout into the borehole wall
cavities. The greater fixing strength of the anchor with a plain base plate
(Fig. 10-10) results from the greater size of the rock mass taking the stress
transmitted from the anchor. In the case of the anchor with a circular base
a truncated cone-shaped mass is affected by the anchor tension, and this has
an apex angle of twice the angle of friction of the soil. When the anchor is
secured along its entire length as far as the surface, the stress is transmitted
4 in l._
t on
i \y^*
7. IU |
>
w
1 '*
rfi I
A\
y.i x / l
-^
JLfl
.l/lr 1 H
<
.
V V
>>
oni-lL
Hii illSP
nvn 1 :
rfr
^,
$
8
1tau
tr
11
)t
0M
.6
\
^V
\ \ ".
\>
N V V *
Ml
II
t
I
\ \
c*
\V
* [a
U.JU II
n?n\
UmCUm
^M f
Si
'\
\<
S**
.So
n in\
U.IUl
0L
10
s >: .
^3 fe^i
50
100
extraction ofanchor
150
frnml
200
Fig. 10-10. Load diagram for test anchors embedded in sand to a depth of 35 cm
A anchor fixed along entire length, B anchor with base plate at distal end
70
71
angle of 60 from the horizontal; the tensile force acted at the same angle
as that of the anchor tendon. At the subsurface fixing, the borehole was
strengthened with a thin-walled pipe to prevent caving-in during anchor
extraction. Vertical stresses in the sand were registered on strain gauges
placed beside, or under the root. A tensile force was applied until the
resistance to movement rapidly began to diminish, while displacement of the
anchor remained the same or increased.
'0.03
0.05
partial
5.0
0.1
0.5
1J0(3cm) 2.0 30
10.0 /o
extraction of anchor in pen cent, of its length(3m) (30cm)
Fig. 10-11. Load diagrams from model tests of anchors with long root fixings (3 m) in sand
I vertical anchor, 3 m root extending to ground surface, 2 vertical anchor, root at
a depth of 6 m (upper end) to 9 m (lower end), 3 inclined anchor, 3 m root extending
to ground surface, 4 inclined anchor, root at a depth of 6 m (upper end) to 9 m (lower end)
72
extends to ground level (Fig. 10-12) and the mean limit resistance at its
lateral surfaces is 0.125 MPa, the changes of stress in the soil extend, on
average, about 1 m away from the root. With a mean fixing depth of 7.5 m,
and a mean limit resistance at the surface of the lateral surface of the root
of 0.43 MPa, the affected zone is nearly twice as large. Even above the root
this zone extends almost to 2 m; hence the limit strength of the anchor is
exceeded because of soil flow around the root as it is extracted. Thus a long
root embedded at a greater depth behaves in a way similar to that of an
stress
depth
of the model
surface of the ground
\7
2one of increased
g-S
stresses
*A
0.2 1
20
distance
on the model
in the field
m
Fig. 10-12. State of stress in the vicinity of model anchor (lines connect points of equal
vertical stress)
A root extending to ground surface
73
stress depth
I*
surface of the model
surface of the ground
in the field
B root at a depth of 6 to 9 m
74
stress
depth
-8^
of the ground
the hit
of the model
surface
thefi
surface
on the
in the
< ^
-S
in the field
that occurred in the fixing strength of an anchor in a sand model after it had
been filled with water. It is clear that in loose soils, at depths below the
ground water table, the resistance to anchor extraction drops by 50 % or
more. This is even more apparent in the field. In experiments performed
in dry gravels and sands, the cables were not torn out under forces of up to
2 MN [82, 84], the load characteristics showing the favourable mechanical
properties of compressed gravel and sand beds (Fig. 10-15). On the other
hand, in tests performed in saturated gravel and sand, the fixing strength
was nearly an order of magnitude lower (Fig. 10-16). Although tests were
conducted in various localities and in gravels with different granulometric
curves, they show that in the design of anchors for emplacement in loose
soils, close attention must be given to the question of whether the anchoring
is carried out in dry beds permanently above the ground water level, or in
beds which are temporarily or permanently saturated.
75
stress depth
B root at a depth of 6 to 9 m
I;
I
I
73
tO
35
30
25
20
15
10
water level below the surface [cm]
76
after 24 hours
20
30
0
50
60
70
extraction of anchor head'/mml
80
90
100
Fig. 10-15. Load curve for an anchor fixed in dry beds of gravel and sand under repeated
loading (length of tendon 5 m; anchoring cavity 50 cm dia, 60 cm long)
I
-A-
3C * * * ^
.06
>
-37
-&
*
30[cm]
-37
extraction of head
Fig. 10-16. Load curve of anchors fixed in saturated gravel and sand in a borehole of
406 mm dia
A borehole filled with local gravel and sand, B borehole filled with concrete
10.3.1
77
1-v *
Assuming that the friction effect is confined to that part of the soil affected
by the anchoring force (see Fig. 10-1), the length of the tendon is derived
from formulae (10-7) and (10-8). For individual anchors:
3Pmfe
K = J tg-2 f- + l ,
(10-7)
, 12P
< I.
B = - + 2 cos
2tg<p
if/>
1^-, then
tg
-Ti
^ *^
2/,
L-+ +
K = -
2 tg
where
,
+ i !
00-8)
'{-*-)
78
<0
*Q05
5
10
15
20
extraction ofbase[cm]
0S0
1.00
1.50 2.00
anchoring depth [m]
2.50
79
WO
%300
.
Q
/
f
Z50
/
/
f\
w
8 IM
1
<
ja
ZP
iO
&0
anchoring depth[m]
8.0
>o NO
<\f csT
|
c>
3D0
*.
225
.Co
X*A
S*
T
At
T T
#
0,75
< y
-c
NO
10
*
+i
' \* "T
J?
L*
<V
15
20
25
~ anchoring depth [m]
Fig. 10-20. Diagram for determining approximately the embedding depth for a line of
anchors in dry gravel ( = 36)
80
1i
or
anct Wem
0 cm
Id* 8
soil
y-rt
o
f = 32
* 1
1
O) C;
I.I
tTO
W-10
I-1
II
Co X
20
30
Wott5
3 mm
2
1
^^fe--r-^a^
\
A
shearing surface
surface
v
81
When an anchor root is extracted from a saturated loose soil, the volume
of the soil does not increase, as is found to occur in unconsolidated soil.
Consequently, the radial stress does not increase as there is no wedge-like
effect of the pulled-out soil; it is the radial stress that produces any increases
in shear strength, as in the case of dry soils.
The stress in an otherwise unloaded soil results solely from the soil dead
weight minus the effect of uplift; there is a linear increase in this stress with
depth. The stress in a vertical direction, at depth h, is given by:
* = ( ? - 1) h>
and that in the horizontal direction by:
where
1 v
(v is the Poisson's number for the soil).
Assuming that for all anchor positions the stress acts radially over the
entire root circumference, the shear strength of saturated non-cohesive soils
in the vertical direction is given by:
= . tg ,
82
max
. d. x
v=
ft =
*'^
(10-9)
(10-10)
n.d(y-
fc^
l)fc.cos^(tgp + t g ^ ) '
0 1 0
" ;
where is the depth of the root centre below the horizontal ground surface.
83
72
11
72
o
10
9
8
8s
11 <
hk
3
2
7
0
100
sand
100
medium I
|~~
fine
du
J
I vent\
/\90
30
70
BO
40
ayey
irticle
III
v-llt
Nflt
lfr | |
30
20
10
0
900
UN
en
DU
Q5
0.25
0.1 0.05
mm
explosive charges (see Fig. 13-67, 13-68). In the course of the tests observations were made on the deformations occurring in the anchors, and the
deformations and cracks appearing on the surface of the soil medium in
relation to the magnitude of the tensile force. It has been demonstrated that
during the loading of a cohesive soil by an expanded anchor root, friction
plays an important part as a result of the transverse stresses arising in the
compressed soil medium above the root front. Thus, when the required
length of the anchor tendon is calculated, it may be assumed that the soil
84
(1(2)
V f(3c + . / . cos )
The soil characteristics are taken as being within the following limits:
K=
c = 1 to lOkPa,
= 10 to 2 5 , / = tgcp,
Gr = <*kr-7^Z
2 0 0 t0
5 0 0
%
k P a
'
The ultimate stress, akr, of the soil is obtained from the results of tests,
and derived approximately from standard values. When this stress is exceeded
at the interface between the soil and the root front, the root starts cutting
through the soil. In view of this, the maximum loading, Pkr, of an anchor is
given by the expression PKr = akr. F, in which F is the area over which the upward pressure of the expanded root is exerted. The load-bearing capacity of an
anchor is directly proportional to the difference between the cross-sectional
area of the anchor root and that of the anchor base proper. In less strong
soils showing low values of akr, the expanded root base must be designed with
the largest possible diameter.
Computed values for the fixing depth limits for variously loaded anchors
are shown graphically in Fig. 10-25. When the curves obtained in this way
are compared with a curve showing measured soil resistance to anchor
extraction at various depths, it is evident that the formula for calculating
anchoring depth is applicable in practice (see Fig. 10-23).
When a series of cables are anchored, the volume of the affected soil
contributing to the resistance to anchor extraction decreases with the axial
interval, /, between anchors.
The necessary anchoring depth h'z is obtained from the equation:
S5
mkP . cos
l(2c + f. ) '
(10-13)
100
200 300
400
500 600
Fig. 10-25. Diagram for determining approximately the embedding depth of solitary anchors
in cohesive soils, according to formula (1012).
6^300kPal
f=25,
C>10kPa
mk*M
100 200 300 WO 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 12001300
*~P [kN]
Fig. 10-26. Diagram for determining approximately the embedding depth of a line of anchors
in cohesive soils, according to formula (10-13). In the area below the thick broken line the
embedding depth is determined as for solitary anchors
86
used. The effect of the pressure of the root front on the soil above the root
is to overcome molecular cohesion among the soil grains, extrude water
from the pores, and modify the internal structure of the soil by forcing the
grains of the compressed soil up against one another. These changes result
in major or minor permanent deformation displacement of the root apparent
in every stress-strain diagram for an anchor fixed in cohesive soil (see
Fig. 10-27). The development of this deformation is a long-term process, which
means that the anchors have to be designed and the anchor heads mounted on
the anchored structure in such a way as to make possible additional stressing
of the anchor up to the time of complete consolidation of the loaded soil
(see Chapter 19, Fig. 19-5).
The validity of formulae (10-12) and (10-13) depends on the magnitude
of the soil shear strength around the root, and this strength is decisively
affected by the soil moisture content. In naturally moist loess loams, the
formation of a conical shear surface has been observed in the laboratory [86].
Following saturation of the soil (28 per cent moisture) the cone did not form
and a local failure occurred in the vicinity of the anchoring plate. The soil
was displaced to the underside of the plate and laterally as the plate was
pulled out under constant tension, but it was only when the plate was nearing
the surface that the conical soil body and the anchoring plate were torn out
completely.
It is clear that the soil undergoes plastic deformation under the pressure
of the expanded root, and recedes to the sides. Initially, the resistance to
anchor movement increases sharply until local soil failure occurs; then the
resistance remains constant, since by forcing the root through the soil further
failures occur continuously, with the soil flowing around the root.
L. N. Dzhioyev [46] has observed similar phenomena during field tests
on vertical anchors with expanded roots (concrete bulbs), in a soil with the
following parameters: y = 17kN/m 3 , = 23.8 per cent., tg = 0.42,
c = 17.7 kPa. Bulbs with diameters of 20, 35 and 50 cm were tested, anchored
at depths of 110 and 200 cm. The load characteristics showed three successive
stages of deformation (Fig. 10-27); the first part of the curve (up to the
deformation of soil
.
[.depressiony
circum flowing
yextractiony
/f
87
Fig. 10-28. Results of comparative tests of the load-bearing capacities of anchors in sandy clay
1 unexpanded borehole, anchor: bar of 32 mm dia; root fixed with poured-in cement
slurry, 2 unexpanded borehole, anchor: pipe 5/25 mm; root grouted under pressure and
regrouted, 3 borehole mechanically expanded, anchor: bar of 32 mm dia with base, root
grouted under pressure, 4 borehole expanded by blast, anchor: bar 32 mm dia, root
grouted under pressure, 5 borehole filled with cement mix and expanded by blast, anchor:
bundle of 12 x P 7 wires, 6 borehole filled with cement mix and expanded by blast, anchor:
bundle of two 6-strand ropes 24.5 mm dia splayed into strands in the root section
88
P c r i t point) was linear, corresponding to the phase of increasing soil compression above the anchoring bulb; no failure occurred. The second part represented continuous local soil failure, as the bulb was extracted under
a constant force, PCTlt, without any apparent disturbance of the ground
surface; in the tests this stage was abbreviated as the ratio of bulb depth
to bulb width (hjd) decreased. The third stage commenced when the force
necessary to lift out the soil above the root coincided with P c r i t , at which
point the ground surface started to deform and the tensile force dropped.
P c r i t could be computed from the equilibrium of forces occurring at this point.
Tests performed at various sites have shown that the load-bearing capacity
of anchors fixed in cohesive soils depends on the width of expansion of the
anchor root. It has been confirmed that the fixing of anchors in unexpanded
boreholes is of little effect in cohesive soils. An example may be cited of
measurements of the load-carrying capacity of horizontal anchors conducted
by Geoindustria (Czechoslovakia). The tests were carried out on anchors
with expanded and unexpanded roots of identical length (3 m) embedded
in sandy clay at a depth of about 2.5 m below the ground surface. Two
anchors were inserted in unexpanded boreholes, a third into a borehole
expanded with a Bhler Klemm mechanical reamer, and a fourth into
a borehole expanded by letting off two charges in the hole, each consisting
of 300 g of Semtex. Two further boreholes were expanded by means of two
charges (250 and 150g) which were inserted in the grout together with the
anchors and blasted. When the grout in the boreholes had hardened, tensile
tests were carried out on the anchors up to their ultimate loads. All the
anchor roots were then dug out and investigated. The results of the tests
are shown in Fig. 10-28. The greatest load-bearing capacity was attained with
roots expanded by blasting in the grout, even where the second cavity was
incompletely filled owing to insufficient grouting following blasting. The
least load-carrying capacity was that of the anchor which was fixed in the
unexpanded borehole with grout poured into it.
Chapter 11
MATERIALS U S E D IN THE CONSTRUCTION
OF A N C H O R S ( T E N D O N M A T E R I A L )
91
---""
For steel wire:
190,000
_ <x0.2 _ 1,440
190,000 "
/0
92
11.1 MATERIALS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF BAR ANCHORS
Min. breaking
strength
[N/mm2]
Macalloy
(England)
Macalloy
Dywidag
(GFR)
1,000
Dywidag
Krupp HWR
(GFR)
JISG 3109-1871
(Japan)
Sumitomo
(Japan)
Neturen
(Japan)
*) Threaded bar
T1)
Min. yield
strength
[N/mm2]
1,030
1,030
824980
835
0 16 mm
T1)
1,230
1,470
1,080
1,290
1,080
1,325
930
1,060
A2
A2
Bl
B2
T1)
940
1,030
1,080
1,175
1,175
785
785
930
930
930
, 1,225
1,080
Max.
relaxation
[per cent]
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
93
favourably affected by their larger surface area per unit prestressing force.
Furthermore they are cheaper than bolts made of steel of high yield point.
For anchors longer than 2 m, and particularly for those anchors intended
to maintain permanent anchoring forces or permanent prestressing of rock,
bars of reinforcing steel are unsuitable. In such cases prestressing bars with
a yield strength of 1,000 MPa or more must be used (Fig. 11-1). Bars used
for anchoring have pressed ribs on the surface (Fig. 11-2) and are supplied
in 12 m lengths; for special requirements they can be supplied in 18 m
lengths, and with diameters of up to 50 mm. In Japan high parameter
Neturen bars are in use. In Europe, the Dywidag bars are widely used for
anchorages in rock; the currently available diameters are 12.2, 26, 32 and
36 mm, and their strength is somewhat higher than that of the bars listed
in Table 11-11. Plain bars are used, and bars with rolled-on threads along
their entire length (Fig. 11-3) are increasingly coming into use. The latter
are supplied in two qualities, in diameters from 15 to 36 mm (Table ll-III).
Bars provided with threads in the rolling mill have some advantages, and are
therefore preferred in practice over plain bars; one important factor is that
94
the threading strengthens the bond with the grout in the borehole. In addition,
the setting up of anchors based on these bars is easier than with the use of
plain bars (see Chapter 12).
TABLE 11-11
Technical data for prestressmg bars
Bar dia
in mms
Sectional
area
in sq. mms
Dywidag
Sumitomo
9.2
66.2
68.3 (3)
78.1 (4)
11.0
95.1
98.4 (3)
112.4(4)
13.0
132.7
137.3 (3)
156.4 (4)
15.0
176.7
16.0
201.1
17.0
227.0
20.0
314.2
23.0
415.5
25.0
500.0
191
234.5 (3)
267.9 (4)
476.4 (4)
490.9
26.0
530.9
551.5
32.0
804.2
800
35.0
862.1
950
*)
)
3
)
4
)
534.1 (3)
610.5 (4)
568 (1)
678 (2)
36.0
416.7 (3)
325
26.5
40.0
191
296
828 (1)
989 (2)
812.7 (3)
928.8 (4)
1,049 (1)
1,252(2)
1,256.6
1,250
Grade St 835/1030
Grade St 1080/1230
Class A2
Class B2
Fig. 11-3. Prestressing bars with
pressed threads along the
entire length
95
TABLE ll-III
Technical data for Dywidag threaded prestressing bars
Bar diameter
mm
Sectional area
15.0
16.0
26.5
32.0
36.0
mm2 176.7
201.1
551.5
804.0
1,017.8
Min. yield
strength
MPa 885
1,325
835
1,080
835
1,080
835
1,080
Min. tensile
strength
MPa 1,080
1,470
1,030
1,230
1,030
1,230
1,030
1,230
Min. breaking
load
kN
296
568
678
828
989
1,049
1,252
191
96
Diameter
(mm)
Type
tfpt
ASTM
A 421-74
(USA)
4.88
4.98
6.35)
7.01
4.98
6.35
WA
WA
WA
WA
BA
BA
1,725
1,725
1,655
1,622
1,655
1,655
BS 2691-1969
(Great Britain)
4
5
5
7
7
4
5
5
7
7
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
1,720- -1,950
1,720- -1,950
1,570- -1,800
1,570- -1,800
1,470- -1,700
1,720- -1,950
1,7201,950
1,570--1,800
1,5701,800
1,470- -1,700
1,460
1,460
1,330
1,330
1,250
1,550
1,550
1,410
1,410
1,320
P
P
P
PP
PP
PP
PP
1,570
1,470
1,370
1,960
1,760
1,670
1,570
1,420
1,320
1,220
1,760
1,570
1,470
1,370
1,930
1,680
1,670
1,600
1,620
1,560
1,520
1,470
1,420
1,710
1,480
1,480
1,420
1,420
1,370
1,320
1,280
1,230
DIN 4227
(GFR)
JIS
G 3536-1971
(Japan)
opt
minimum
tf0,2 minimum
tfip.c minimum
minimum
5 . 2 - -6.0
7 . 0 - -9.5
1 0 . 0 - -13.0
1 . 5 - -3.0
3 . 0 - -4.9
3 . 0 - -7.5
4 . 0 - -10.0
2.9
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
^0,2
^lp.c.
^(P.c.)
1,380
1,380
1,325
1,295
1,382
1,382
4
4
4
4
4
4
3.5
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.5
4,5
4.5
97
continued
Standard
Diameter
(mm)
Type
PN 22-178-73
(CSSR)
4
4.5
5
6
5
LR
LR
LR
LR
NR
WA
BA
NR
LR
P
PP
#0,2
1,760
1,720
1,670
1,570
1,800
1,410
1,370
1,330
1,250
1,530
4
4
4
4
4
wedge anchorage
button head anchorage
normal relaxation
low relaxation
patented
tempered
1000
98
strands appear to be gaining popularity as tendon material. Cables used for
this purpose should not contain any compressible components, such as
a hemp core, nor must they be greased or oiled, as this causes problems with
the effectiveness of grouting.
Seven-wire strands have the simplest structure. Their load-bearing capacity
is limited by the largest practicable diameter of the wire, viz. 6 to 7 mm;
strands made from wires of greater diameter cannot be manufactured on the
available equipment in the wire mills. Using 7 mm wire, a strand composed
of 7 wires would have a diameter of 21 mm, and cross-sectional area of
269.25 mm 2 . Given a nominal wire strength of 1,400 MPa, the load-bearing
capacity of such a strand would be 370 kN. Technical data for these strands
are listed in Table 11-V.
Untempered strands are supplied on minimum 600 mm diameter wooden
reels and weigh about 2,000 kg. Low temperature tempered strands are
supplied in coils weighing from 1,000 to 2,500 kg, and strands, composed
of wires 4.0 to 6.0 mm in diameter with an overall diameter of 12 to 18 mm,
are supplied in 3,500 kg coils.
Another suitable cable structure is the 1 + 6 + 12 arrangement. In Czechoslovakia, for example, such cables are manufactured with a maximum
diameter of 28 mm for anchoring in rock (these are unsuitable for prestressed
concrete). The cable has a lower modulus of elasticity than cables of the
1 + 6 pattern, but has a regular layering and the internal layer does not slip
during prestressing, once the cable has been locked at the head.
General practice prefers the 7-wire strands also used in prestressed
concrete. These strands are low temperature tempered and sometimes also
stabilized, although, as stated before, the latter treatment is not essential for
anchoring, considering the large permanent deformations which develop in
rocks. In Great Britain and in some other countries, Dyform strands are
used. These are strands which have already been through preliminary stressing
and tempering (i.e. through the process of stabilization), and then are subjected to a compacting or dyforming process, whereby about 20 per cent, more
of the nominal cross-sectional area is occupied by steel, compared with
ordinary strand cables. Dyform strands have better mechanical properties
and a 25 30 per cent, greater load-bearing capacity (see Table 11-V). In
Great Britain, it is also possible to obtain 19-wire cables of the Seale or
Warrington type (Fig. 11-5) with diameters from 22.2 to 31.8 mm.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 11-5. Structures of cables used
in Great Britain
a) 7-strand cable, b) Seale cable,
c) Warrington cable
3
PQ
J3
4>
'S
I g> cr
>3
^- S>
<
1
CO
fN fN fN fN
r- ^ r r-
2 o
vo
fN
<N
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r-
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r- r- r- vo PC PC ti
o 8 o o ON
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0 0 VO
11 f N
zzzz
co
ON
fN
r-
00
vo vo o r> > VO vo vo
co co CO co co CO co co
co co
T-H
vo NO
ON
t^
fN
o fN
co
Tf OO
q q
ei
PQ
r4 n
ON
,_**ON
r
O
vo
co vo <o K
ON CN VO fN
co
CN
VO
co
ON
ON
1
NO
co
CO
PQ
fN
ON
ON
vo
t^ CO
CO
co
vo
VO
fN
fN
CO
CO
vo vo
ON
ON CO
vo
co
ON
o
o
vo rvo ^
OO NO VO
PC PC PC
1-H i-H
00 ^O
-H CO
fN 00
vo vo vo
co co*
CO*
fN
vo fN ON
vo VO fN
fN ^ H CN
ON
TJ-
vo CO VO
00
ON
vo o vo
vo fN V0
>
CO
r-
CO
vo
fN
1^
fN
00
ON
O N fN CO
00 co
CO 00
O N 00 CO
vo ON
VO *- vo
vo
00
vo vo vo
co CO
f-
PQ
00 00 OO
o o o
o
o o fN
vo NO
fN
<
vo
CO
vo
v->
o
vo
CO
vo
vo
00
00 ON ON
vo
00
vo
OO
00
ON
ON fN 00
ON co
fN vo
vo ON
vo
NO
vo vo
ON
cm
CO 00
fN
ON
VO
CO CO
vo
CO
100
Large anchors are constructed using multiple cables which are arranged
in the same way as the multi-wire cable. The manipulation of bundled cables
is, however, more difficult than the handling of compound cables, and some
contractors prefer compound strand cables for this reason. In Czechoslovakia,
cables compound of 7 strands, each of 7 wires of 6 mm diameter, are used
for 1.1 MN anchors, and for 4.0 MN anchors compound rope (strand)
cables Hercules are used, these comprising 37 strands each of 19 wires of
2.9 mm diameter, giving a total cross-sectional area of 4,320 mm 2 . The
cable diameter is 100 mm, the weight is 34 kg/r.m., and the nominal load
bearing capacity is 7.6 MN (Fig. 11-6).
101
and improved resistance to corrosion. This last advantage has been demonstrated at the Vir Dam in Czechoslovakia, where after 10 years of
service, cables composed of straight wires were found to be corroded along
the sections passing through the open air, while stranded cables remained
intact under the same adverse conditions.
The disadvantage of steel rope cables and compound strand cables is that
specially designed strong anchoring heads must be used where the cable is
attached to the anchored structure (see Chapter 16).
Chapter 12
P R E P A R A T I O N OF A N C H O R S
The preparation of modern anchors, particularly with respect to anticorrosive protection, requires specialized equipment. Special workshops are
assigned to this work, which is entrusted to highly skilled men. The equipment and techniques used in these workshops vary according to the tendon
material that is being handled.
Bar anchors are the simplest to prepare. The required length of bar is
cut and a thread is cold rolled at the head end to take the fixing nut. The
thread should not be cut, because this reduces the effective cross-section of
the bar. At the root end of the anchor, threading improves the bond between
the anchor and the cement (grout or resin) used to fill the borehole in this
section, or serves for the fixing of the anchor base (Fig. 12-1).
The bars are supplied in 12 m lengths for ease of transport and handling.
Longer anchor bars are made up by connecting these bars with couplings
(Fig. 12-2).
103
104
Fig. 12-4. Anchor head and cable made from 24 P 7 mm diameter wires (HlasivecMichlek
system)
1 central helix, 2 internal layer (8 wires), 3 external layer ("16 wires), a) head,
b) cone, c) wires
105
only spacing is the helical coil at the core of the cable. The wires are automatically measured and cut to the required length on a special workshop table.
When the wires are arranged together, the bundle is straightened by pulling
the wires through a guide and a base piece where the ends are cold hammered
to form heads (Fig. 12-6). To keep the wires parallel, the cable is held by
the base while the guide is pulled in the opposite direction. Finally, the cable
is twisted three or four turns to take up any slack in the wires arising from
lack of straightness of the axis and it is then bound around with a thin wire
106
107
m-
is
<?*>**;
:JftS** -V* * ^
the latter are incorporated into the cable, by coating and pressing the insulating compound on to the surface of the rope (see Chapter 18), or pulling the
ropes into plain or crimped pipes. The insulation type depends on the function
of that part of the anchor being treated and its overall structural arrangement. This work, in particular the coating of insulation, is also now being
transferred to special factories.
The bundles of strands constituting anchors of high load-bearing capacity
are usually inserted into plastic pipes (Fig. 12-9). The workshop, in this
case, must be equipped for the filling of the internal free volume of the pipe
with an insulating compound; the latter may be one of various vaselines
108
Fig. 12-10.. Transport
of tendons in loops
(see Chapter 18) or a mixture of asphalt and synthetic resin. In the grouted
section, that is, in the section sheathed with a crimped pipe, the pipe is
internally filled with grout. In some cases the cables, instead of being inserted
into pipes, are wrapped with a textile bandage impregnated with insulating
vaseline. The bandage is wound on so as to be self-overlapping, and if need
be, covered with another layer of plastic material to protect the anchor from
mechanical injury during manipulation. The bandage is put on with special
winding equipment. The cables are prepared in specified lengths and delivered
to the site in bundles (Fig. 12-10), or in reels or as reelless packs (see Fig. 12-8).
Chapter 13
F I X I N G OF A N C H O R S IN ROCK AND S O I L
The fixing of anchors so that the tension within them is taken up by the
ground is achieved by three basic methods:
by mechanically bracing the anchor foot (base) up against the rock at the
end of the borehole;
by bonding the anchor tendon to the rock or soil with cement;
by fitting an expanded base (i.e. a bulb) at the distal end of the anchor.
The face of the bulb abuts against ground when the anchor is prestressed.
The first of these methods relies on the forces of friction set up between
the steel jaws, or other parts of the base, and the borehole walls (see Fig. 9-7).
The ground is subjected to considerable radial pressure concentrated over
the small area of contact with the base.
The second method relies upon the bond strength developed between the
anchor root and the rock or soil of the borehole wall (see Fig. 9-8). This
bond is achieved by using a suitable cement (cement grout, synthetic resin).
The rock is mostly stressed by shear forces which are distributed over the
relatively large lateral surface area of the root cylinder.
The third method depends upon the strength of the ground, or its resistance
to the extraction of the deep-situated base (or bulb). The rock in this case
is subjected to a locally concentrated compression.
In some special cases, combinations of these fixing methods may be used.
The fixing method that is finally selected depends on the mechanical characteristics of the rock or soil, the magnitude of the tensile force for which the
anchor has been designed, the design of the anchor itself, and frequently
also the facilities and equipment available to the contractor.
110
<0
Ill
b) tangential
c) radial
rock surface
2m
2m
Fig. 13-2. Stress state of rock in the vicinity of a bolt with a prestressing force of 44 kN
5 tress
tangential 6t
raaial
ar
scale of lengths:
-50
ID
15 cm
conversion table
D si
50
too
200
300
too
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
,'<g/cmz MPa
3-5
7.0
21
28
35
U2
L9
55
63
70
77
OM
0.66
1.37
2.06
2.75
3M
U2
4.80
550
6.16
6.85 i
Z55
hissure
Fig. 13-3. Stresses in the vicinity of an anchor base mechanically expanded against the walls
of the borehole by a force of 56 kN, and pulled by a tension of 44 kN (according to
H. Ewoldsen)
113
under a prestressing of 44 kN. The iso-stress lines in Fig. 13-2 show a markedly
steep decline in stress with distance from the borehole. At a distance of 10 cm,
the radial and tangential stresses amount to less than a twentieth of the
maximum value, and they practically disappsar at a distance of one metre. The
compressive stress along the borehole (between the supporting washer and
the base) also declines rapidly towards the centre of the zone to a figure as
low as one thousandth of the maximum value calculated at the base front.
By analysing the forces acting within the base and in the contact area
between the base and the rock, formulae can be derived for calculating both
the optimum fixing force for a mechanical base, and the fixing strength of
a given rock type. These problems have been discussed in detail by A. Hugon
and A. Costes [94], and by T. A. Lang [113].
Tensile tests carried out on mechanical fixings in rock do not agree
completely with results obtained using these formulae. Differences of up
to 100 per cent are attributable, above all, to highly inaccurate values being
substituted in the formulae. Thus, for example, the rock strength at the
fixing point of the borehole wall is determined from laboratory strength
on rock samples, and the value for the coefficient of friction between the
steel base and the rock is simply an estimate.
Testing of the load-bearing capacity of bolts on site is comparatively
easy, and it is always better to rely on values for the average fixing strength
of a given type of anchor and rock, obtained from in situ tensile tests.
Mechanically fixed anchors have the following characteristic properties:
They acquire full strength immediately on fixing, which means they
can be prestressed or loaded as soon as they have been placed.
The fixing against the walls of the borehole is usually in a short section
of 10 to 20 cm. This introduces large stresses into the rock, so that the
demands on the rock strength at the fixing point are very considerable.
The fixing strength is principally determined by the fixing force with
which the jaws of the mechanical base are pressed against the rock.
When a mechanical anchor is overloaded, the expanded base slips
along the borehole walls if these are of hard rock, whereas in softer ground
the base may be pressed deep into the borehole walls, and therefore breaks
under overload.
They are not usually protected against corrosion and therefore their
life expectancy is limited. Because of this they are mainly used for the
temporary securing of rocks.
Their cost is greater than that of bonded bolts, because their manufacture is more complicated and they are usually made of high quality steel;
the borehole diameter must also be greater (30 to 70 mm).
Mechanical bases differ according to the method of expansion in the
borehole.
114
10
Fig. 13-4. Wedge bolt and method of driving-in using a pneumatic pick
l|
iw
1800
20 cm
HO
20
~^$0\
116
A special type of bolt fixed by tension has been developed by the American
Worley Co. (Fig. 13-7). By tightening the nut on the external end of the rod,
both parts of the bolt are forced against the rock along their entire length.
The bolt may thus be used in weaker rocks. If desired it may be taken apart
and used again.
Fig. 13-6. Synthetic base of GD anchor (Farex-Sv/eden); 4 jaws surround the conical bar end
117
Fig. 13-7. Worley bolt (USA) with anchoring effect along entire borehole length
118
of such bolts can range from 170 to 220 kN in strong rock. Their ultimate
bearing capacity, however, is usually determined by the smallest diameter
of the bolt rod (16 to 36 mm). When the bolt is no longer required in the
same position, the rod may be screwed out of the shell, extracted from the
borehole and used again. Sometimes, by giving repeated knocks to the rod
just before it is completely unscrewed, it is possible to retrieve also the expanding base from the borehole. The possibility of recovering bolts is only of
value in mining.
Mechanically fixed bolts with threaded bases are much used nowadays,
and they are made by many manufacturers all over the world. Renowned
makes, such as Pattin (see Fig. 13-8), Ancrall (Fig. 13-9), Lenoir et Mernier
in France (Fig. 13-10), Rawlbolts, Bayliss (Fig. 13-11), Torque Tension in
England, Dywidag in the GFR, Bail in South Africa (Fig. 13-12), Williams
b)
Fig. 13-9. Threaded anchor base of Ancrall bolt
a) dismantled, b) assembled
119
Fig. 13-11. Threaded anchor base
of Bayliss bolt (England). Above:
as inserted into the borehole;
below: after the sleeve is opened
by pulling-in the cone
^IMA!
Fig. 13-12. Threaded anchor
base of Bail bolt (Republic of
South Africa)
Initial
diameter
[mm]
Expansion
[mm]
Length
[mm]
Surface
area
of contact
[cm2]
Borehole
diameter
tolerances
[mm]
Rock
31
34
36
41
41
46
LN
LS
UM
UP
UM
UP
31
34
36
41
41
46
+
+
+
+
+
+
16
16
18
18
18
18
98
75
120
100
120
120
80
70
100
100
140
180
close fit
close fit
36+4
41+5
41+5
46 + 8
56 UM
56
+ 18
200
300
56 + 8
66 UM
66
+22
250
400
66 + 9
hard
fairly hard
fairly soft
soft to hard
compressible
all types
of rock
all types
of rock
all types
of rock
120
o)
121
injected into the tube during a quick installation of the bolt in the borehole.
High-pressure water expands the bolt immediately. As the borehole diameter
(30 to 39 mm) is smaller than the original diameter of the tube, a tongue is
left inside the profile (see Fig. 13-136). This tongue acts as a spring when the
water pressure is released, and produces radial forces which continue to
press the bolt against the rock walls of the hole. During the swelling process,
the length of the bolt is reduced due to contraction, resulting in forcing the
washer of the bolt against the rock face. About 50 bolts may be fixed in this
way in an hour's time.
A steel tube provided with a slot throughout its length, which is forced
into a borehole of a corespondingly smaller diameter, has a similar, although
somewhat smaller, effect.
This type of friction bolt is currently produced under the trade name
Split Set Stabilizer by the American IngersoilRand Co according to the
design of J. J. Scott [188] (Fig. 13-14). This bolt is driven home into a borehole
of 35 mm (13/8 in.) diameter by means of a percussive or vibrating equipment
as jackdrill or stopper, but air or hydraulic drifter or rotary roof bolter can
be used as well. When set, the initial holding power is about 27 kN and
further increases with time. When the pull-out force acting in the roof on the
bolt plate exceeds the bolts holding force, the tube slips a little while maintaining its friction resistance. This possibility of support yielding without failure
is preferable for rock mass stabilization as mentioned in the next Section.
122
Another advantage of these hollow bolts is that they allow water drainage
of the supported rock.
Split Set bolts are delivered in lengths varying from 0.9 m to 2.44 m
(3 ft. to 8 ft.) in 0.3 m (1 ft.) increments. Because of their simple installation
technique they are widely used, especially in the United States metal mining
industry, where they form approximately 50% of all roof fixtures [188a].
13.1.5 Controlled yielding bolts
Ordinary rock bolts yield and extend up to 18% and then they break
[188c]. Recent knowledge in rock mechanics concerning the advantages of
allowing some yielding of the supports in underground caverns, has led to the
design of bolts with controlled yielding [61, 152]. A special coupling allows
controlled elongation of the bolt if its load exceeds the admissible limit. This
elongation of the bolts which are used to reinforce caverns, takes place
automatically and allows the rock to undergo slight movement. This movement reduces the pressures in the rock and the cavern develops a new state
of equilibrium.
The elongation coupling of the bolt developed in the USA (Fig. 13-15) [61]
consists of a sleeve around the outer part of the stem of a standard bolt, the
latter being provided with rolled threads with an overall diameter greater
than that of the stem. Because the inside diameter of the inner end of the
sleeve is less than th? outside diameter of the threads on the bolt, the bolt
<00*
'^ 0- 0 ;
stem portion
of standard
. v rock bolt
as
\c o
O O
rOD
0 o note rolled.*<<
7 ^ 7 threads .(/* 1
OU.-O-L'-G
-0
Op o<-. t\
Q\
'oZ.oc[<o-i*p;(
0
Vr C t C X Cn(
t-2 sleeve
, C P ; y^
plate
-nut
123
124
m . P . d2 . / . tb,
or between the force, P, and the bond strength between the cement and the
surface of the steel components of the anchor root section:
m . P = n . . dl . / . ,
where m
dl
d2
n
/
xb
xa
125
Assuming that the strength of grout is 42 MPa, the ultimate bond strength
is then 4.2 MPa, and the admissible bond strength is 1.4 MPa, taking
a safety factor of 3. Coates [32] refers to a maximum working value of
2.45 MPa for the bond strength, but with a safety factor of 1.75; hence the
ultimate strength is the same (4.3 MPa). For weaker and partly weathered
rocks it is more correct to take the ultimate bond strength as being 20
to 35 per cent of the compressive strength of the rock [120].
Koch [120] suggests working values for cohesion of between 0.35 and
0.70 MPa for soft rocks, 0.70 and 1.05 MPa for medium hard rocks, and
1.05 and 1.4 MPa for very hard rocks. According to the Australian Standard,
a value of 1.05 MPa is satisfactory for the majority of strong rocks. Weathering of rocks significantly reduces their bonding strength with grout.
The most reliable measurements of bond strength are obtained in pull
out tests at the anchoring site. The average value for the ultimate bearing
capacity of the anchor divided by a safety factor of 1.5 to 3.5, is used in the
design of the anchorage. A lower safety factor may be used for compact,
strong rocks and for temporary anchors, while a higher safety factor should
be applied for weaker, jointed, or weathered rocks, and for permanent
anchors.
Table 13-11 lists bond values obtained in field tests for different types of
rock at different sites [120]. The ultimate values could not be obtained
in all cases. It appeared that even for similar rock types the bond values
varied considerablv. This variation arose from local deviations and ir-
126
regularities in the geological structure of the rock mass, from the different
design details of the test anchors, from different drilling and flushing methods
as well as from different pressures used in the grouting of the test anchor
roots.
TABLE 13-11
Rock/grout bond values found in field tests [120]
Rock type
Granite
Basalt
Sandstone
Limestone
Limestone (loamy)
Limestone (fissured)
Limestone (with marly bands)
Dolomite
Mudstone
Marl
Shale
Shale and sandstone
Shale (strongly weathered)
Chalk
Quartzite
Breccia
Slate
Slate and greywacke
Micaschist
Micaschist (very sound)
Micaschist and D/;ite-gneiss
Meta tuff (weathered)
6.37
1.73
2.83, 4.56, 4.80
1.8
0.63
0.10
0.39
0.7
1.02, 1.32, 1.72
0.93
0.90, 1.24
1.4
0.65, 0.80, 0.92
2.16
0.80
0.29
1.80
The stress distribution along a cylindrical anchor root was studied theoretically by the finite element method. [32] The stress distribution depends
on the ratio of the elastic moduli of the anchor material and the rock,
respectively. The smaller the difference between these moduli, the greater is
the stress concentration at the proximal fixing end of the anchor. The
greater the difference, the more the stress diagram approaches uniformity
of distribution. For a modulus ratio higher than 10 (i.e. for soft rocks with
an elasticity modulus of less than 2,000 MPa), the stress distribution is
uniform with respect to most of the anchor root length. For stronger rocks,
127
on the other hand, the stress concentrated at the proximal end of the anchor
is five to ten times greater than the mean theoretical stress. Thus, under
high loading of the anchor partial debonding takes place at the proximal
end, and this debonding progresses towards the distal anchor end as the
load is further increased.
, . 0
strait L / . .
Is
*.0
<f> 131mm ,
r-|
V (
1
-
3.0
1
S3
2.0
um/
//
1.5m/
,. y
1
1
1.8SMN
anchor cross-section
5V No. wires
7 mm diameter
Non-uniform stress distribution along a long grouted anchor root transferring tensile forces to the rock has been confirmed in experimental tests
carried out in situ by various authors [16, 144, 99a]. By means of strain
gauges fixed to the anchor tendon at various points along the fixing section,
the decrease in tension from the proximal to the distal end of the root may
be observed, together with the changing degree of transfer, of tensile force
from the anchor to the rock. Results obtained for a BBRVanchor with a bearing capacity of 2.2 MN, length 8 m, are shown in Fig. 13-17 [144], Thus
under a load of 0.5 MN, the force was transferred at the upper end of the
root with an average bond/rock stress of 0.22 MPa. When the load was
increased to 1.85 MN, the bond failed along an upper root section of length
3.9 m, and the load was taken up by the remaining lower root section (4.10 m
long) with an average bond stress of 0.98 MPa. The anchor base withstood
about 0.3 MN. At a loading of 2.8 MN, a comparison between the theoretical
and measured extensions of the anchor tendon in the fixing section suggested
that the tendon was debonded along its entire length so that the load was
transferred completely to the anchor base. Nevertheless, the ultimate loadbearing capacity of the anchor had not been reached. The average value
of the bond strength computed with the assumption of a uniform load
distribution along the root, was 0.65 MPa; this was much less than the actual
value obtained with a test load of 1.85 MN, and was also much lower than
the shear strength of the grout.
The results of the above-described experiment are very instructive. They
prove that in anchorages in strong rocks, the grout/steel bond is the weak
point of the fixing and they also confirm that the most efficient fixing is
achieved with an anchor base, even if the base is not formed in an expanded
anchor borehole.
128
0.14-0.51
0.32 1.00
129
2000
very dense
medium dense
^ dense
dense
medium dense
medium dense
sandy gravel
U-5-33
Fig. 13-19. Loading capacity of anchors in non-cohesive soils in relation to soil type and
root length [155]; diameter of grouted body 1015 cm; overburden height 4 m; U coefficient of uniformity
130
In cohesive soils, the shear strength at the surface of long anchors is much
lower than that of corresponding anchors in non-cohesive soils. The required
anchor length must be determined on the basis of extraction tests, particularly in larger projects. However, the relationships obtained both in research
and in practice up to now [154] may serve well as a basis for approximate
calculations:
a) Surface resistance to movement (friction) increases with increasing
consistency and decreasing plasticity of the soil. The lowest computed values
(0.05 to 0.08 MPa) of the average shear strength (friction) at the root/soil
interface were found in stiff clays (I0 = 0.8 1.0) with medium to high
plasticity; the highest values (around 0.4 MPa) were found in sandy silts
of medium plasticity and very stiff to hard consistency (I0 = 1.25) (Fig. 13-20)
[154, 53].
600
^00
cloy
200
medium
plasticity
(marl)
very stiff
without
post-grouting
stiff
without
post-grouting
6
*
bond-to ground-length
c
^200
clay
. medium
to high
plasticity
iS
[mj
very stiff
with
post-grouting
very stiff
without
post-grouting
stiff without
post-grouting
t
6
bond- to -ground leng th [m]
10
12
Fig. 13-20. Surface friction occurring in cohesive soils for various lengths of grout fixing
with and without post-grouting [154]
Approximate surface resistance values may be also obtained for a given soil
by means of pressiometric tests carried out in exploratory boreholes (see
Chapter 9.2).
b) The shear strength at the interface between test anchors and soil did
not change with the fixing length up to a xh value of 0.1 MPa. The shear
strength decreased slightly with fixing length at higher values of xb, but
131
132
in which case its value is higher, or whether it is acting during the course
of movement, when the residual coefficient of friction at the surface is
smaller.
In the initial stages of stressing, adhesion and interlocking between
uneven-surfaced elements are responsible for the integrity of the bond.
When these factors are progressively overcome, beginning at the connecting
point between the root and the tendon and moving towards the root end
the friction factor comes into effect, in its lesser value as kinetic friction.
The fixing strength obtainable by friction in this case is only a fraction ofthat
provided by adhesion enhanced by interlocking; thus the friction factor in the
case of long roots cannot be regarded as important in practice. Friction
becomes a significant component of the fixing strength only where cable ends
are fixed to conical anchor bases (see Chapter 13.3), and to some extent also
where ropes and corrugated wires are used, as will be explained subsequently.
The limit cohesion per unit surface area of the steel anchor is usually taken
as being about one tenth of the compressive strength, or 4 MPa at most.
The limit cohesion decreases with fixing length (Fig. 13-21), in the same way
as grout/reck cohesion. This decrease arises from the non-uniform distribution
of stress along the length of the fixing. On stressing the anchor, adhesion
comes into effect initially at the proximal root end, while at the distal end it
remains unexploited. When adhesion is overcome in the proximal section,
b)
Q)
a) kg/cm
150 -130
100
50
0
^^T"""
kg/cm Oospti)
50 _
>40
10
20
30 mm Tor
anchoring length = 10
20 Tor
80
65
N^2
>37
10 20 30 W 50 cm I
Fig. 13-21. Relationship between anchoring length and cohesion between the shaped Tor
bar and concrete (according to S. Soretz)
133
4.0
SS 7 0
&P
to 5>
1.0
^<^g4v;
0.0
0.5
7
i .
J_J
l_
1.5
depth of embedding in
72-75
2.0
concrete[mj
2.5
Fig. 13-22. Stress diagram obtaining under conditions of adhesion between concrete and
steel, with different tensile forces in the latter
at the surface of steel bars and wires embedded in concrete was observed.
When the extraction of steel anchor elements from concrete is carried out,
care must be taken that the steel elements are embedded in concrete masses
of sufficiently large diameter. In any case, embedding in cylindrical masses
enclosed in steel containers must be excluded. With such an arrangement.
the reaction transmitted through the support parts of the extraction equipment to a position near the zone of tension, or the reinforcing effect of the
steel container, will affect the distribution of stress; this leads to values for
the cohesion strength which are higher then any that could be considered
in the design of tensioned roots fixed in rock. In comparing different anchor
designs with respect to the necessary grouted fixing length, one can use the
method recommended by the FIP-CEB regulations for prestressed reinforcing
elements embedded in precast structures. According to these regulations,
the length of an effective fixing is determined from the amount of contraction
observed at the ends of the prestressed components embedded in the prefabricated structure, upon release from the prestressing equipment. The
following relation is used:
lk =
3.5Ea.Fa.A7lP,
134
formed by the adjacent concrete. On the other hand, the tensioning of anchor
tendon is the very reverse process.
The root length of an anchor, or more precisely, the length of the necessary
wrapping of the steel anchor components with grout poured into the borehole,
depends on the following factors: the anchor prestress, , the surface area
of the prestressed steel, the strength of the concrete, the rate at which prestressing is introduced into the anchor, the distance of the steel components
from the root surface, the strength of the rock medium surrounding the root,
the shape of the root (a conical root is preferable, because the shear stress
vector at the surface of the steel can be increased by the vector of the product
of compressive stress and coefficient of friction.), etc. Formulae for the
calculation of the fixing length, in which the effects of the above factors are
included, have been derived by various authors. These formulae, however,
are capable of giving different values for the fixing length, the reason for these
differences being that some of the coefficients included in the formulae are
taken from the results of tests, the design and interpretation of which may
differ considerably.
When calculating the required root length of an anchor as a function
of the fixing strength of the anchor steel parts to the grout, the equilibrium
of forces acting at the limit state at the grout/anchor interface is considered:
mP = n . . dx . / . (see page 124).
The formula also takes into account the anchor characteristics, particularly the tensile stress of the steel, ', at the point of cohesion failure, and
the sum total of the perimeters u of the anchor elements in contact with the
grout:
I = m . K.
u .
K is a coefficient expressing the uneven distribution of shear stress along the
fixing length corresponding to values of the ratio ' : u. It is determined
experimentally. Mamontov, for instance, gives the value of K for steel ropes
(Fig. 13-23) [125].
The summed perimeter, u, of the anchor elements is determined for an
-fold bundle of wires or bars as the -multiple of the perimeter of an
1.8
1.6
lit
1.2
1.0
0
1L
Pt
/<9
MI
cm3
22
2f
28
135
individual element (u = nn . dt). For steel ropes, u is taken as the total outer
perimeter of the external layer of wires, which for a 7-strand rope is
approximately four times the perimeter of an individual strand of diameter d\
(u7 = An . d')\ for a couple of 7-strand ropes, ulml = In . d\ etc.
The cohesive strength, , for concrete structures is taken, as stated previously, as one tenth of the compressive strength of the grout, up to a maximum
of 4 MPa. Considering the difficulty of determining safely the quality of
concrete made by grouting the anchor borehole (in which standard conditions
for the preparation of good quality concrete cannot be established), it is
safer to rely only on the lower values within the range of (12 MPa).
It should be noted that the strength of the grout affects, to a relatively small
extent, the required fixing length of plain bars and wires in concrete, although,
theoretically, the fixing length should be inversely proportional to the grout
strength. Grout strength develops at a considerably slower rate than the
strength of concrete, and also more slowly than is assumed in some Standards.
In tests on concrete structures it appears that the cohesion strength can still
grow at compressive strengths of the concrete up to 30 or 40 MPa, while at
higher compressive strengths the growth is negligible [120]. The strength
of concrete, however, is fully exploited where anchors are composed of deformed bars with which the concrete interlocks. In the latter case cohesion
becomes the most important factor, acting permanently and not becoming
lost by creep of the concrete.
The root length necessary for an anchor increases with the number of
anchor elements. This increase is not, however, proportional to the number
of elements, as will be explained further on.
For practical calculations of the fixing lengths of bars, values for the
admissible stresses, , acting on the cohesive bond (as recommended in
individual national Standards) are substituted in the following formula:
I, = m
where ur is the sum of the perimeters of the individual bars multiplied by kr,
a coefficient, expressing the effect of the number of bars on the magnitude
of /. The British regulations, for instance, give the following values for this
coefficient: for two bars fixed in a common channel (borehole), kra = 0.8;
for three bars, krt3 = 0.6; for 4 bars, krA = 0.4. Where anchors are composed of larger bundles of bars, the ends must be provided with a base.
The fixing length of wires in the grout of the anchor root is usually calculated in terms of a multiple of the cross-section of a single wire. For single
wires the recommended fixing length is from 100 to 200 times the diameter.
The need to increase the fixing length, as the anchor usually contains
a larger number of wires, is at least partially eliminated in the majority of
136
wire anchors by corrugating the wires in the root section, usually by pulling
them through a system of clamping and spreader rings, or by crimping them
in the workshop (see Figs 12-7, 13-29). When corrugated wires are pulled,
frictional forces come into effect, as shown by a simple diagram of the forces
acting on a stressed wire (Fig. 13-24).
Fig. 13-25. a) Stress distribution in area of contact of rope, b) Dependence of the friction
component, p, on the angle a (see text)
1 ~ a = 10, 2 -a = 12, 3 a = 12 (limit state), 4 a = 16
The necessary fixing length of strands in the grout of the anchor root can
be taken as lying within the range of 30 to 50 times the cross-section. This
relatively low value arises from the favourable nature of the rope surface.
The concrete forming in the depressions among the helically twisted wires is
stressed by a friction effect arising from the normal component, N9 of the
force P. N increases with the angle, a, between the axis of the outer rope
strands and the axis of the rope itself (N = P. sin a). As an example, if a
increases from 12 to 16, the area of contact and the initial resistance to
displacement increase by 1.75 %, but the frictional effect, as a component
137
of cohesion coming into play after adhesion failure, grows to 150 p.c.
(Fig. 13-25).
It appears from the above that for interlocked strands of the Dyform type,
the fixing length must be increased by 20 to 30 %.
The fixing strength of an anchor composed of a bundle of ropes decreases
in the same way as that of anchors made of bundles of bars decreases in
comparison with single bar anchors, with the difference that the coefficient
of decrease of efficiency has a higher value (e.g. for 2 ropes, kr>2 = 0.85).
This means that the adverse effect of increasing the number of anchor
elements in extending the necessary fixing length is smaller for ropes than it is
for bars; moreover, this effect can be further reduced by corrugating the fixed
sections of the ropes in the same way as wire anchors (Fig. 13-26).
Ropes with a cross-section of more than 20 mm and comprising a larger
number of strands should be spliced in the root section to ensure thorough
contact with the grout (Fig. 13-27). In this case the method of fixing is the same
as that used for a bundle of corrugated wires (see Fig. 12-7).
Fig. 13-26. Arrangement of steel strands in the fixing section of VSL rock anchor
Fig. 13-27. Prising apart the end of a Hercules rope of nominal load-bearing capacity 7.5 MN
(Reconstruction of Bystficka Dam, Czechoslovakia)
138
139
bottom and pulled out step-by-step with the progress of grouting, are called
SN-bolts in Europe after Store Norfors, a place in Sweden, where they
were used for the first time. Bolts, enveloped by grout along their entire
length, are more effectively protected against corrosion. Correct positioning
in the centre of the borehole must be established by means of suitable spacers
attached to the bolt. The bottom part of the borehole must be often de-aerated
to ensure its perfect filling by grout. This is provided by a plastic tube of
small diameter, inserted together with the anchor bar down to the bottom of
the borehole, or by the bar itself, which is hollow in this case.
The so-called dry bolts without prestress are short rebars fixed in soft
rock throughout their full length only by the grip of the rock, without cement.
They are driven mechanically into the borehole whose diameter is smaller
by 2 to 3 mm than that of the bar. This type of anchorage was successful,
TABLE 13-111
Bolts fixed with cement mortar into hard rock
Admissible Loading
loading
capacity
form = 1.5 [kN]
[kN]
Bar
diameter1)
[mm]
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
8
12
14
16
18
20
22
25
25
28
28
32
36
36
36
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
180
210
240
270
300
Threading
on bar
M8
M12
M 14
M16
M18
M20
M22
M24
M24
M27
M27
M30
M33
M33
M36
Fixing
length2)
[cm]
Borehole
diameter2)
[mm]
24
32
41
48
53
58
61
61
69
69
82
86
85
96
106
11
17
20
23
25
29
32
36
36
40
40
45
52
52
52
Grout
volume*)
[dm3]
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.35
0.45
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.8
1.4
1.6
) For deformed (shaped) steel bars (rebars) of yield point 400 MPa. For the analysis, the
diameter of the shaft of the bar (excluding the thread) is considered.
Taking the strength of the bar/concrete bond as 2.5 MPa.
The figures represent the diameter of the drill bit. The necessary diameter is determined
2
) from the required safe load-bearing capacity of the fixing between the anchor and the
3
) rock, taking an average cohesion of 1.8 MPa between the concrete and the rock of the
borehole
4
) The figures represent 4/3 of the theoretical free space of the borehole
140
hex nut
anchor plate
sheathing
qement gnoat
Section A-A
smooth sheath
grout tube*
smooth sheath
threadban
142
sufficient (see Fig. 13-27). For shaped bars (as used, for example, in the
Dywidag and Bauer systems), the steel/grout bond suffices without any
further measures. The centering of the bar in the borehole must be established
with the aid of spacers which are attached to the bar and shaped so as to glide
easily against the borehole walls when the anchor is inserted. The spacers
must ensure that there is a minimum grout layer of 2 cm covering the steel.
Fig. 13-29. Polensky & Zllner anchor system (PZ). The fixing section of the borehole is
sealed off by two leather collars
a) anchor root, b) tendon, c) anchor head; 1 cable, 2 plastic pipe or insulative
wrapping, 3 sealing collars, 4 grouting pipe leading to fixing section of borehole,
5 grouting pipe for tendon section, 6 de-aeration pipe, 7 helical reinforcement
143
If for a compact concrete the value of the Poisson's ratio is assumed to be 0.17
the transverse stress created by the force of the anchor base has a value
of 1/5. Let us consider by way of example, an anchor of 1,000 kN tension
embedded in a borehole of 15 cm diameter, with a base of the same diameter,
and a 6 cm diameter tendon. In the concrete immediately above the base
of this anchor, a stress of 68 MPa is developed with a transverse pressure
on the borehole wall of 13.5 MPa. This transverse pressure increases the
fixing strength of the anchor in any type of rock; therefore, it is not advantageous to contain the radial pressures acting in a compressed root within
any form of reinforcement, such as a helical coil or a coaxial steel pipe
similarly fixed to the anchor base, as some authors recommend for soils
(Fig. 13-31). A pipe transfers the pressure of the base over a greater length
of the root, and this reduces the stress in the concrete immediately above
the base; at the same time, however, the transveise pressures are contained
by the pipe and the advantage of expansion of the concrete so that it is forcibly
pressed against the borehole wall is lost.
The concentration of stress immediately above the anchor base creates
the possibility of the root concrete being crushed; however, this outcome
144
3
0.8
r-G-7
if a*
^0.3
$0.2
0.7
0
\YaS
\s*
b.
type of the ba
.^
ff=
*/"
1 2
3 * +
length of the base [mj
cannot, apart from exceptional cases, reduce the fixing strength of the anchor
as a whole. Indeed, the Poisson's ratio v, for crushed concrete is less than 0.17
and takes a value similar to that for condensed sand or rock fragments
v = 0.250.33, so that the transverse pressure of the grout increases to a value
within the range ah = 0.33 to 0.5. In the above example of an anchor
of 1,000 kN load, ah would then be 22 to 34 MPa.
The radial pressure exerted on the surrounding rock by both the anchor
root and the borehole filling above the root, decreases progressively towards
the borehole mouth. In spite of this, the overall effect of this pressure is to
produce the chief component of the resistance to extraction of the anchor
from the ground, the most important characteristic of which, particularly
with respect to cohesive and loose soils, is the angle of internal friction.
Thus L. Hobst recommends that for anchoring in soil, the space of the borehole around the anchor above the base should be filled with a wall compacted
gravelly sand showing a continuous granulometric curve. This is preferable
to concrete, unless, of course, concrete is essential for the basic anticorrosive
protection of the anchor. The outward pressure of the borehole filling as
a result of its being compressed by the tensioned anchor base, makes it
possible to exploit fully the internal friction of the soil and gain a high
fixing strength. The validity of this analysis has been demonstrated in
laboratory and field tests.
Where anchors are installed in strong rocks it is technically preferable
to fill the borehole space around the anchor (i.e. above the base and along
the length of the tendon) with concrete, because the concrete, on account
of its good adhesion to the borehole walls, facilitates full exploitation of the
rock shear strength, which is the dominant component of the fixing strength
in strong rock; it also protects the anchor against corrosion (see Chapter 18).
In tensioned roots which are fixed to the tendon along the entire fixing
length of the root (see Fig. 13-30a), there appear transverse cracks close to
the root front, and these can be the cause of steel corrosion. For this reason
the roots of permanent anchors designed in this way are protected by a special
plastic tube extending into the fixing section (Figs. 13-32, 13-33); the tendon
section inside this tube is carefully grouted or filled with resin, and then sealed
smooth
sheathing
Section A-A
corrugated sheathing
Fig. 13-32. Arrangement of permanent rock anchors with double anticorrosive protection
A __ Dywidag single bar anchor, B VSL 9-strand anchor (see Chapter 18)
///
cap
anticorrosive
compound
hex nut
anchor plate
146
either before or after insertion of the anchor into the borehole. A strong
connection of the tendon thus protected with the grout of the root is ensured
by the undulatory surface of the plastic tube. Even if transverse cracks occur
in the filling of the tube, usually after the tendon has been loaded, they are
no longer dangerous since the> are covered by the undamaged wall of the
plastic (Polyvinylchloride or polyethylene) tube (see Chapter 18).
13.2.2.3 Grouted anchors in loose soils
Many procedures have been developed for obtaining anchorage in loose
soils by grouting; an anchor root of the required load-bearing capacity can
be formed without difficulty in these soils, by grouting.
BBRV
'
CON A ~ Sol
Fig. 13-33.-I. Cross-section of tendon and fixing sections of BBRV wire anchors and
CONA-Sol strand anchors for temporary and permanent anchoring (documentation
Stahl Ton, Switzerland)
A temporary anchor, B permanent anchor, C monitored (permanent) anchor,
1 borehole, 2 wire dia 7 mm, 3 strand dia 12.7 mm (0.5 in.), 4 protective plastic
tube (smooth), 5 pipe for primary grouting, 6 pipe for additional grouting, 7 grout
outside the protective tube, 8 grout inside the protective tube, 9 permanent plasticity
compound, 10 spacer, / / corrugated plastic protective tube
147
"
CONA - Sol
Fig. 13-33.-II.
a double anticorrosive protection by means of grout and plastic tube, b protection
by means of 20 mm grout layer, c extra protection by means of steel tube
148
Ot
O
1
O / O
c?
o /
>
4? o
-
O
o
<6
'
SJ
,>
* /
/ '
bit, is grouted in the soil thus forming the anchor root. The outer end of the
drillrod set is then fitted with a threaded endpiece to take the tensioning
nut, and after the grout has hardened the anchor is prestressed in the usual
way. However, such an anchor can only be a temporary one, as the tendon
is not protected from corrosion.
Uninterrupted grouting of a perforated anchoring pipe directly rammed
into the soil is the basis of the MV system (Fig. 13-35). It is most frequently
used in saturated soils of high ground water level for the transfer of tensile,
but more often compressive, forces in emergency work, and in making
improvements to the load-bearing capacity of foundations. Such loadbearing elements of small diameter are often referred to as micropiles.
In other anchoring systems for use in loose soils, the anchor tendons are
placed in cased boreholes, drilled either by rotation or percussion. Very
often the casing pipes are vibrated or rammed into a loose soil, in which
case the end of the pipe is equipped with a shoe which remains in the ground.
The entire anchoring procedure is shown in Fig. 13-36, illustrating the type
patented by the West German Bauer Company. This system uses tendons
149
made of shaped bars which are provided with anticorrosive protection and
placed in cased boreholes. The root and the free tendon length are grouted
from above through the casing pipe, which is gradually pulled out of the
150
ground at the same time. If the tendon, after insertion into the casing pipe,
is screwed into the deposited shoe and provided with a protective coating
along its entire length, then the root is favourably stressed by compression
from below when the anchor is loaded.
Fig. 13-37. Weber anchoring
system used by Stump
Bohr AG
1 assumed shear surface,
2 protective outer
wrapping of the anchorage,
3 double wrapping with
perforations and steel
grouting base (4),
5 prestressed bar (tendon),
6 grouted zone in
a permeable soil, 7 stress
diagram indicating the
varying magnitude of the
shear stress at the surface
of contact between the
anchor base and the
concrete of the anchor root
The Swiss company Stump Bohr AG of Zurich [15] uses the Weber
system, in which the force from the tendon is directly transferred to the
root by compression. A protective tube, made of thin corrugated sheet or
plastic provided with a long grouting steel base at its-lower end, is inserted
into the cased borehole. The steel base is of double thickness, and the
external surface is perforated in the section designated for grouting
(Fig. 13-37). A grout pipe is then screwed into the grouting base. As the
casing is extracted from the borehole, the soil is grouted in the fixing section,
and an anchor root is formed at the lower end of the borehole in conjunction
with the grouting base. When grouting is completed, the grout pipe is unscrewed from the base, and a bar representing the anchor tendon is screwed
on and prestressed. The bar is free between the lower and upper threads,
and is stressed only by tension. In a temporarily anchored structure, the
tendon may be taken out when it is no longer required; the outer protective
sheathing and the base are not recoverable. In the case of a permanent
anchorage, the prestressed bar is grouted in the sheathing or wrapped in
advance with a suitable material to protect it against corrosion.
A more recent anchoring method used by this company is that shown in
Fig. 13-38. A bar anchor provided with an insulative wrapping and a steel
compression member at the base is inserted into the borehole and is grouted
through the casing pipe, as in the Bauer system.
Some anchoring systems used m so:ls successfully adopt the technology
151
154
155
i-1 ni.
'o
Fig. 13-40. IRP anchoring system with sealing bag and collared tube developed by the
Soletanche Company
156
Fig. 13-42. Cross-section of a regrouted body showing the
7 steel bars of the tendon and the centrally located
collared tube for grouting. The white lines are cracks filled
with post-grouting material (documentation of K. Bauer Co.)
root in the soil (Fig. 13-44). The Tubfix system employs a steel collared tube
of sufficient strength to act as the anchor tendon itself. It has only a simple
anticorrosive protection by a grout layer which cannot be increased by
applying a protecting coat, because the fixing strength would then be reduced.
13.2.2.4
The fixing of anchors with long roots in cohesive clayey soils is more
difficult to achieve compared with anchorages in loose soils. It is successful
only when the right technology is applied and when the following principles,
verified both by theory and in practice, are observed:
1. The boreholes should be larger than 10 cm diameter. The load-bearing
capacities of anchors in cohesive soils increases proportionally with the
cross-sectional area of the root, as research results indicate (see Section 13.2.1.2).
157
Fig. 13-44. Anchor installed inside a collared tube which provides for grouting and anticorrosive protection of the bar (Soletanche system)
1 external bar end, 2 nut, 3 retaining wall, 4 smooth protective tube in the free
length section, 5 coupling, 6 grouting rubber collar, 7 collared grouting and protecting
tube, 8 anchor bar tendon, 9 bar fixing base, 10 cap, 11 protecting layer of grout,
12 grouting hole, 13 strengthened tube in the fixing section
2. The boreholes should by drilled with rotary drills, and cased simultaneously to prevent loosening of the borehole walls and excessive exposure of
the clayey soil to the flushing water.
3. The fixing section should be thoroughly cleaned with compressed air
and the root should be grouted as soon as possible after completion of the
boring operation (within 12 hours). It is essential to place centering spacers
in the fixing section of the anchor tendon.
4. The grout should be as thick as possible (maximum w/c, 0.4), and the
pressure as high as possible without rupturing the soil. The pressure should
be maintained until grouting is completed.
5. There should be a facility for re-grouting, allowing the load-bearing
capacity of an anchor in a cohesive soil to be increased by up to 100 %.
6. Anchors in which the tensile stress is transmitted right up to the end
of the fixing section (compressed root anchors) should be used.
By applying the correct procedures good results can be obtained, even
in cohesive soils. For example, ultimate loads of more than 500 kN were
obtained using anchors with long tensioned roots fixed in Frankfurt clays.
The permanent deformation of the clays was up to 20 mm, the consistency
was 0.8 to 0.9, the peak strength parameters were = 20, c = 0.02 MPa,
and the clays were very sensitive to water [23, 24].
158
13.2.3
159
in the graph in Fig. 13-45; the relationship between curing time and temperature is shown in Fig. 13-46. Both graphs are published by the American
Du Pont Company,
Bolts fixed with resin may be prestressefr so as to exert a pressure on the
rock, non-prestressed, in which case the rock is reinforced by the dowel
effect, or they may fulfil both of these functions (Fig. 13-47). To be able
TABLE 13-IV
Limit cohesion of polyester resin with rock
Rock type
Limit cohesion
1.21.6 MPa
1.63.0 MPa
3.05.0 MPa
4.07.0 MPa
36
\l5-30 min.resin
32
28
2k
JO
100
*16
60
1 20
12
\i
\J
10 20 30 40 50 60
cure time [min]
8 \l-2n
im. resin
70
<
0 35 H5 55 65
85 95 F
<65 7.2 12.7 18.2 23.7 29.1 370
temperature
160
lluu*-___\|
KUttwttwwaawwwwwua
mmmmm
unten sioned dowels fully resin grouted
to prestress the bolt it must be fixed only at the inner end of the borehole.
In this case the bolt is not protected against corrosion. However it is possible
to install bolts using fast setting resin for the fixing of the bolt at the inner
end, and slow setting resin as an anticorrosive protection for the remainder.
Such a bolt is prestressed after the curing of the fast setting resin, but before
curing of the slow setting resin. Non-prestressed dowels are fully embedded
in resin and are loaded only when movement of the rock takes place.
Formerly the resin used to be transferred into the borehole by forcing
the compound mixed, so as to have a longer curing time, with a power
pump or hand pump (see Fig. 15-6). Nowadays there is a widespread
use of cartridges "^nich are filled in the factory and which contain resin
and catalyst in, separate plastic wrappings ready for use on the spot
(Fig. 13-48). S u 4 cartridges can be stored for more than six months. They
are usually 30 cm long with a diameter of 20 to 40 mm for boreholes of 22 to
50 mm diameter. They are supplied, for example, by Celtite (Seifix), Du Pont,
Williams, Titan, Dywidag, Nobel Cyanamid Meynadier, Torque Tension,
Lenpir et Mernier, and many other manufacturers.
The entire procedure for fixing a bolt in resin" and prestressing it is
summarized in the following paragraphs. The procedure should be followed
very carefully to ensure success with this method (Fig. 13-49).
Fig. 13-48. A resin cartridge for
insertion into an anchor
borehole
161
Fig. 13-49. Installation sequence of
resin-fixed bolt
1 insertion of resin cartridges,
2 insertion and spinning of bolt,
3 stressing of the bolt after the resin
has cured
V
1. The drilled borehole must be carefully cleaned. It should have the
smallest diameter compatible with the selected bolt and cartridge size.
2. The appropriate resin cartridges are inserted into the borehole. Fastsetting cartridges are placed at the inner end of the borehole so that tensioning
of the bolt is not delayed, while slower setting cartridges are placed in the
remaining length of the borehole to complete the protection of the bolt.
3. The number of cartridges needed, given the diameters of the borehole
and bolt and the length of the latter, are indicated by each manufacturer
in the instructions provided. Damaged or partly set cartridges should not
be used.
4. The bolt is inserted by hand and then spun with a drilling tool so that
it breaks through the cartridges in the borehole. The spinning should continue
for 30 to 60 seconds after the bolt has reached the bottom of the hole to
ensure thorough mixing of the ingredients of the cartridges. The bolts should
be shaped so as to exploit the full strength of the resin.
5. Rotation of the bolt is stopped, and it is then pushed inwards with the
maximum thrust available from the drilling tool, and held in this way for
several minutes until the fast setting resin sets.
6. The bearing plate is mounted and secured with a nut. Wedge washers
are used if the plate is not resting at right angles to the bolt.
7. The bolt is tightened with the nut and stressed with a hydraulic jack,
torque wrench, or impact tool (see Chapter 17). This is done after the fast
cartridges have been allowed to set (5 minutes), but before the slow cartridges
have set (20 minutes).
One hour after installation, the slow resin has set thus locking the tension
of the bolt and giving complete anticorrosive protection together with permanent reinforcement of the rock.
Bolt anchors installed in this way maintain their tension in spite of vibration, or blasting which may be carried out nearby. When such bolts are
162
loaded beyond the failure point of the bond, rupture of the anchorage is
not sudden, but rather the bolt begins to yield very slowly; in fact, the
resistance to extraction may increase as the plug of material, which is moulded
to the shape of the borehole, starts to move and thus pick up fine particles
from the wall of the borehole.
Fiber glass anchoring rods
Reports have appeared during the last decade on the successful employment of glass-reinforced plastic bars as prestressed reinforcement structures,
and therefore also as the elements of anchors. The advantages of such bars
are their resistance to corrosion and the ease of fixing, not only in rock but
particularly also with the use of resins at the anchor head. (Fixing with
grout is not very efficient and is possible only when the bars are threaded
(Fig. 13-50) or a base piece is attached at the end).
Fig. 13-50. Glass-reinforced plastic anchors of various types tested at VUIS. The surface
of the anchor is smooth in the fixing section or threaded and provided with a base
163
The latter components are kept in separate containers, and the rope is housed
on a reel situated below the mixing and mounting head of the equipment.
The fluid components are metred and pumped into the head, which is brought
by the machine near to the roof of the excavation. The components are then
mixed at a point close to the borehole mouth and the rope is pulled through
the head while the plastic compound is pumped into the borehole. The boreholes may be of any length, and need not be straight. The resin in the hole
sets within a few minutes and the machine can then proceed to the next
borehole. This type of bolt is fastened to the rock along its entire length,
is not prestressed, and is fully resistant to corrosion and the effects of shocks
(Fig. 13-51).
13.2.4
Combined cement and base fixing is adopted only where short anchors
(bolts) are used for the stabilization of rock. It provides the advantages of
both mechanical and cementing methods, gives greater reliability of fixing
in the rock, and affords the steel permanent protection against corrosion.
The bolt can be prestressed immediately after installation, and its subsequent
cementing to the rock along the entire length of the borehole prevents any
losses of prestressing of bolt or rock, and enhances the resistance to extraction
of the bolt. The method does not increase the load-bearing capacity substantially,
because the resistance provided by the base and that attributable to the cohesion of the cement do not act simultaneously, but rather in succession, when
the bolt is loaded. Only when the cohesion of the cement is overcome and
fails does the mechanical base take the load. Either grout or polyester resin
are used as the cement. The cement may be introduced into the borehole
before or after installation of the bolt.
Cement of less fluid consistency is placed in the borehole by hand in thin
polyethylene wrappings which are ruptured when the bolt is inserted. Otherwise a hand pump (see Fig. 15-6), or a powered pump and grouting hose
can be used (Fig. 13-52). A wedge-shaped base is most suitable, as this easily
penetrates the cement to the bottom of the borehole. A convenient base for
this purpose is formed by a cross-shaped cleft at the end of a shaped bar,
and a cross-shaped wedge with conical termination (Fig. 13-53). The wedge
bolts are inserted and rammed into the borehole already filled with cement,
using a pneumatic pick of sufficient thrust (see Fig. 13-4).
The borehole may be filled with cement after the insertion, fixing, and
prestressing of the mechanical bolt, by injecting a more fluid mix under
pressure (0.2 0.7 MPa) with the aid of an injecting tube and a pump. The
borehole mouth must be sealed first of all. This procedure ensures a more
thorough filling of the borehole and makes for the strengthening of any
164
fiberglass
roving
polyester
resin
</ borehole
Mechanical
Expanding
Anchorage
Vent Tube
165
jointed rock in its vicinity. If the rock is of compact structure without joints,
allowance must be made for displacement of the air in the outer section of the
borehole (see Fig. 13-52).
A simple combination bolt can be made from thick-walled steel pipe,
threaded at one end and with a cross-shaped cleft and conical wedge at the
other (Fig. 13-54). After the pipe has been rammed on to the wedge resting
at the borehole bottom, the filling of the borehole is carried out through this
hollow tendon. To expedite the filling, the pipe is provided with lateral holes.
A very effective type of combination bolt is offered by the American
Williams Company (Fig. 13-55). Robust expanding shells of various lengths
are used according to the type of rock, and these are fixed against the borehole
walls by turning the bolting rod. The rod consists of a thick-walled pipe of
high-tensile steel, its surface being specially shaped so as to interlock with the
hardened cement and provide the possibility of simple extension of the rod
by means of connecting pieces. Filling is carried out following prestressing
of the bolt, either via the interior of the pipe or by means of a short plastic
tube, always starting from the bottom of the borehole and proceeding outwards. A second tube allows air to escape and indicates the progress of the
filling. For the sealing of the borehole mouth and the grouting itself, the manufacturer supplies special compounds based on quick-setting and expanding
cements, but other materials can be used instead.
13.3 FIXING OF ANCHORS WITH ABUTTING BASES
Anchor roots which are to transmit large tensile forces especially in soils,
should be designed as bases abutting on to load distribution structures built
at, or sunk to, an appropriate depth of the ground (see Fig. 9-13). The load
&
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of Geotechnology of the Czech Technical University, Prague)
section A-A'
167
Load distribution walls and slabs for the abutment of anchor bases must
be placed a sufficient distance back from the anchored structure. This
distance is determined by calculation (see Chapter 22), which must seek to
ensure that there is sufficient resistance to loosening of the ground responsible
for taking over the stresses from the load distribution structures and for
securing the stability of the anchored structure. Reassurance must also be obtained, particularly for shallowly placed abutting structures, that these will not
be deflected towards the surface of the ground when the anchors are prestressed, or when an increase in the load of the anchored structure occurs.
Sometimes, for structural or architectural reasons, the anchor base is
fixed directly in the anchored structure, while the head of the anchor abuts
against a load-distributing wall (see Fig. 22-21).
The use of abutting structures is uneconomical for anchor roots situated
deep under the ground surface. Such roots are formed as bulbs by
concreting the expanded end of the borehole in which the anchor end, spliced
in the shape of a broom or provided with a strongly attached base, is inserted.
In this fixing method the concrete-to-ground bond does not determine the
fixing strength of the anchor, which is more a function of the diameter of the
bulb and the compactness of the rock or soil. It is expedient to increase the
soil compactness wherever technically possible, by injecting the concrete under
high pressure, etc. The fixing of anchors by the expanded root (bulb) method
is relatively little used in practice, but the results of research show that they
168
have a higher load-bearing capacity than anchors with long fixed roots. By
using expanded roots, the length of both borehole and anchor can be reduced.
Tests carried out by L. B. Underwood [214] on the St. Randall Dam site
(USA) showed that anchor fixing by means of a root bulb is more reliable
than methods of long anchor root based on the cohesion of cement. The
tests were performed in a Cretaceous formation, with both horizontal and
vertical boreholes. Seventy five bars were used, each 32 mm in diameter
and equipped with a welded 114 mm diameter base. The diameter of the
boreholes was 152 mm and that of the anchoring cavity 420 mm. The anchors
were tested in 10 loading cycles, and only in the last cycle were they torn out.
The greater reliability of anchors with bulbs was very evident, particularly
under repeated or dynamic loadings.
In Czechoslovakia a series of comparative tests was carried out on expanded and unexpanded roots fixed in sandy clay; the tests are described in
Chapter 10 (see Fig. 10-28).
Roots which are expanded induce by the tension of the anchor pressures
and tensions in the ground, and the pattern of these stresses is similar to
that resulting from a concentrated pressure at the ground surface. The limit
strength of the rock or soil in the vicinity of an expanded anchor root (plate or bulb) is, however, several times greater than the limit strength at the
surface. This fact makes for greater economy in the design and use of these
anchors in practice. An anchor may be designed to take a considerable load
without the necessity of making a large cavity for the bulb at the bottom of the
borehole; it is not necessary to keep the stress loading on the ground around
such a root within limits based on standards for surface loads. In practice it is
possible, and indeed necessary in most cases, to assume that any ground failure takes place adjacent to the root, including the development of fissures near
the base and at the bulb front, and plastic deformation of the entire ground in
the vicinity of the anchor fixing.
However, such changes in the rock or soil only appear at a certain depth
below the ground surface, and extend over a very restricted area; further
propagation is prevented by the strength of the ground around the damaged
zone, there being a rapid decrease in stress with increasing distance from the
fixing position. A failure in the ground next to the anchor base may be
permitted without any risk of the uprooting of the anchor, provided the
fixing depth is selected deep enough, according to the principles outlined in
Chapter 10. This anchoring theory is supported by the results of many tests.
In the tests on the Allt-na Lairige Dam site, described in Section 10.1,
the stress created by the concentrated pressure at the front of the expanded
base reached 188 MPa; similarly a stress of 132 MPa was measured in
anchoring tests in the dolomitic limestones of the Cierny Vh river (see
Section 28.4). Anchoring tests in dry, noncohesive soils in Nosice and
169
Sucany produced stresses of up to 53.5 MPa at the front of the anchor bulb,
while in tests in loess (see Section 10.4) a value of 7.1 MPa was registered.
The concentrated stress created directly at the abutment of the anchor base
on the soil was not, however, the cause of failure in the latter case. The
failure occurred in the loess, because its shear strength was exceeded along
the lateral surface of an inverted cone with its apex at the anchor base [86].
13.3.1
170
The type of soil damage that occurs above the anchor base is governed
not only by the ratio h\d, but also, and more particularly, by the physical
properties of the soil: its compactedness, moisture content, angle of internal
friction, and cohesion, as demonstrated by experiments [71, 133, 145, 187,
104]. For a given set of soil parameters, it is always possible to calculate
theoretically the depth at which local soil damage will change into general
damage on the extraction of an anchor of given base diameter. A similar
calculation can be made with respect to the diameter, d, at constant depth.
The depth of an anchor with an expanded base should be such that under
the maximum load-bearing capacity of the anchor, the transition from total
failure to local failure cannot take place.
In the design of anchors with root bulbs, the physical and mechanical
properties of the soil must be considered first, and it is advisable to carry
out load-bearing tests in this respect (see Section 10.3). The admissible
stress, ac of the soil under coaxial pressure is determined from these load
tests, and the minimum cross-sectional root area that will prevent soil flow
around the root under the required anchor loading, JP, is calculated.
Area of abutting base:
V cr
It is clear from field tests that in good load-bearing ground (hard and
soft rocks, dry non-cohesive soils), a bulb diameter 20 to 50 cm greater than
the borehole diameter is usually sufficient to ensure that the critical load
limit is not exceeded. In saturated and otherwise softer non-cohesive soils,
and also in cohesive soils, the anchor bulb must be wider in order to achieve
a load-bearing fixing. A diameter of 50 to 100 cm is generally required if
the critical stress resistance of the soil, as ascertained in tests, is not to be
overcome (see Section 10.4). The load-bearing capacity of anchors and their
margin of safety, m, are determined by in situ tensile tests carried out prior
to the erection of the structure (see Chapter 17).
To calculate the bearing capacity of anchor foundation bases and inclined
piles, the empirical method may be used as presented by A. S. Kananyan,
M. J. Nikitenko, J. A. Sobolevskij and V. N. Sukhodoev in 1977 [104]. This
method offers the possibility of plotting coincidence diagrams in terms of
non-dimensional co-ordinates after conducting several model test at different
model scales. The principle of approximate model testing is to create a model
171
Fig. 13-57. Load-distributing circular base at the end of an anchor consisting of a bundle
of three bars {Macalloy system)
The anchoring cavity, or, where appropriate, the expanded end of the
borehole must be filled with concrete; the concrete bulb thus created extends
the pathway that the flow of soil grains must follow when local failure of
the soil occurs in the advance zone of an overloaded root. Where the load
distribution plate is embedded directly in the soil, that is, where the borehole
around the plate is back-filled with soil of the same structure, the anchor
can be extracted by a much smaller force, since the flow of soil articles can
occur from the front face of the plate to the rear along a relatively short
pathway. However, in coarse-grained compact gravels, even this method
of fixing provides considerable strength (see Fig. 10-17).
The ends of cable anchors are spread out fan-wise to a length corresponding to the expanded region of the borehole; this guarantees thorough embedding of the individual cable wires in the concrete (Fig. 13-58) and a strong
connection between the tendon and the concrete bulb. The wires also provide
bulb reinforcement. When cable anchors are inserted into boreholes, the
unwound and spread-out wires must be temporarily bound together with
172
mild binding wire to allow the end of the cable to pass easily down to the
anchoring cavity. After insertion, the binding wire is severed and removed,
so that the cable wires spring out at the bottom of the borehole. Breaking
cones are normally used to split the anchor end (Fig. 13-59). In the case of
vertical boreholes, the breaking cones are pressed among the wires at the
end of the anchor cable as the cable comes to rest under its own weight on
the cavity bottom. In oblique and horizontal boreholes, the cones are pressed
into the cable by means of a draw-bar which passes through the axial grout
pipe of the cable, or by removable draw-bars placed at the sides of the
inserted cable. An expanding bag has also been experimented with for
spreading the wires, this being placed among the ends of the wires and attached to the grout pipe passing down the cable axis. The material of the bag
should be thin enough to rupture when the binding holding the wires together
is released. Then free passage of grout into the cavity is ensured.
The fixing of the wires in the concrete of the cavity filling is improved by
the gripping effect of the force R (arising from reaction Q) when the bulb
is under tension (Fig. 13-60). If an anchorage experiences a force P, the
latter is resisted both by adhesion and by the reaction, Q, of the rock, where
173
Fig. 13-59. Spreading cone for prising apart cable anchor ends {Hobst system)
174
In some cases the fixing efficiency of the cable end into the concrete bulb
is further improved by the use of a base (a plate) attached to the anchor end.
Sometimes these bases are made from short pieces of seamless steel pipe
into which the looped ends of the wires are concreted in advance. All the
above-mentioned methods of connecting the anchor to the bulb have been
tested and shown to be reliable.
An interesting method was used at the Muda Dam site in Malaysia [215].
Here, each wire (patented w ; re, 7 mm diameter) of the root section of the
anchor, passed through the tapered hole of a small head, and the heads were
secured at different root levels by small wedges. The system of small anchor
heads created in this way was placed in a slightly tapered mould and embedded
in concrete. When the concrete hardened, the root of the cable was inserted
into the borehole (121 mm diameter) and was grouted in with a cement
slurry (Fig. 13-61). The conical expansion of the root towards the borehole
bottom provided a more efficient anchorage similar to that obtained with
a bulb-shaped root.
175
The most suitable arrangement for an anchor bulb, and the most appropriate method of forming the anchoring cavity, largely depend on the
properties of the rock or soil into which the anchorage is made.
13.3.3
Fig. 13-62. Anchoring cavities formed in a concrete structure by embedding special steel
bases in the concrete (proposed by VUIS)
a) type of base used in the 2ermanice and Orlik Water Projects (Czechoslovakia),
b) type of base used in the Bariri hydro-electric power station (Brazil), 1 300 mm dia.
pipe of 16 mm wall thickness, 2 load distribution cone lowered with anchor, 3 corners
filled with concrete, 4 spreading cone welded to bottom of steel cavity, 5seating plate
In the case of the additional cables installed in order to anchor the guide
vanes of the Bariri hydroelectric power station in Brasil, the anchoring
cavities were made by setting steel structures, as illustrated in Fig. 13-62b,
in the concrete. At the bottom of each cavity a breaking cone was welded
in position so as to spread the cable end.
176
13.3.4
Fig. 13-63. Fixing of cable anchor in cavernous limestone by means of grout-filled linen
bags (ace. to Zajic)
1 anchoring borehole, 2 bundle of patented wires in fixing section, 3 spreader ring,
4 locking sleeve, 5 outline of linen bag after grouting, 6 grout filling of bag,
7 protective PVC tube of anchor tendon, 8 pipe for grouting root, 9 sealing at end
of bag and at end of protective tube, K karst cavities in limestone
13.3.5
In compacted dry gravels and sands, the anchoring cavity is made with
a reamer designed for widening boreholes. In saturated loose soils, making
anchoring cavities is difficult. The walls of the boreholes tend to cave-in
177
when the casings are removed, and the use of a thick drilling fluid is necessary.
An experimental anchoring bulb was made by setting off an explosive
charge placed among the ends of the anchor wires. The experiment was
carried out in a borehole at an angle of 52 to the horizontal, and 0.8 kg
of Perunite 20 explosive was used with double detonating fuses and ignition
wiring. The anchor cable was inserted into the borehole together with a polyethylene grouting pipe. Prior to blasting, the casing was pulled out 150 cm
and the lower part of the borehole was filled with 20 litres of grout. Immediately after the blast, the root was thoroughly grouted with a further
60 litres of cement slurry, and in this way a bulb 100 cm long and maximum
diameter 50 cm, was created (Fig. 13-64). A strength check confirmed that
the cable steel had not been affected by the blast.
When anchors are fixed in coarse non-cohesive soils (grain size over 5 mm),
an anchor bulb of irregular shape can be formed simply by filling the unexpanded borehole with cement slurry under pressure, so that the slurry
penetrates into the surrounding gravel. The cross-section of a root expanded
in this way depends on the permeability of the ground and the grouting
pressure applied. In sands, a substantial increase in root diameter can be
achieved in this way (Fig. 13-65).
An investigation has also been made of the type of material most suitable
for the filling of the borehole above the root O.e. in the tendon section) in
Fig. 13-64. Anchor bulb created by the blast of an explosive charge placed among the ends
of the wires of a cable anchor already grouted in saturated gravel and sand
178
non-cohesive soils. Laboratory and field tests indicated that concrete was
less suitable for this purpose, and that compacted soil of similar composition
to that of the borehole surrounds was much more advisable, since this
increased the anchor fixing strength.
w_
77J777777777777777777777777Z&77777.
179
the tie-bar is drawn laterally so that it cuts through the soil, until it finally
reaches the required position whereupon it is connected to a cable from the
pylon. In tensile tests this anchorage registered a load-bearing capacity of
150 to 160 kN in coarse sand, 100-110 kN in fine sand, and 70&QkN
in loamy sand. The advantage of this method is that it saves time and
excavation work.
13.3.6
Bulb anchors are the best for cohesive soils, because in such soils the
advantage of bulb fixings over unexpanded root fixings is greatest, and also
because cavities made in cohesive soils do not tend to collapse. The cavities
at the ends of the boreholes are made with special drilling tools fitted with
reaming knives, or by exploding small charges in the boreholes (Figs. 13-67
and 68). Drilling poses the problem of how to remove the loosened material
from the cavity as drilling proceeds (see Section 14.2.5). Borehole expansion
180
by blasting is only suitable for deeper anchors, since blasting close to the
surface (i.e. less than about 5 m) causes widespread damage in the surrounding
soil with the result that the fixing strength of the anchor is impaired. A view
of such a cavity formed by blasting is shown in Fig. 14-15. The load-bearing
capacity of bulb anchors depends largely on the area of cross-section of
the anchor bulb, and cavities should therefore have the maximum possible
diameter. For fixing the tendons of large cable anchors in cavities formed
either by blasting or by mechanical means, the spliced end of the cable is
spread, as the cable approaches full insertion, by a cone resting at the bottom
of the cavity; this procedure is followed even in cohesive soils. The cavity
is then grouted. The transverse stresses occurring at the point where the
tendon merges with the root are countered by a strong cable bandage,
formed either by leaving a part of the borehole casing in the lower section
of the borehole, or by inserting a helical reinforcing coil into the upper part
of the cavity. Such measures are not necessary for bar anchors with simple
anchoring bases.
A different type of expanded root anchor fixing has been introduced by
some British companies. Instead of creating one large cavity at the end of
181
the borehole, special drilling and reaming equipment is used to make several
successive borehole expansions of two or four times the shaft diameter,
each with the shape of a truncated cone or bell (Fig. 13-69). The Universal
Anchorage Co. achieved the following service load-bearing capacities of
anchors by this method: 0.25 MN in a clayey soil of cohesion c = 0.1 MPa;
0.50 MN in a gravel and sand soil; 1 to 4 MN in rock, according to rock
type.
The Fondedile Foundations Ltd. prepared for its Multibell anchor system
a guide line of an approximate ultimate load-bearing capacity as shown in
Table 13-V. A safety factor of 3 is generally applied for permanent, and
of 1.5 to 2 for temporary, anchorage.
TABLE 13-V.
Ultimate load capacity of Fondedile Multibell anchors
Number of bells
2
3
4
5
6
7
Bell
Bell
Bell
Bell
Bell
Bell
anchors
anchors
anchors
anchors
anchors
anchors
200 kN/m2
400 kN
590 kN
790 kN
980 kN
1,180 kN
1,380 kN
660 kN
980 kN
1,310 kN
1,640 kN
1,970 kN
2,300 kN
520 kN
790 kN
1,050 kN
1,310 kN
1,540 kN
1,830 kN
Test results on these Multibell anchors in typical London clay are presented
in Fig. 13-70. A root in service having seven bells as shown in Fig. 23-17.
The excavated root of a Universal anchorage Co. bar anchor is shown
in Fig. 13-71.
The increased load-bearing capacity of anchors with roots consisting of
a succession of bulbs results from the greater area of contact developed
between root and soil when the anchor is pulled out. By increasing this area,
it is possible to increase the loading force on the anchor before the ultimate
stress, acr9 is reached, this stress being critical for the security of the anchor
against extraction of the root by cutting through the soil (see Section 10.4).
This stress is the governing factor in the determination of the fixing strength
in soils of lower strength. An increase in the number of bulbs in an expanded
root has, at least in the initial stages of prestressing, about the same effect
as an increase in bulb cross-section. Forming a greater number of smaller
cavities is technically easier than creating a single large cavity at the borehole end.
182
7 bell anchor.
'c'valueof
jJay-MktUffl2
5 beJUa/fcbor 2
c MkH/m
3be//anchor
c- I70kfl//n2
10
20 30
0 50
Extension in millimetres
The studies of L. Hobst have shown that the resistance of the soil medium
as a whole against extraction of the anchor is not increased substantially when
multiple bulbs are used in place of single larger bulbs. The conical shear
surface develops only above the upper bulb of the series. The soil which is
displaced by the movement of the lower bulbs, is transferred into the space
vacated by the upper bulbs and does not contribute substantially to the
fixing strength of the anchor.
The manufacturers of Multibell anchors usually recommend to design
these anchors under the assumption that failure of clay occurs along the
cylinder defined by the tangents of the bells and containing all the bells.
Thus if the shear strength of the clay is known, the number of bells and
their depth may be determined by simple calculation.
Chapter 14
D R I L L I N G OF A N C H O R
BOREHOLES
184
U'sA
f l f t l * ! ^..V.
force selected by the operator (see also Fig. 20-21 and Chapter 20). For
a smaller volume of work a light mobile drill (Fig. 14-4) may be very
useful.
185
186
14.2 BOREHOLES OF LARGE DIAMETER AND LENGTH
Fig. 14-5. Rotary drilling set (Hausherr Co.) in use for making slanting boreholes for
anchoring the walls of construction pits (documentation of Soletanche Co.)
(Fig. 14-6), viz. axial thrust and rotational torque. Percussion drills (Fig. 14-7)
penetrate the rock by the action of repeated impulse blows, usually from a chisel or wedgeshaped bit with hammer and drill rods. The torque, rotational
speed, and thrust requirements are significantly lower for rotary percussion
systems than they are for rotary systems. The flushing media most commonly
used to remove particles of rock from the drill bit are air, water or "mud", the
latter usually being a suspension of bentonite in water.
187
Fig. 14-6. Wirth B-O rotary drilling set with auger bit, in use in loamy deposits
(photo Geotest)
, friftL
JP^ 1flPw*U
!1 B I BidNiliii^iiiilSsii!!
jBHKHBBiii!
e^t"
Fig. 14-7. Tamrock percussion drilling jumbo with three booms for use in underground
excavations
188
Suitable drilling equipment must be selected with regard to the type and
quality of the rock, the diameter and length of the borehole, the accessibility
of the anchoring site, the type of flushing medium to be used, the anchor
type, and the required drilling rate of the machine. The rock type and the
dimensions of the boreholes are the most important factors in most cases.
A guide to the most suitable drilling method for a particular type of rock
and diameter of the borehole is given by the diagram in Fig. 14-8 compiled
3^
Co
S-
<-o
ry
rota
^ }
\D-T-H
300
1
J
^rt -\200\
11
^ 1
A
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/e
percuss]
I,
^
^
... _..
189
mm
-
.WE I
.*#*^v*1
's?
Fig. 14-9. Drilling of boreholes using core drilling equipment supplied by Stump Bohr AG
of Switzerland; the placement of the anchors in casings is shown
|00
200
300
percussive-rotary
-|
drills
__L
rotary
JL
4-
diamond
drills
drills
J
190
Fig. 14-11. Double drilling
system using a drill rod set and
casing, introduced by the
Sandvik-Coromant Co. of
Atlas Copco, Sweden
of the wagon drill type, drilling 100 mm boreholes in strong rocks, with air
flushing, attain rates of 5 to 15 m per hour. Rotary core drilling machines
work at half this rate at best. The drilling rate depends on a number of factors
including the condition of the machine and drill bits, the flushing method
employed, the air pressure (in pneumatically driven machines), the torque
developed (in rotary machines), and the rock type and borehole diameter.
The power output needed to drill a borehole in a particular rock is referred
to as the drillability of that rock. This characteristic is largely dependent
upon the hardness of the rock; usually, the harder the rock the more difficult
is the drilling. Drillability, however, also depends on the mineral composition, the strength of the rock, the grain size, porosity, stratification, and
density and direction of the joints, etc. No generally accepted procedure for
determining the drillability of rocks has yet been worked out. The best
known test for establishing the coeffic;ent of rock strength was published by
Protodyakonov [169] and subsequently modified by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines (1968). Basically it involves fracturing rock samples by an impact of
known value, and then weighing the broken pieces.
14.2.3
Flushing
The flushing method used may markedly influence both the rate of
drilling and the quality of the borehole. Air flushing is the most commonly
used method for percussion drilling and roller bits. It is highly efficient in
dry rocks, and may also be used in moist situations if a sufficient quantity
191
of air is available, although its efficiency does not differ greatly from water
flushing in the latter case. Water flushing is used mostly in rt>tary core drilling;
it results in clean boreholes and makes for a good grout-rock bond, even
where percussion drilling is employed in moist rock or saturated noncohesive soil. On the other hand, if water flushing is used in clays, marls,
and other cohesive soils, it must be reduced to a minimum because the
flushing causes a deterioration of the mechanical properties of these soils
and reduces the shear resistance at the anchor root surface. The design length
of the anchor borehole must be extended by 30 to 70 cm to create a "sump"
for the debris and mud which cannot be removed by the flushing. When
drilling is terminated, it is important that flushing of the borehole is continued
from the bottom up for at least 10 minutes [120].
14.2.4
The accessibility and situation of the anchoring site may be the decisive
factors in the selection of the drilling method and type of drilling machine.
Considering that the anchors are usually arranged in parallel lines, a drilling
machine mounted on a wheeled undercarriage is an advantage (see
Figs. 14-4, 12), the more so if it can be power driven from one anchor position to another. Drilling machines mounted on crawler tracks need to be used
on the uneven and unreliable floors of foundation pits (see Figs. 14-5, 6).
Machines for drilling anchor boreholes must be able to drill at any angle
from the horizontal to the vertical up to a height of 2 m above the base.
Percussion drilling machines present difficulties in built-up areas because
of the noise produced. The admissible noise limit in urban areas is 70 dBA
at a distance of 15 m from the source of the noise. The use of percussion
drilling machines with air flushing is forbidden in subterranean rooms on
account of the great quantity of dust which is produced. In both types of
situation, percussion machines are being replaced by rotary drilling sets with
water flushing.
Frequently the need to drill boreholes from a scaffolding arises. Provided
the location is accessible, and a heavy, rigid scaffolding can be constructed
with a load-bearing capacity of at least 5 kN/m 2 , then equipment of the
wagon drill type weighing about 1,000 kg can be mounted and used from
this scaffolding (Fig. 14-12). The horizontal forces created by these machines
are not very great and therefore can be withstood easily by the scaffolding
and mounted working platform. Drilling becomes more complicated in
places with poor accessibility such as steep rocky slopes, where only light or
possibly suspended scaffolding can be erected. In these situations, only the
lightest drilling sets can be used, and they have to be transported and
assembled by hand on the scaffolding. In such cases, light, simple, electrically
192
Fig. 14-12. Bhler ET 11/35 percussion drilling machine, placed on a scaffolding and
making anchoring boreholes of 70 mm in diameter and 25 m long in limestone
193
Fig. 14-13. Drilling boreholes
on a steep rock slope near the
Tetin ruin (Czechoslovakia)
a) scaffolding on the steep
slope above the railway line,
194
Fig. 14-14. Drilling short anchoring boreholes from a scaffolding on a rock slope using
aPermon VK 22 light drilling machine (diameter of boreholes 45 mm, length 7 m; phonolite)
A number of tools of varying complexity and efficiency have been developed for expanding a borehole to four times the original shaft diameter,
Thus, for example, the French Soletanche Company uses equipment shaped
like a core barrel, which, depending on the sense of rotation, either extends
or retracts the longitudinal reaming knives. The device cuts a barrel-shaped
cavity. The Calweld company supplies a very similar tool for producing larger
borehole diameters. There is one problem common to all reaming equipment,
i.e. that of the continuous extraction of the reamed material from the borehole. Unless the work is done very carefully, the borehole may sometimes
become overfilled, so that the jaws or knives cannot be retracted and the tool
becomes jammed in the borehole. The extending knife (wing) of the West Ger-
195
196
Fig. 14-15. View of a cavity made in a 137 mm dia. borehole in sandy clay by a charge of
150 g Semtex 186. Note the cracks in the cavity face
Permeability testing of anchor boreholes is often demanded after completion of the drilling operations. The most suitable type of grout for the fixing
of the anchor and its anticorrosive protection, the volume of grout required,
and the most appropriate grouting pressure may be reliably established from
the loss of water in the permeability test. If the losses are considerable, the
permeable ground must be sealed first of all with a thick grout, and then the
197
Chapter 15
GROUTS AND METHODS
OF G R O U T I N G A N C H O R B O R E H O L E S
Most anchors are either bonded with the ground, or are protected
by a fluid cement mix (slurry), which on hardening forms a strong filling
of the borehole, and may also strengthen the immediate rock or soil. The
strength of the bond and the effectiveness of the anticorrosive protection
depend very much on the composition of the mix, the thoroughness of its
preparation, and the method used to forward it into the anchor borehole.
These grouts are usually prepared from ordinary good quality Portland
cement and clean water with or without the addition of fine-grained sand.
The Portland cement should be fresh (not older than one month) and high
grade (at least 300). The quality of cement deteriorates with age and is reduced
by damp or over-hot storage, or storage in large quantities.
The mixing water should be of the right quality. Water with a high content
of sulphate (more than 0.1 per cent), chloride (more than 0.5 per cent),
sugars, or suspended organic matter, is not suitable. Generally, any water
which is suitable for drinking can be used for cement [120].
The sand used in the grout mixture should be fine (up to 2 mm grain size)
and clean, without any loamy content. Sand is added to the cement in a weight
ratio of 1 : 1 to 1 : 2.
The weight ratio of water and cement is particularly important for the
quality of a cement grout. Excess water results in bleeding of the mix and
low strength, as well as greater shrinkage and lower durability of the
hardened grout. The strength of hardened grout in relation to the water/
cement ratio is shown in Fig. 15-1 and 15-2. Experience shows that the most
suitable water/cement ratio for grouts used in the fixing of anchors lies
within the range 0.4 to 0.45. At these ratios, the grout is still sufficiently
fluid for pumping, and penetrates easily into small openings and pores; the
hardened grout is sufficiently strong and waterproof, showing little shrinkage.
Additives can be put in grouts to accelerate or retard setting, to prevent
shrinkage of the grout in the course of setting, to induce expansion, to
increase the fluidity of the mix at low water/cement ratios, to prevent bleeding
199
*>20
10
3 4 5 7 10
time [days]
2d
of the mix, etc. The additives and respective dosages required to bring about
the above-mentioned effects, are shown in Table 15-1.
When additives are used, good quality grout is of particular importance.
A combination of several types of additive with the intention of obtaining
a combined effect is not recommended. It may be stated generally that
experience in the use of grout additives is still very limited. Additives should
therefore be used only when absolutely necessary, and then very careful
preparation and control of the grout becomes essential. Additives for grouts
are currently available under special trade marks; e.g. VSL Companies use
Sica-Intracrete additives for anchoring grouts [122].
Apart from ordinary Portland cements, special sulphate-resistant and
TABLE 15-1
Additives for grouts [120]
Additive
Active chemical
or mineral constituent
Optimum dosage
(% of cement
by weight)
Remarks
Accelerator
Calcium Chloride
1-2%
Retarder
0.20.5 %
Expander
Anti-bleed
Calcium
Lignosulphonate
Aluminium powder
Cellulose Ether
0.0050.02 %
0.20.3 %
Fluidifier
Bentonite
2-3%
Accelerates setting
and hardening
Retards setting
and increases fluidity
up to 15 % expansion
Equivalent to 0.5 %
of mixing water
Also acts as anti-bleed
200
The following basic rules according to Littlejohn and Bruce [120] must
be observed in preparing good quality cement grout:
a"i the cement and the filler (sand), if applicable, must be measured by
weight;
b) water in the quantity required for the most suitable water/cement
ratio must be transferred to the mixer before the cement (and fillers);
c) any additive should be placed in the mixer, carefully measured out,
during the latter half of the mixing time;
d) although the mixing time depends on the type of mixer, it should not
be less than 2 minutes.
Mixing grout by hand should be avoided.
The mixers used for the preparation of grout must ensure perfect intermixing of the cement, and must be able to produce grout of uniform consistency. This can best be achieved in small, rapidly rotating mixers with
speeds of 1,500 2,000 rpm. The Swedish Cemag mixer of the Atlas Copco
Company (capacity 175 litres, weight 255 kg, Fig. 15-3), or the English
Colcrete mixer, satisfy these requirements. After mixing the grout should
be stored in a special tank and slowly agitated before use. Such a storage tank
is shown in Fig. 15-3.
The mixers, pumps, and delivery pipes should be kept scrupulously clean
to ensure optimum output and smooth operation. The equipment must be
attended to throughout the operation in case obstructions occur in the filters,
the delivery outlets of the mixing vessels, or the bends and couplings of the
pipes. Delivery pipes with an inside diameter of 12 to 35 mm are used;
these are made of flexible material rather than steel, since this allows the
position of any obstruction to be found without delay.
201
Fig. 15-3. Complete grouting equipment of the Swedish Atlas Copco Company in service
in a gallery (from left: ZHS pump, Cemag 350 mixer, Cemix 75 storage tank and batching
vessel for water)
The method of forwarding the cement mix into the borehole must guarantee
complete envelopment of the anchor and filling of the borehole; if necessary,
it must also result in a strengthening of the surrounding ground.
15.3.1
Hand-filling of boreholes
202
borthok
Fig. 15-5. The grout contained in a tube of thin plastic material is pushed by the bolt into the
borehole
203
hardening of the grout, all these components aie bonded together. In other
cases, a tube made of fine-meshed wire netting has been used [105], the
grout being pressed into it quickly and easily from the sides.
Elastic tubes of polyamide, which are very cheap, have been used successfully for the transport of fluid grout. Bsing smooth and pliable, these tubes
circumvent borehole irregularities more easily than rigid tubes made from
metal sheet or glass. They are supplied in a range of diameters and can be
used for fillings up to a length of 80 cm, although several lengths can be
inserted one after another. When the filled tube has been pushed to the end
of the borehole by the bolt (Fig. 15-5), the wrapping bursts under no more
than hand pressure, the grout escapes, and the wrapping is pushed at the tip
of the bar to the borehole bottom. A conical collar of soft rubber, previously
slipped on to the bolt bar, prevents backflow of the thin grout as the bar is
inserted, delimits the fixing section, centres the bar in the borehole, and holds
the bolt and grout, even in an upward-directed roof borehole, until the
grout becomes hard [228].
Another simple method is based on the bicycle pump principle. By moving
a rubber piston in a plastic tube, fluid grout is drawn in from the supply
vessel and then pumped into the borehole (Fig. 15-6). Then the bar fitted
with a sealing collar is inserted. However, this kind of pump is only practical
for filling short boreholes up to 2 metres long.
Fig. 15-6. Forwarding grout into a borehole by means of a plastic hand-operated air-pump
204
205
For a smaller volume of work, and for places of difficult access including
underground galleries, grout-making facilities assembled from light-weight
units (see Fig. 15-3) so as to be easily movable, are more convenient. A complete Many grouting set-up mounted on a steel frame is shown in Fig. 15-7,
and another type mounted on wheels is shown in Fig. 15-8. The special
light-weight portable Spedel mixers and pumps weigh only 15 kg. They are
driven pneumatically, producing a pressure of up to 2 MPa at which the
output is 20 litres per minute.
The grout is forwarded from the pump to the borehole through pressure
rubber hose, and for the greater part of the length of the borehole, it is passed
through a plastic pipe of inside diameter 12 to 25 mm, depending on the
206
operating pressure and the grouting method used. The grout pipe leading
to the root is located within the anchor tendon or alongside the insulating
wrapping, as far as the remote end of the anchor root. This pipe is usually
short of the borehole bottom by 150 mm, and its end is protected from
clogging while it is being inserted into the borehole together with the anchor.
The pipe is attached to the anchor with adhesive tape at intervals of 1 to
2 metres, and remains in the borehole after grouting. Only where the anchor
is short and the borehole narrow, is the pipe inserted independently. After
the borehole has been filled under low pressure, the pipe is extracted and the
anchor is inserted. When the grouted section is sealed off with a collar or
bag (or sometimes only a concrete sealing plug at the mouth of the borehole),
air must be allowed to escape from this section through another, smaller
diameter pipe leading from] the top end of the section to the borehole
mouth. Outflow of grout from this pipe is a reliable sign that the section
is full. This breathing pipe must then be closed before the pressure is further
increased. If there is to be separate grouting of the sealing bag, the tendon
207
208
0/f
-7
.35
^0.25\
S 0.75
^ 0-1
0.05
.0.2
1\k
/J
lUnt
/m
7
injection
2
3
pressure
4
[MPa]
Chapter 16
FIXING OF A N C H O R S TO T H E A N C H O R E D
STRUCTURE
/ \
1~ T $ 3 L ^
^=.
.--3
*
*
1*
I
-J
**
r* '
\o"
I. o
of cable anchors by concreting the ends of the cables into strong anchoring
heads (Fig. 16-4) is less frequently practiced now on account of the lengthy
preparation involved, although the method has many advantages to recommend it. Factory production of these heads is simple, and they are
cheaper than locking heads, particularly where large prestressing forces are
intended; more important than this is that these heads provide the best
anticorrosive protection (see Chapter 18). A special type of end piece is the
BBR V head, in which the cables are fixed by the forging of knobs at the wire
ends (Fig. 16-5).
210
'
, anchor plate
/de -aerating hole
vring nut
.grout
pipe
B-B
A-A
46.3
211
16.1 A N C H O R S F I X E D BY NUTS
Nuts are used for securing bar anchors and those types of cable anchors
that are provided with clamping or solid heads (see Figs. 16-3, 5, 21, 22 and
Section 16.3). The threads which are to take the nuts are pressed on to the
anchoring bars rather than cut, as this latter method reduces the mean
anchor diameter. The nuts rest on steel washers which distribute the compressive stress over the surface of the structure or rock.
The headplates which are placed on the concrete surface of the anchored
structure are made of thick sheet (Fig. 16-6) and are square-shaped, with a hole
in the centre for the anchor and perhaps further holes for the grouting or
de-aerating pipes (see Fig. 16-3). Some systems employ specially shaped plates
with turned saddles which make for the exact seating of nuts with shaped
seating surfaces (Fig. 16-7).
Of particular importance is the shape of the washers placed between the
nut and the rock surface, because this shape markedly affects the function
of the anchor and the maintenance of the prestressing of the anchor when
used to secure underground excavations. Washers which are either plane or
inclined at 30 to the rock surface are suitable only for the plane roof faces
of galleries in bedded rocks. On the uneven faces of hard rocks in other
types of underground excavations, the nuts or bars may be seated excentrically
if such washers are used; this creates unfavourable loading of part of the bolt
by a bending moment, and reduces its load-bearing capacity. In addition, the
prestressing operation is more difficult and errors may occur in the application
of torque spanners. Accurate centering of the bolt in the borehole and uniform
distribution of the transmitted force over the rock surface can only be
212
The South African firm of Roof bolts S. A. Ltd. has developed a special
washer for fixing bar anchors on to rock surfaces. This washer is slipped
on to the unthreaded bolt rod, and after prestressing, the washer grips the
rod strongly and reliably by a self-locking effect; this fixing thus belongs to the
next category of anchor heads (locking heads). The triangular curved shape
of this washer guarantees support at three points on the rock surface. A given
tilt of the thickened part of the washer with respect to the anchor rod corresponds to a particular tensile force in the anchor; thus, the washer also
acts as a check on the stress within the bolt (Fig. 16-8). Bolts fitted with these
heads are capable of supplementing prestress, if required.
213
Locking heads are mainly used for fixing cable anchors composed of
straight wires, or single and multiple strand anchors. The locking effect
is obtained by means of wedges or truncated cones, which are pressed among
the wires or cable strands and forced during the prestressing into tapered
holes in steel bearing plates. Locking heads (functioning by the effect of
friction) do not project on the surface of the structure. The length of the
cable can easily be adapted according to the dimensions of the structure.
Manipulation of this type of head is simple, no time is needed for the concrete
to harden, and these heads do not require the special attention demanded
by other systems (e.g. protection of the threaded parts from damage during
transport and fitting).
For the anchoring of cables composed of straight wires, heads consisting
of a sleeve and cone are used; the cone is pressed among the wires and into
the sleeve by hydraulic force when the required prestressing is applied
(Fig. 16-9, see also Fig. 12-4). This system does not permit any post-fixing
adjustment of the anchor prestressing, a problem which has been solved,
for example, by the firm of Polensky & Zllner (GFR) who secure the wires
in a reversed anchoring head (see Fig. 16-3). The anchoring cone is tapered
outwards, continuing as a screw to which the stressing equipment is attached;
the screw also holds the nut which secures the anchoring head in its final
214
^?jfiSi
Fig. 16-9. Anchor head for 1 MN anchors Horel system in service on a rock slope
215
by a securing nut to the outer threaded surface of the sleeve. When the
required anchor prestressing is reached, the ring-nut is tightened with
a spanner against a strong washer on the anchored structure and the prestressing equipment is disconnected from the anchor head.
In neither of the arrangements mentioned above are there prestressing
losses as a result of slipping, as occurs in locking heads when the cable end
is fixed by the action of the cones; the prestressing can also be easily adjusted
at a later stage. In spite of the fact that the fixing equipment is more complicated and requires careful maintenance, both of these methods are in
common use.
The same type of head is sometimes used for the fixing of anchors composed of strands (Fig. 16-11). In order to ensure reliable fixing of each of the
strands of the cable, various modifications have been devised to prevent
the slipping of individual strands.
0W7
^^^
^^^^M
y^
11.5
f^^f^
->
"
Segmented heads of the VUIS type are used in Czechoslovakia for the
fixing of multiple rope anchors. Using these, load-bearing capacities of up
to 1 MN may be obtained for seven strand anchors ( 7 x 7 wires diameter
6 mm; or 7 x 19 wires diameter 4.5 mm (Fig. 16-12)).
The PSC head, used in Great Britain for fixing cables, follows the Freyssinet system and consists of a conical ring into which a bevelled cone fits.
On the inner surface of the ring and on the surface of the cone, grooves are
formed so as to interlock with the anchoring rope surface when the rope is
clamped in the grooves (Fig. 16-13).
216
The CCL system (Fig. 16-14) can be used for various types of multi-strand
cable, but cables composed of seven strands, each 12.7 mm in diameter, are
recommended as the most suitable type, although cables composed of
a larger number of strands can also be accommodated. A special feature
of the system is that each rope is prestressed and fixed separately, using
light-weight equipment in which the end of the rope passes through the axis
of the prestressing jack cylinder. The system developed at the VUIS, Bratislava (Czechoslovakia), in which the cable is prestressed by taking pairs
of ropes, has a similar design (Fig. 16-15).
Another proven type of head consists of a plate against which cylindrical
components (collars) attached to each of the individual ropes abut (Fig. 16-16).
108+153 mm
O
Fig. 16-15. Anchor head in which strands are stressed in pairs {VUIS system)
217
Fig. 16-16. Fixing of the cable
In these systems the individual strands are prestressed one by one with light
prestressing guns, or all together with a set of several such guns (Chapter 17).
Individual prestressing of the cables is also a feature of the Stress Block
system (Fig. 16-17), which differs from the latter systems only with respect
to the arrangement of the cable ropes and the shape of the head. Ropes
12,7 mm in diameter are assembled in triads into bundles of up to 45 ropes
(5.1 MN) with a rectangular cross-section overall. Parallelism of all the
cable ropes is ensured by using spacing grids, which also make for uniform
envelopment of all the ropes with grout.
In all the types of head described in the foregoing, the anchorage was
fastened to the head by the locking effect of various shaped wedges, cones, or
segments, inserted so as to press the wires or strands of the anchor against
218
The head for 12 ropes is star-shaped and rests on a mild steel bearing plate
cast into the concrete (Fig. 16-19b). The wedges or conical segments are
designed and inserted into the stressing equipment in such a way as not to
obstruct release of prestressing tension after completion of the prestressing;
this is essential, particularly when soil and rock anchors are prestressed
(see Section 17-6). The heads are padded only in those cases in which anchors
have to be later re-stressed in order to compensate for losses of stress caused
by creep of the ground.
219
16.3 IMMOVABLE ANCHORING HEADS
Immovable anchoring heads were used in the early days of the application
of rock anchorage, when large cable anchors were fixed to the surfaces of
anchored structures; however, with modifications and simplification of
assembly, these heads are still useful in many present-day types of anchorage.
Immovable heads are made either of prestressed concrete, or of steel cast
in a shell-like form, and are filled with white metal or concrete after having
been mounted on the external end of a bundle of wires. Cable ends such as
those of cableways and suspension bridges, can also be fitted with these
anchor heads. The heads are conical inside. The fixing of wires is achieved
by cohesion and the transverse pressures created by the pulling-in of the cone
of wires and white metal into the cast steel head. Alloys with a smelting
point of not more than 330 C are used for the cast around the wires, otherwise the wires may be damaged by overheating.
Steel buckets filled with grout are often used to make strong anchor heads,
and good results have been obtained with these at Czechoslovak dam sites
for the surface fixing of steel ropes, prestressed to 4 MN (see Fig. 16-4).
The buckets are 50 cm deep, have a seating area of 45 cm diameter, and an
11 cm diameter opening for the cables.
A reinforced concrete anchoring head may also be created by embedding
the spread end of a cable consisting of straight wires in concrete (Fig. 16-20).
The transverse tensile stresses in the head and the shear stresses brought
about by the pull of the anchor tendon are taken up by helical (and also
sometimes radial) reinforcements. The manufacture of these reinforced
concrete anchor heads is a labourious process, and heads of this type are
only suitable for the largest cable anchors, with carrying capacities of
7 - 1 2 MN (see Section 24, the Cheurfas Dam).
All types of immovable head must be supported on suitable headplates
in position before the anchor is prestressed, although some types of fixed
anchor head are provided with a thread and nut for that purpose.
In the SEEE system (Societe d'Etudes et d'Equipements d'Enterprises),
special heads are used which are fixed by being pressed on to the outer end
of the anchor cable (Fig. 16-21). The rope ends are inserted into thick-walled
steel tubes of certain specified properties, and the tubes are then pressed to
a smaller diameter. Thus, for example, a tube 500 mm long and 108 mm in
diameter, after being pressed, forms an anchor head 620 mm long and 94 mm
in diameter. In some cases a helical coil is inserted around the rope in the
tube in order to increase the strength of the fixing. When the tube has been
pressed on to the rope, a fine thread is cut or pressed on its surface. Following
prestressing of the anchor a nut is screwed on to this thread and tightened
against the load distribution plate on the front of the structure. SEEE pre-
220
Fig. 16-20. Reinforced concrete anchor head for cable
of straight wires
1 head, 2 load-distributing steel plate, 3 steel
washers, 4 reinforced concrete props
W2
5
MM
WKKKeKHmKm
Fig. 16-21. SEEE system heads of different lengths
Fig. 16-22.
Baudin Chteaimeuf
fixing system
/ rope, 2 resting plate,
3 anchor head,
4 stressing head,
5 helix reinforcement,
6 casing, 7 cast-in
metal, 8 compression of
ropes by jaws
stressing units are designed to withstand forces of 1.12 and 2.75 MN. In the
first case they are constructed of a single rope with 61 regular lay wires of
4.1 mm diameter, and in the second case the unit consists of 19 ropes, each
of7 wires 3.6 mm in diameter. The anchoring heads of this system can be
prepared entirely in the workshop; their assembly for prestressing, and the
initial and subsequent (adjustment) prestressing operations are simple.
The Baudin Chteauneuf system (Fig. 16-22) was also developed in
France. Here a special type of head is used for fixing ropes. To form the head,
the rope is held at two points in the jaws. When these are closed somewhat5
221
the wires of the rope between the two holding positions are loosened and
a bulge is formed; the bulge is then covered with a thin-walled protecting
tube and the wires are cast inside.
Prestressed units of this system have a loading capacity of 5 MN or more,
and are supplied to the site, complete, in coils.
The BBR V heads are much used on structures made of prestressed concrete. They are designed for cables composed of wires and are mounted
on the anchors during manufacture in the workshop. The ends of the wires
are slipped through holes drilled in the anchor head, and cold forged
in specially designed equipment. When long anchors are assembled, the
heads are inserted into the expanded mouth of the fixing hole to a depth
such as to obviate padding of the head with thick plates after prestressing.
If the depth of the head has been correctly calculated, the head will be located
at the surface of the structure after prestressing. Safe seating of the anchor is
achieved with the aid of a ring screwed on to the anchor head. The new
position of the anchor head after additional prestressing is also set by turning
this ring. For shorter anchors, the heads are padded after prestressing with
annular washers split in halves (Fig. 16-23).
a)
b)
222
Chapter 17
P R E S T R E S S I N G AND T E S T I N G OF A N C H O R S
Anchors may be stressed to the production load or the testing load. The
production load of an anchor is given by the working (admissible) force, Pw9
calculated according to the static analysis; the anchor must be able to sustain
this force throughout its entire service life. The production stressing of an
anchor usually corresponds to this force. The working force must be extended
by some safety margin before the anchor's ultimate state is reached, as
determined by the point of failure of one of its main components (breaking
strength failure), or the exceeding of the admissible deformation (e.g. yielding
failure of the tendon steel).
The safety margin is determined from the results of basic anchor tests, or
it is laid down by a standard code of practice drawn up in the country
concerned. A range of safety factor values, compiled from accessible Standards
and recommendations, is listed in Table 17-1:
224
TABLE 17-1
Safety factors for establishing Pw
With regard to the ultimate strength of anchor steel
1.652.00
1.331.65
With regard to the ultimate strength of the anchor root in rock or soil
1.601.70
225
A.max = 1-20l.50Pw
= 0.700.85PS
= 0.900.95Py
Temporary anchors
, = 1.151.25,
= 0.700.85PS
= 0.90IMP,
226
demanded that stabilization of the anchor (no further change in the displacement) has occured by the end of the test period (see more detailed test), or
that a predetermined total allowable displacement has not been exceeded
( 1 - 2 mm). If this condition is fulfilled, the anchor load is decreased to P 0 ,
and the drop in the displacement at the anchoring head is recorded, thus
giving the elastic and permanent components of the total displacement. Then
the anchor is loaded by the working force Pw9 increased by the assumed losses
caused by friction and relaxation (usually 0.1PJ, and the anchoring head
fixed.
The results of the test are presented in a report, which contains all data
concerning the dimensions and installation details of the anchor, and the
values obtained in the test. The report includes the load-displacement
diagram, plotted from the measured values (Fig. 17-1). The total displacement is divided into permanent and elastic components. If the measured
elastic displacement lies between the points Bx and B2, then the free length
of the anchor tendon corresponds to the designed length and the transmission
of forces to the anchor root corresponds to the assumptions made in the
design. The two points, Bx and B2, represent the calculated elastic deformation
of the tendon free length, reduced by 20 per cent (point BJ, and increased
by a half of the root length (point B2). For anchors in which the tendon
is fixed to a steel base at the extreme end of the root and is insulated up to
p
t-ma*
l0Qd
permanent
displacement
line
boundary fine 1
elastic displacement
tine
total displacement
line
boundary line 2
B2
Fig. 17-1. Load-displacement diagram obtained during a simple acceptance test of an anchor
227
this fixing point, the points and B2 are given by the free length of the
tendon multiplied by-4he coefficients 0.9 and 1.1, respectively.
The elongation of the steel tendon under a given load is calculated from
the equation
P.L
where P = tensile force acting on the anchor,
L = the free length of the tendon, multiplied by the coefficient for
Bx or B2,
E the modulus of elasticity for tendon steel,
A = the area of cross-section of the tendon steel.
Detailed acceptance test
Most Standards stipulate detailed tests on a minimum number of production anchors. Usually this concerns the first (3 1.0) anchors installed at the
site, and thereafter one or more anchors from each group of 10 to 25 subsequently installed, or a percentage (5 per cent, on average) of the total
number of production anchors at the site. In this acceptance test the loading
starts with the initial force P0, and is increased gradually to the maximum
testing force. Usually there are 4 to 5 loading steps, for example 0.4PW,
0.8PW, 1.0PW, 1.2PW, (1.4 or l.5Pw). At each step the anchor is relieved as
far as P0, and when the residual deformation has been measured, the loading
is increased to the next step.
At each loading step the force is maintained and the displacement at the
anchor head is measured until stability is observed. In the last loading step
the observation period is usually longer, being 1 to 24 hours according to the
type of rock or soil in which the anchor root is fixed. The displacement must
be recorded s having stabilized, or a maximum overall rate of displacement
must not be exceeded, as in the previous test. It is recommended that the
displacement increment be measured with a dial gauge at progressively
1 3
1 1
increasing time intervals, e.g. 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5, 7, 10, 14, 20, 28,
40, 56, 80, 112, 160 minutes, etc. Stabilization of the displacement can be
considered as having occurred when the displacement increments measured
at the anchor head remain unchanged over three successive time intervals,
or if they change by no more than 0.1 0.2 mm.
Other details of the procedure and the graphic expression of the results are
similar to those of the simple test. Besides the load-displacement diagram
(Fig. 17-2), the displacement-time diagram is often drawn as well. If the time
values are plotted on a logarithmic scale, a displacement movement that is
228
j A^a1p*
^
g
*,*
^gS^X
\<
& -^
^ ^
~^ ^
^
.U
^
-8Pw Pw
<x
x^
^vvv
^
*WCsX
^vx
v \
^^
permanent
displacement
line
X
. X
\NsJ^s
x \
-+
! '
Cvfcv
CM
MPw
-+^
\J
Vl
*3
"I1
^'
x 1 boundary
line 1
elastic
displacement
line
Nl \
^xV~. \ X total displacement
^ X i line
X>J
Xl
C
\^
NX
boundary line 2
Fig. 17-2. Evaluation of a detailed acceptance test of an anchor according to K. Klein [235]
17.3
SPECIAL A N C H O R TESTS
Special tests are carried out on those anchors which are not used as
production anchors, but are perhaps prototypes for researching new anchoring systems, or test anchors used to verify the suitability of a known type of
anchorage for a particular site. These tests are called basic tests in the former
case, and suitability tests in the latter case. In both cases the behaviour of the
anchorage specified the design is examined, particularly the safety margin
afforded against failure; the tests should also reveal any defects which might
influence the load-bearing capacity of the anchors during their long-term
service.
Basic tests
The technical suitability of a new type of anchor and the method of
construction of anchors for temporary and permanent use, must be verified
by conducting a basic test in the type of ground in which the anchor will be
used (strong rock, soft rock, loose soil, cohesive soil). It must be demonstrated
that the anchor satisfies the expectations of the design, or the stipulations
of a given Standard.
229
In every type of rock or soil for which the anchor has been designed, at
least three anchors must be tested. The anchors are loaded in stages as in the
detailed acceptance test, the stages being established as functions of the yieldpoint force of the tendon, and increasing, for example, in steps of 0A5Py.
A constant force is maintained at each loading stage and the displacement at
the anchoring head is measured until it becomes stable. All forces are measured with special instruments (see Chapter 19) and displacements with dial
gauges of 0.01 mm accuracy. Displacements are registered for a period sufficiently long to take account of creep of the ground. For example, the German
Standard recommends that displacements occurring under the higher loading
stages be measured for at least 2 hours where the anchorage is made in
coarse-grained soils, 24 hours in fine-grained (cohesive) soils, and in any
case until the displacement increments are less than 0.2 mm. From the
load-displacement graph the force, Pc9 under which the measured deformation
has attained 2 mm (Fig. 17-3), can be found. The force Pc is also used as
a criterion for finding the safety factor, as will be explained later.
aww
u
fen sile
load
The load in a basic test is increased until failure of the anchor occurs, and
this should take place in the root, not in the tendon. Failure occurs when the
displacement increases with time under a constant loading force. On the
basic test graph of Fig. 17-4, the load-bearing capacity of the anchor root
was exceeded under a load of 0.94P y , and the free tendon length behaved
according to expectation.
When the test is completed, the anchor is dug out and examined. Particular
attention is given to the root, its shape and dimensions, the quality of the
hardened grout, the contact established between the tendon and the grout,
the position of the tendon in the grout body, the covering of the steel parts
by the grout, the appearance, number, and mutual spacing of cracks in the
grout body, and the effectiveness of the anticorrosive protection of the root
and tendon, particularly in the case of permanent anchors.
230
-^displacement
a)
elastic displacement - * M
-^permanent
displacement
Fig. 17-4. Evaluation of the basic test of an anchor, according to DIN [236]
a) stress/strain diagram, b) curves of elastic and permanent displacements. At a loading
of 0.75Py, stabilization of the displacement was not registered. R designates the loss of tensile
force involved in overcoming friction during stressing of the anchor
The complete results of the test are contained in a report which also gives
the characteristics of the ground, the anchor parameters, the test method,
and a discussion of the test values in relation to what has been found in the
examination of the excavated anchor. The construction, testing, and subsequent excavation of the anchors must be supervised by a recognized
professional body, which also classifies the ground at the test site. According
to the German Standard, the admissible working load, Pw9 of a given anchor
type is taken as the smallest of the values P y /1.75, Py/1.75, PJ1.50, obtained
from the basic test. Pw is taken as 0.50Pf for permanent anchors, and as
0.67Pf for temporary anchors, according to the French Standard. Py is the force at the guaranteed yield strength of the anchor tendon, Pf is the load at
the failure limit of the root as found, in the test, and Pc is the test force
that produces a displacement of 2 mm of the anchoring head.
Suitability tests
The purpose of these tests, as has been stated earlier, is to check the
suitability of an anchor type for use at a given site by subjecting it to harsh
or little-known conditions. The suitability tests are performed on site before
construction work is started. Usually three test anchors are positioned where
the least favourable geological conditions are assumed to exist, and they
are subjected to loading and release cycles with simultaneous recording of the
displacement at the head, as in the basic test. From these results, the elastic
231
and plastic deformations are obtained, and then the actual free length of the
tendon can be calculated. The plastic deformation approximately corresponds
to the displacement of the root [154]. The particular linear relationship
between the displacement and loading on an anchor characterizes the loadbearing capacity of that anchor.
The maximum load test is usually fixed at 1.5 or 1.6 times the design
working force, Pw, for temporary and/or permanent anchors; sometimes
the anchors are loaded until the ultimate load is exceeded, but then they are
not dug out afterwards. A detailed certificate is drawn up from the test
results.
On a site where, according to the design, the anchors are to be placed
less 1 m apart in a line, the possibility of their mutual interference must be
investigated. In this case, test anchors are installed as the design specifies,
and are loaded simultaneously while their behaviour is observed.
232
3
2
i\
}^
** \
\\\iI /
/
/
<100
*
\
\
uv\
LL
20
10 20 30 0 50
bolt head displacement [mm]
Fig. 17-5. Example of graphic plot of bolt
test results [95]
1 elastic deformation line, 2 yield-point load, 3 ultimate load
120
^>
>80
r*i
^ 60
}
II
/ LLrj
4-
20
0.5 10 15 2.0
bonded length [m]
2.5
233
yield-point and ultimate loads of the bolt. Comparison of the actual test
curve with these three lines, leads to an understanding of the behaviour of the
bolt and its anchorage.
8. For the evaluation of grouted anchors, the results of several tests should
be abstracted and presented graphically to show the influence of the grout
setting time and the length of the bonded section on the anchor strength
(e.g. Fig. 17-6).
9. The report of the test should include data sheets and graphs, together
with full details of:
a) the rock in which the anchors were tested,
b) the anchors and associated equipment,
c) the drillholes, including the length, diameter, method of drilling,
straightness, state of cleanness and dryness, orientation,
d) the method and time taken for installation,
e) the method and time taken for the testing,
f) the nature of any failure, and other observations pertinent to the test
results.
17.4.2 Non-destructive tests
The first non-destructive method for in situ testing of rock bolts, especially
grouted bolts, was p r esented by the Geodynamic AB Stockholm. A compact,
easy-to-use field instrument, based on electronic technique (Fig. 17-7), is
234
capable to detect if a bolt is cut, if grouting has not enveloped the entire
length of the bolt, if the bolt is too short, if the contact between the bolt and
grouting or between the rock and grouting is defective, and also if the contact
between the expander and the rock is insufficient for the mechanical fixing
of the bolt.
The instrument has a head which contains a transducer senzor of
piezo-electric crystals. The head is held against the exposed bolt end and the
transducer transfers elastic waves to the bolt. These waves propagate down
the bolt at different rates (depending on the bolt length, grouting and contact
conditions) and are reflected back to the sensor. By processing the detailed
signal informations received, both bolt length and contact conditions can be
determined.
17.5 REQUIREMENTS OF THE EQUIPMENT USED
FOR THE PRESTRESSING AND TESTING OF ANCHORS
The equipment used for prestressing is practically the same as that used
for testing anchors. It consists of a hydraulic set, stressing head, anchoring
head, and a part of the tendon at the near end of the anchor. Sometimes it
also contains a load sensor for precise measurement of the tensile force, and
a dial gauge for precise measurement of the tendon displacement (Fig. 17-8).
The hydraulic set comprises a pump, a jack, a connecting hose, and pressure
gauges of appropriate range and accuracy (1 2\ per cent.).
The stressing equipment must be capable of creating a tensile force in the
anchor tendon, and must maintain this force at a constant value. The value
of the stressing force acting on the anchor tendon must be measured by
sufficiently accurate instruments checked by a recognized authority at regular
intervals. It suffices to measure this force with two calibrated pressure gauges
of the required accuracy, connected to the hydraulic system between the
pump and jack. Measurement of the stressing force with a dynamometer
mounted on the anchor tendon is more reliable and more precise.
Approximate measurements of the tendon displacement can be obtained
with the scale fixed to the jack piston. Precise values are obtained with a dial
gauge, which should be mounted on a supporting structure independent of
the prestressed object, so that movements caused by prestressing are reliably
registered on the gauge. To establish the relationship between stressing
force and displacement, it suffices to measure the tendon displacement to the
nearest 0.1 mm; to obtain the displacement-time relationship at a constant
stressing force, the measurements of the tendon displacement must be
accurate to 0.01 mm, because the tendon displacement measured at the
anchoring head may be small, yet continue to change over a long period
on account of creep of the anchor tendon, anchor root, or the rock or soil.
235
The measuring instruments must be kept in good working order and must
be regularly calibrated to ensure reliability of the readings. It is advisable
[120] to have the measuring instruments calibrated before each stressing
operation and to check them on the spot against control instruments at
monthly intervals, or after every thirtieth production anchor installation.
An independent calibration of the stressing equipment should take place
every three months.
Even with the greatest possible accuracy and care, errors in the measurements nevertheless occur on account of inaccuracy in the pressure gauges,
internal friction in the jacks, inaccuracy in the displacement gauges, and
particularly on account of the manufacturing tolerances of the anchor tendon.
The difference between the actual (measured) and calculated values of the
stressing force may be up to 15 per cent, for anchors, and generally averages
5 per cent, in current installations [120].
In the stressing and testing of anchors, considerable forces are employed.
Consequently, the area immediately behind the stressing equipment must be
236
Precision
_/ manometer
Smooth duct
Fig. 17-8.
(B, C Losinger Ltd.) in
service on test sites for
the precise measurement of load
and displacement
237
cleared for safety reasons; and access to this*rea must be prohibited. Serious
injury could otherwise be inflicted by sudden failure of the anchor, or collapse
of the stressing equipment.
Prestressing of bolts
Short bar anchors (bolts) with only a minor degree of prestressing are
often tensioned by simply tightening the securing nut. The torque needed
to turn the nut on the bar anchor does not indicate directly the tension within
the anchor; calculation of the latter depends largely on the frictional resistance
of the nut on the thread and washer in the course of tightening. A. Hugon
and A. Costes [94] expressed this relationship by the formula:
C ^ - ^ - ( t g j 9 + 2tg^),
where C = the torque (Nm),
P = the tensile force (N),
d = diameter of the bar, excluding the thread (m),
= angle of the threading,
angle of friction of the nut on the thread and washer.
With the metric thread currently used for bolts, the average value of
is 230\ but in the Ancrall type is 9, and in the Pattin type, 5. The median
value of the friction angle, , (according to Hugon and Costes) is 14,
assuming that the thread and the nut are in good order. The graph shown
in Fig. 17-9 gives the necessary turning moment, calculated from the above
equation, for producing a given tension in bolts of the most frequently used
diameters (20 and 24 mm, with M 20 and M 24 metric threads). Average
figures for the tensile force obtained by direct measurements on bar anchors,
were found to be approximately 20 per cent, lower than the calculated
238
50
100
150
200
250
500
Fig. 17-9. Relationship between the torsional moment on the securing nut, and the tension
in the bar, for bolt bars with M 20 and M 24 threads
Fig. 17-10. Torque-tension graph for bolts, according to the American Williams Company
In mines and tunnels bolts are often prestressed by hand, using a flat
spanner with its arm extended to 80 or 100 cm. If a hand force of approximately 0.3 kN is attainable at the end of the spanner (although this varies
considerably, of course, according to the position of the workman doing
the tightening), the resulting torque is 235 Nm, which corresponds to a tension
of 39 kN in a bar 24 mm in diameter with a metric thread. More accurate
tensioning of bar anchors is achieved with a torque spanner (wrench).
Torque spanners for tightening nuts are currently made from light alloys,
239
and have various measured moment ranges. Torque spanners producing
moments of up to 700 Nm are most often used for prestressing bolts. They
are equipped with exchangeable ratchet adaptors. For example the well
known Spanish Torcometro torque spanners (Fig. 17-11) which are made
in three sizes.
W0wiiMBMMk:':'i:i'
The largest type, with a torque range from 275 740 Nm (weight 3.2 kg,
length 80 cm) can also be used for tightening the bolt nuts to achieve the
required prestress. The required moment (in Nm) is set on the scale of a screw
gauge on the handle of the spanner; a click indicates when the moment has
been reached.
A more suitable instrument for prestressing bolts is the T-shaped type of
torque spanner turned with both hands (Fig. 17-12). The Tona factory in
Czechoslovakia makes such a spanner with a range of 0 to 500 Nm. The
tightening force is shown on a dial.
The turning moment exerted on the spanner and nut is indicative of the
tension generated in the bolt. The moment necessary to start turning the
nut at any point is usually 20 per cent, higher than the moment required
once the starting resistance (static friction) has been overcome.
Universal pneumatic hammer drills (see Fig. 14-2), or pneumatic impact
240
tools (Fig. 17-13) equipped with wrench adaptors can be used to tighten bolts
more quickly and easily (see Section 14.1), torques of up to 832 Nm and
more being obtainable with these machines.
IMPACT TOOL
241
242
17.6.2
For the larger bar anchors with higher load-bearing capacities and
prestressing forces greater than 100 kN, larger hydraulic jacks have to be
used. Various types of jack and hydraulic equipment designed to grip the
threaded end of the bar (or cable) are available on the market (e.g. Enerpac).
They are generally small in size, but have a high performance (Fig. 17-16). The
Fig. 17-16. Centre hole hydraulic jacks Proceq CP 100 and CP 150 with manual pump for
anchor testing and pre-stressing up to the tensile load of 1 MN and 1.5 MN respectively
end of the anchor bar passes through a hollow cylinder in most types. In some
cases (e.g. the American CCS system), the stressing equipment consists of
a couple of small jacks connected by a bridge to which the end f the bar
or anchor rope is fixed. Weights of the hollow cylinder stressing equipment
used by the Dywidag Co. are quoted as an example; the equipment for
tensioning bar anchors with forces of 250, 600 and 1,100 kN weighs 23, 36
and 47 kg respectively. Also the equipment used in Great Britain and in
other countries is relatively easy to handle. A typical arrangement cf the
stressing equipment for bar anchors is shown in Fig. 17-17.
Oil is supplied to the hydraulic jack by a pressure pump. A hand-operated
pump is sufficient for dealing with a small number of anchors. For larger
243
sgroutpad
hydraulic pump
{manual)
Fig. 17-17. Arrangement of stressing equipment for bar anchors, according to Littlejohn
and Bruce [120]
anchoring schemes, electric pumps (or less often combustion engine pumps)
are employed. The stressing equipment is generally designed to generate
working pressures of 40 to 70 MPa. Some of the specification details of
pumps used by the Stronghold Co. (working pressure, 60 MPa) are given
for the sake of illustration. A portable pump with an output of 2.62 litres/min,
capacity 20 litres, weighs 90 kg and is 750 mm long and 540 mm in height;
pumps with outputs of 3.7 and 6.5 litres/min, capacity 45 litres, weigh
210 kg and 220 kg, respectively. These two pumps are mounted on a simple
undercarriage (Fig. 17-18) and difTer only with respect to the driving power.
Where the anchor tendon is composed of a bundle of bars, bars are usually
stressed one at a time (Fig. 17-19a). In Great Britain a piece of equipment
244
245
When the required tensile force is produced by the jack, the anchor tension
is maintained by tightening the nut with a spanner, which gains access to the
nut through an opening in the spacing chair below the jack (Fig. 17-20).
Perfect seating of the nut on the bearing plate is indicated by a slight drop
in pressure on the jack manometer (equivalent, approximately, to 5 kN force
at the jack). After this has occurred, the pressure in the equipment can be
released altogether.
Specially designed jacks for prestressing Dywidag bar anchors are shown
in Fig. 17-21. A ratchet wrench for tightening the anchor nut after the tendon
has been prestressed is incorporated in the jack.
17.6.3
246
Fig. 17-21. Electrically powered
hydraulic jack with built-in socket
wrench for single bar anchors
(Dywidag Co.). Maximum jacking
force, 590 kN
if necessary (see Section 16.1). These anchors are stressed, like the e.g. PZ
anchors, by means of a hydraulic jack with a hollow cylinder; the threaded
rod passes through this cylinder and is fixed into the centre of the anchoring
head at one end and onto the cylinder face by a screwed on nut at the other
end. The required prestressing is maintained by tightening the nut or ring on
the outside of the head (Fig. 17-22), or by fixing the tendon in position with
a nut bearing on the surface of the anchored structure. In the latter case, the
rod in fact is an extension of the anchor (see Fig. 16-3).
Most anchors with locking heads holding cables made up of individual
wires or strands are prestressed with special prestressing guns. The wires or
strands are fixed either around the perimeter of the gun on the gun cover
(Fig. 17-23), at one end of the hollow cylinder in many cases (Fig. 17-24),
247
./..
nJ% \ m.
m,4
Fig. 17-23. Anchor head and stressing equipment for 1 MN anchors of smooth patented
wire (Horel system)
Fig. 17-24. Hydraulic jack in use for anchor stressing, and anchor head shown after prestressing {Losinger system)
248
inside the hollow cylinder (see Fig. 17-27), or around the perimeter of the
jack as well as at the end of the hollow cylinder (Fig. 17-25). On placing the
anchor, sufficiently long ends of the wires or ropes must be left projecting.
from the borehole for fixing to the stressing equipment. The cable wires or
strands are fixed with wedges into a ring strongly fastened around the perimeter of the gun; at the end of the hollow cylinder they are fixed into a stressing head of a design corresponding to that of the anchoring head (Fig. 17-26).
The gripping wedges, being re-usable, are made of special steel, and must be
lightly greased before they are placed so as to facilitate removal after prestressing has been carried out.
Fig. 17-26. Arrangement of stressing equipment fixed at the anchoring head of a multiple
strand cable anchor before it is prestressed (documentation VSL)
249
the tendon, and lightly greased wedges are inserted into the openings in the
stressing head. Prior to the stressing of short anchors, it is important to
make sure that the displacement of the anchor head will exceed 30 mm under
the highest loading. Otherwise it becomes impossible to remove the gripping
wedges from the stressing head following the release of the jack. Wherever
a displacement of 30 mm or less is expected, the jack piston must be advanced
30 mm before the stressing and mounting of the stressing head are carried out.
4. The oil hose from the high-pressure power or hand-driven pump is
connected to the jack, and the stressing is begun.
5. With the initial movement of the jack piston, the tendon ropes become
fixed in the stressing head. The anchor head and its free wedges are held in
position by the resting chair.
6. The pressure of the jack is progressively raised to the maximum value
required. The magnitude of the pressure and the advance of the piston are
carefully observed and recorded.
7. When the prescribed tensile force, or the maximum advance of the
piston has been reached, the pressure in the jack is released and the ropes are
automatically fixed in the anchor head by the forcing of the wedges into
position. The stressing head is freed by light tapping.
8. The jack can be disconnected, or, after retraction of the piston to its
original position, stressing can be continued to the next stage by repeating
the procedure. To obtain the final tensile force in the tendon, or in compensating for losses of prestress, a higher resting chair and headplates are positioned
under the anchoring head.
Equipment for prestressing cables varies only with respect to size, thrust
distance, and working pressure. Some parameters of BBRV stressing equipment are given in Table 17-111. The Cona-Multi system of the BBR Co.
consists of a series of prestressing guns for forces ranging from 110 kN up
to 10,000 kN. The equipment for 10 MN (CM 1000), has a cylinder of
diameter 725 mm and thrust distance 400 mm, and weighs 3,380 kg.
TABLE 17-111
Parameters of BBR V stressing equipment
Type
NP60
NP100
NP 200
NP 300
NP 500
force (kN)
cylinder diameter (mm)
thrust distance (mm)
weight (kg)
620
205
100
28
1,030
260
100
85
2,060
290
100
117
3,090
350
100
196
5,150
560
100
1,260
250
^fc^4l
is achieved. The cable components are fixed in the anchoring head by means
of an indexing plate. This template, after release and restressing,
presses the gripping wedges into position and seats them forcibly under pressure from the jack's lock-off mechanism. Reversal of the oil
flow retracts the jack which automatically releases the internal fixings
for removal and preparation for the next operation. The individual steps of
251
the sequence are remotely controlled from the pump without the need for
attendance at the jack face.
The range of equipment available from this firm includes jacks with
forces of 600 to 12,000 kN. The specifications for the 12 MN equipment are:
900 mm diameter, 80 MPa working pressure, weight 2,200 kg, 400 mm
thrust distance; this type is designated G-1200.
The French Freyssinet system made by the STUP Co. employs a traditional
prestressing gun with the wires or strands fixed around the perimeter; in the
guns that produce greater forces, the cable components also pass through
the gun, and in the latest versions a hydraulic cylinder with a central opening
is in use. The weight of the equipment depends on what working pressure is
required, the smallest weight being 400 kg and the largest 900 kg {Freyssi
Monogroup).
Even when high working pressures are applied, equipment for prestressing
large anchors is difficult to handle on account of its bulk. Some companies
therefore use lightweight equipment designed to stress the individual
strands of which large anchors are composed. The Italian Tensacciai
system, for example, is based on light prestressing guns for the stressing of
individual ropes. It is used for prestressing anchors composed of up to
20 strands each of 15.2 mm diameter, prestressed to a total force for whole
anchor of 3.8 MN (working capacity 3.02 MN). The process can be speeded
up by using a number of guns together (Fig. 17-28), and for this reason the
guns are made with a small diameter and are connected to a central pump.
The easily portable Stbet gun system with an output of 60 to 200 kN is
made in Bulgaria under licence from the German firm of Max Paul. These
guns weigh only 16 to 20 kg. The Czechoslovakian VUIS system employs
equipment designed for twin ropes (Fig. 17-29).
Fig. 17-28. Prestressing of multi-rope anchors by means of a system of light Tensacciai guns
252
^^~^
**: - \
^^
Fig. 17-29. KC//5 system equipment for prestressing a couple of ropes of 15.5 mm dia
253
254
Fig. 17-32. Prestressing
of anchoring cables by a force
of 1,000 metric tons (10 MN)
on the Bou-Hanifia Dam
in Algeria in 1936
h*tf* f]
v1, 4* / **-v;
i J
' ^H
ri|
*> ' ,; **W *
i " ..* v ^
- /v
l' '"if; *" >, "*^*% .
?Wv~
* * * > .
* * i \
^
;'i
*
Sf
-<
'*<'
Chapter 18
P R O T E C T I O N OF A N C H O R S A G A I N S T
CORROSION
The service life of structures anchored in rock depends upon the durability
of the anchorage. The greatest threat is from corrosion, which is particularly
likely to occur in the environment in which the anchor root is embedded.
Corrosion is the damage caused to metals by their chemical or electrochemical reaction with the surrounding medium, typically heterogenous
reactions taking place at the boundaries between solid, liquid and gaseous
phases. The mechanisms of corrosion are governed by many factors which
cannot be easily defined, and which, moreover, change in the course of the
reactions themselves. It is thus extremely difficult to give a reliable explanation of corrosion; simplified accounts are often presented, but these cannot
be considered as being comprehensive or reliable. It is safer to draw conclusions from the results of experiments wherever anticorrosive treatment is
planned, particularly in large projects.
It may be stated generally, that steel structures embedded in the ground,
mainly suffer the type of corrosion caused by electrochemical reaction; this
entails a transformation of the metal into free ions and electrons as a result
of the interaction of the metal surface with an electrolyte (soil moisture).
If ions of only one metal take part in this reaction, the process is anodic,
the ions passing from the metal into solution as free hydrated ions; when
metal ions separate out from the solution and recombine with the metal,
the process is cathodic.
Corrosive processes involve both anodic and cathodic reactions. They are
usually limited to definite areas on the metal surface owing to the heterogenous
nature of the metal, or because of differences in the composition of the
ground in which the metal is placed. It is the electric current passing between
these specific areas which causes the corrosion. The cathodic reaction reinforces the anodic reaction by drawing off the electrons released by the
latter. After some time, however, the primary anodic and cathodic products
mutually combine to produce insoluble substances which prevent further
corrosion, unless oxygen or hydrogen arising from the reduction of hydrogen
ions penetrates the metal at the site of corrosion. These products disturb the
256
>/
/
/
0.6
0
0.2 /
0
>
z> \
9 _A
*=q
8
12 16 20 24
humidity [%]
257
Virtual ground
resistivity
[/m]
Water
conductivity
[^S/cm]
Redox
potential
[mV]
I
low
> 100
< 100
400
II
medium
50 to 100
200 to 100
200 to 400
III
high
23 to 50
430 to 200
100 to 200
IV
very high
< 23
> 430
100
pH
Rock or soil
content of
total sulphur
[%1
< 1.10"4
3
MO"
to3.10"
> MO"
Cl
[%1
so3 + ci
co 2
[mg/1]
[mg/1]
6.5 to 8.5
< 0.1
< 0.02
< 100
8.5 to 14
0.1 to 0.2
0.02 to 0.05
100 to 200
6.0 to 6.5
0.2 to 0.3
0.05 to 0.1
200 to 300
< 6.0
> 0.3
0.1
> 300
3.10" to l.lO"
1
Water content
of aggressive
258
The cables from which anchors are made, consist exclusively of wires
treated by patenting and cold drawing. The high mechanical stresses in the
individual strands of a rope can contribute to the development of severe
and very dangerous corrosion under stress, including corrosive cracking and
hydrogen brittleness. These corrosive effects develop into intercrystalline and
transcrystalline corrosive attack.
It is in the nature of these types of corrosion that they are hardly noticeable at the outset; subsequent stages, characterized by very fine cracks
without any visible products of corrosion (rust), can be discovered only with
the aid of a microscope. Failure of the wire occurs at once, without any
preceding drop in strength. In this context, it should be noted that of all the
processes employed for heat-treating wires, patenting is the most suitable.
Patented wires are less susceptible to corrosive cracking than wires heattreated by other methods. The danger of corrosion under stress is much
reduced by a further treatment following patenting and drawing, namely
low-temperature tempering and curing of the wire. This process removes
a substantial part of the non-uniform internal stress, which in turn reduces
the total mechanical stresses developing within the wire as a result of the
summed internal stresses (strain), and those stresses induced by external
forces (prestress). Great care must therefore be taken to protect anchors
259
against corrosion, and every design for a permanent anchor in rock or soil
must include details of efficient protection measures.
Anticorrosion measures for anchors are considered, with respect to three
main criteria:
1. Method of providing anticorrosive protection:
a) Direct protection by coating, wrapping, or sheathing with waterproof
material which keeps out the aggressive external medium. This method is
also referred to as passive protection.
b) Electric cathodic protection by creating an electric circuit, the anchor
surface thus being cathodically polarized and maintained at a potential
which prevents occurrence of the corrosive process. This method is designated
active protection. It should be noted that cathodic protection is usually
applied in the form of a complementary installation for the protection of
a large group of anchors; the method is discussed in later Sections.
2. Anchor type:
a) Permanent protection such that the service life of the anchor corresponds
to the service life of the anchored structure.
b) Short-term protection of subsidiary site anchors in service for not
longer than five years.
3. Requirements of the static function of the anchor:
a) Anticorrosive treatment which allows for static co-operation of the
anchor with the ground along its entire length or a part of its length, which
nearly always includes the full root length.
b) Anticorrosive treatment which prevents adhesion of the anchor to the
ground within a predetermined section of the anchor; usually the tendon
receives this type of protection.
Obviously the designer of the anticorrosive treatment must take into
account the functions of the individual anchor parts that are to be protected,
and specify the details of the treatment accordingly. For the majority of
anchors, different anticorrosive treatments for the tendon and root sections
must be considered.
Anticorrosive protection must also be provided for the third main part
of the anchor the head. The treatment here is comparatively simple,
because the heads are easily accessible and their condition can be checked
directly.
A special type of treatment is involved in the temporary protection of
anchors; some degree of protection must be given to newly made anchors
which are awaiting installation, or to the material (wires, ropes, steel bars)
from which anchors are to be made. This protection serves during the transport, storage, and handling of anchors, until its function is eventually taken
over by the more permanent treatment specified in the design.
260
18.2 DIRECT PROTECTION OF ANCHORS AGAINST CORROSION
261
of the enveloping concrete depend on it. By increasing the pressure the pores
and joints in the rock surrounding the borehole are filled with greater
certainty, the rock is better sealed, and access of water to the anchor wrapping
proper is prevented.
A compact cement wrapping 3 to 4 cm thick around an anchor gives fully
reliable anticorrosive protection. The long-term anticorrosive effect is determined by the alkalinity of the cement wrapping. Furthermore agents which
create an inert layer of calcium ferrite and other calcium salts on the surface
of the anchor bars or wires, are released from the cement in the course of
tricalcium silicate hydration. For this reason it is preferable to use Portland
cement for grouting anchors. Mixed cements are less suitable, because they
create a lower degree of alkalinity in the medium surrounding the anchor.
It appears from the diagram of pH and electrical potential for iron, that
this metal is best protected from corrosion at pH values between 9.8 and 12.3.
Hence under normal temperatures, corrosion of an anchor enveloped in an
integral body of cement mortar cannot occur, even if the capillaries of the
concrete in contact with steel contain water; this is because aqueous solutions of the hydrated products of cement have a basic reaction between
p H l l and pH 12.5.
When the anchor is stressed, the steel components elongate. It has been
demonstrated that the stress in the free anchor section is transmitted into
the grouted section for a distance equivalent to 0.30.6 of its length; hence,
cracks tend to appear in this particular region of the grouted section, that
is, in the root part of the anchor. The width of the cracks depends on their
density along the surface of the steel, while the density of cracks depends
on the grout/steel bond and the characteristics of the ground in which
the anchor is fixed, particularly the jointing of the rock. An increase in the
density of cracks and the resulting narrowing of these cracks to an admissible
value, can be achieved by using bars with transverse ribs or a pressed-on
thread (as employed by the Dywidag Co.), or by dividing the anchor root into
the largest possible number of separate wires in order to increase the surface
area of the root in contact with the grout. The adverse effect of the presence
of joints in the ground can be partly eliminated by effective grouting,
and if large cracks are liable to appear, these can be filled by repeated grouting after the anchors have been prestressed. Collared pipes are used to enable
the grouting to be repeated (see Chapter 13).
18.2.1.1 Double protection of anchors with reliable ground fixing
Where anchorage is exploited as a long-term permanent stabilizing element,
additional protection with plastic sheets of synthetic dielectric, and waterproof material (polyethylene, PVC, etc.) has increasingly been applied in
262
recent years. This additional protective layer has an indented profile which is
acted upon by the shearing forces between the steel and the grout and ground
(Fig. 18-3).
Fig. 18-3. Geotest anchor system protected in the root section by plastic corrugated
(concertina-like) ducting
263
b)
o)
Det
^N
4
"
KSO^IIIJ
/
/ ML^VM
/
III L
J-"-*"1
11
IjxsS
Fig. 18-4. Root of a multiple rope anchor protected by a common corrugated pipe
a)with the possibility of regrouting inside the sheath, b) with the possibility of regrouting
both inside and outside the sheath (APS Tensacciai system)
1 grip, 2 anchor plate, 3 smooth PVC sheathing, 4 manchette valve,
5 resin pad, 6 obturator bag, 7 corrugated PVC sheathing, 8 strand,
9 end cap, 10 distance piece, / / injection tubes
264
Collared pipes are used for grouting so that this can be repeated after the
first grouting of the space between the pipe and the borehole wall.
The space between the anchor sheath and the borehole wall is usually
filled with grout, although synthetic resin is occasionally used. Interlocking
between the anchor and the concrete is ensured on account of the corrugation of the pipe.
The grouting pipes are inserted as far as the end of the anchor root.
A vent pipe is also lowered as far as the upper end of the section that is to
be grouted, so that air and water can escape from the borehole. Both pipes
pass through an obturator (bag) which makes it possible to grout the section
under pressure. When the borehole is full, the vent pipe is closed to allow
pressure to build up; this pressure is essential for compaction of the grout
and penetration of the grout into the spaces in the ground around the borehole (see Section 13.2).
The pipes used for grouting are made of rubber, polyethylene or other
plastic material, because these are easier to handle than steel pipes. The
grouting pipes are inserted together with the anchor; where cables are used,
the pipe is sometimes passed down the centre of the cable. In some systems,
grout pipes are not used at all, the grout being pumped along the entire
borehole cross-section, or into the casing (see Section 13.2). In short vertical
boreholes, the grout may also be poured in, provided the holes do not reach
below ground water level. Secondary grouting, for the purpose of filling
small cracks in the concrete wrapping of the root, is accomplished with the
aid of a collared tube.
In some instances, cracks in the concrete filling of the borehole may be
sealed by pumping grout into the root zone through extra boreholes.
18.2.2
In nearly all anchors, with the exception of bolts fixed in sound rock,
perfect freedom of movement of the tendon (the section between the head
and the root) in the coaxial direction must be established, otherwise the
anchor cannot be prestressed. Sometimes the prestressing of fixed anchors
decreases due to creep of the ground, and must be restored to the original
value; or the ground may be additionally loaded by the weight of a newly built
construction, and the anchor prestressing must therefore be reduced proportionally (see Chapter 7). For such adjustments to be made, the tendon must
be able to move freely. Displacements of the anchor tendon are made possible
by the spreading of insulating layers on the anchor surface, or by locating
the tendon inside plastic or metal pipes (see Figs. 18-4, 18-11, 18-13).
265
18.2.2.1
Insulating layers must be correctly applied and must have the following
properties: they should prevent the access of moisture to the anchorage;
they must be pliable and abrasion-resistant so as not to become damaged
during manipulation of the anchor; they should be non-conductive, thus
preventing the formation of galvanic cells on the surface of the steel, or
they should, by their nature, give rise to a potential at which corrosion cannot
ensue; they must be durable and resistant to chemical attack; finally, they
should be sufficiently thick and plastic to allow displacement of the internal
surface adhering to the anchor tendon relative to the external surface adhering
to the borehole wall (or the concrete in the space between the borehole wall
and the tendon). It is important in any case, that no displacement should
occur between the anchor tendon and the inner surface of the insulation with
which it is in contact.
The insulating coats are made from various bitumenous materials reinforced with a protective fabric, or interlain with plastic membranes. The
thickness of the bitumenous protecting layer is usually 3 to 10 mm, but in
some cases may be more. The surface of the protecting layer is generally
shielded from mechanical damage by a 1015 cm-wide insulating bandage
made from Polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, or impregnated glass fibre fabric.
The bandage is wound on to the anchor with a half width overlapping, and
is glued on to form a single integrated wrapping.
Until recently, insulating coats were made with asphalt modified by an
admixture of plastics. These materials afforded a very high degree of insulation provided that they were enclosed to prevent viscous flow of the material
and that the asphalt was washed with running water.
To prevent flow of the insulating layer, it must be as viscous as possible,
and protected by a covering that can withstand mechanical damage. The
asphalt coat of the anchoring cables used in the reconstruction of the
Cheurfas Dam (1934), was protected by an impermeable cloth wrapping.
The insulation was applied as the cables were lowered into position, by
pouring molten asphalt into the wrapping and progressively closing the
wrapping with a zip fastener. Uniform thickness of the asphalt layer was
obtained by winding a rope in a helix around the cable, underneath the
wrapping (Fig. 18-5).
In recent years, the development of insulating materials has seen extraordinarily rapid progress. The new insulating materials which form the coat
not only form a barrier preventing access of the corrosive medium to the
urface of the anchor, but also contribute towards changing the properties
of the corrosive products and increasing the protection of the anchor by
being electrochemically active, and by being able to inhibit corrosion by
266
267
nents, the inhibitors are rapidly extracted at high concentration. The anticorrosive PLU paste is also a strong fungicide because of the presence of
chromates.
The PLU bandage is made of glass fibre fabric, 50, 100 and 200 mm wide,
treated on both sides with a compound of similar composition to that of the
paste. The biological resistance of the insulating layer is enhanced by the
presence of heavy metal salts and cyclohexane-carboxylic acids. The amount
of compound used is 1.60 kg + 5 per cent, per 1 m 2 of the fabric. The PLU
paste and bandage were used for the first time in 1957, and insulation made
at that time with these materials has retained its original properties to this
day. Hence, assertions as to its long service life are fully justified.
Another similar product is Plastikor. The fabric of this insulating bandage
is made as Arachne non-woven propylene textile; it is impregnated with
a special plastic anticorrosive compound containing corrosion inhibitors,
polar substances and fungicides. Its main advantage over the PLU bandage
is its greater elasticity, which makes it easier to use, and more effective on
uneven surfaces.
The general procedure for applying insulating bandages is relatively
simple. The PLU or Plastikor bandage is tightly hand-wound in the cold
state, with 50 per cent, overlap, on a clean anchor cable, or better still, on
a cable coated with anticorrosive PLU paste (Fig. 18-6). The bandage is
smoothed by hand or with a special tool so that it forms an uniform layer.
A well made wrapping should be at least 3 mm thick. The thickness may
be checked non-destructively by means of eddy currents the principle used,
for example, in the portable Isotron Fe apparatus. Another convenient test
is the so-called spark test, which helps to find any deficiencies in the insulation such as excessive porosity, insufficient thickness, and mechanical injuries
invisible to the naked eye. The insulation should resist puncture by a spark
of up to a minimum of 15 kV.
To avoid mechanical injury while inserting an anchor into the borehole,
the insulating bandages can be protected by wound-on PVC strips.
The cables of the Firth of Forth suspension bridge in Scotland are insulated
by this method. They are composed of 60 patented 5 mm-diameter wires
insulated by a triple coating. The first layer is formed of Denso insulating
paste which was spread on the individual wires on a work-table. The basic
component of the Denso paste is a hydrocarbon derivative of paraffin oil,
with a siliceous filler and anticorrosion agents. This paste removes all surface
moisture in contact with the steel, and neutralizes oxides which have formed.
It does not harden, and permanently retains its insulating properties (the
insulation is guaranteed for 100 years). The second layer consists of a Denso
bandage, wound with 50 per cent, overlap and smoothed to form an impermeable wrapping. This bandage is a cotton fabric impregnated from either side
268
^Jf|WMt,
<
^^ *
s^S&^fe?
.- . 4 .
^^
MB^ISefc:
:.Sjf%
269
with a mixture similar to the Denso paste, but with stronger anticorrosive
properties. The outer layer provides protection from mechanical damage
and consists of a Denselt bandage wrapped around the cable. This bandage
is of jute fabric impregnated with plastic^zed asphalt containing an inert
filler. The bandage is warmed with a blow lamp as it is wound, to soften the
asphalt; on cooling, the bandage becomes a strong impermeable wrapping
resistant to abrasion and other possible mechanical damage.
The practice of applying insulating wrappings to anchors composed of
parallel wires has the disadvantage that it is necessarily carried out at the
installation site. Otherwise, the technique is highly advantageous for this
type of anchor, since the insulating compound fills the spaces between the
wires inside the cable. This is not so with rope cables, in which the interior
surfaces of the wires are often attacked by corrosion. Nevertheless the use
of rope cables is profitable, because they reduce the labour costs at the site,
have a higher ductility which reduces losses of prestressing on permanent
deformation of the prestressed rock (see Chapter 11), and, furthermore,
they can be insulated in the workshop. To prolong the life of rope cables it
has been proposed that the insulating envelope be made in two stages. In the
rope factory, the individual strands of the rope are insulated prior to stranding
by passing them through a bath of fluid insulating paste. In this way all the
interwire spaces are reliably filled. In Czechoslovakia, the rope factory at
Bohumin supplies ropes in which the internal spaces are filled with a red lead
sealing compound.
When the prestressing of such ropes was checked after 16 years in service,
no weakening due to corrosion was found, although a short section of the
ropes was in contact with humid air; the outer asphalt wrapping was not
protected by concrete, but only by a glass fibre bandage in this section
(Fig. 18-7). The external insulating layer may also be made in the factory
by pulling the rope through a nozzle, the insulating compound being forced
into the nozzle at the same time, either as a hot melt or a cold solution. It
should be pointed out that the external layer usually cannot replace the
function of the primary coat, (of anticorrosive paste, grease etc.) because the
applied compound cannot penetrate the spaces in strands of more than
7 wires when they are arranged in several layers. Unfilled spaces admit the
entry of water and oxygen, and thus anchors can be attacked during storage
and during installation before the insulating wrapping of the tendon has
been watertightly sealed at the anchor head and root. Most anchoring
systems, however, use seven-wire strand as the basic unit of assembly, and
the interwire spaces become filled with the compound without any difficulty
(Fig. 18-8), provided that the paste is pressed on to the surface of the strand
and thus forced between the wires. In the construction of the London Thames
Flood Protection Scheme (Fig. 18-9) the anchor cables used to stabilize the
270
o)
b)
Fig. 18-7. Anchoring rope 37 x 19 dia 2.9 mm, denuded after 16 years of service
a)superficial damage to the sheath occurred at the level of the ground surface,/?)surface
of the cable stripped of insulation
<4 Fig. 18-8. 7-strand ropes and insulating
compound filling the internal space of
the protecting pipe
271
272
section '
Fig. 18-10. Anchor protected by an insulating tube connected to the steel surround of the base
1 anchor cable, 2 insulating tub?, 3 grout pipe, 4 borehole, 5 anchoring cavity,
6 anchor base constructed prior to installation of the anchor
9;<\$fW
only for the anchoring of very exposed structures. It was used in the construction of the pumping station for the water supply of Bratislava (Czechoslovakia) (see Chapter 22). The wires of the anchor cables were coated with
red-lead in the factory. The second insulating envelope consists of a layer
of PL U insulating paste and anticorrosive bandage, protected from mechanical injury during manipulation of the anchor by a bandage of PVC foil. The
anticorrosive protection is further increased by the casing (diameter 133 mm,
wall thickness 12 mm) which remains in the borehole; the space between the
casing and the anchor is grouted. Uniform thickness of this grout layer was
achieved by winding a 10 mm diameter wire in a helix around the anchor,
273
Fig. 18-12. Design of the permanent anchors used to secure the pumping station supplying
water to Bratislava
1 2 MN VUIS anchor head, 2 protective wrapping, 3 flange for fixing rubber sleeve,
4 de-aerating pipe, 5 washer, 6 steel plate (720 x800 mm), 7 rubber sleeve,
5 insulating wrapping, 9 pipe (135 mm dia.), 10 casing (135 mm dia.), 11 cable
(65 mm dia), 12 sealing ring, 13 load-distributing sill, 14 sealing for the casing,
15 walls of the pumping station, 16 spacing insert of a 10 mm dia. helix, 17 PL U paste,
ISPLU bandage, 19 PVC bandage, 20 cement grout
thus allowing free passage for the grout. At either end, the casing is freely
inserted into a pipe, the upper pipe being embedded in the concrete of the
seating sill positioned on the surface of the station or caisson wall (see
Fig. 18-12).
A design has also been used in which the space between the protecting
pipe and the cable (the latter bsing provided with an insulating wrapping)
was left without an insulating filling. In this case the protecting pipe had to
be corrosion-resistant, that part of the anchor tendon inside the pipe had to
be provided with a reliable anticorrosive wrapping, and the ends of the
protecting pipe, where the tendon was connected with the root and with the
anchoring head, had to be sealed thoroughly. The pipe in this case merely
played the part of a dielectric. Such an arrangement may assist in the removal
of the anchor, if this should be deemed necessary at some future time.
18.2.3
Every anticorrosive system has some weak point, namely the connection
of the insulating wrapping of the anchor with the anchor root being a potential point of failure. This connection is relatively reliable in those cases in
274
275
276
The protection of anchor cables around the point of connection with the
anchor head is easier to achieve, because this region is usually accessible,
allowing the arrangement to be checked. Even so, defects in this part of the
cable have been known to occur leading directly to anchor failure, and
therefore a discussion of design principles relating to the protection of anchor
heads, together with some examples of arrangements which have been used,
will be appropriate here.
Until now, anchoring heads have usually been protected by grouting the
mouth of the borehole following prestressing of the anchor, concreting the
space under the head base (Fig. 18-15), and eventually, covering the entire
head with concrete (Fig. 18-16). These methods, however, do not guarantee
effective covering of the bare steel between the end of the insulating sheath
and the seating structure of the head, and often do not provide proper
protection around the head itself where a locking head has been employed.
The reliability and watertightness of the connection can be increased by
welding pipes to the underside of the headplate, and arranging these telescopically over the insulating sheath of the anchor tendon. Alternatively, the end
of the sheath may be extended into an expanded cavity, coaxial with the
borehole (Fig. 18-17), in the anchored structure. The connection formed in
this way must be sealed with a sleeve slipped over this connection, with
277
bonehole fi 150-110mm
278
Fig. 18-17. Sealing of the connection of a Cona-Sol G. M. anchor head a) anchor cased
along its free length, b) anchor fully cased
1 trumpet, 2 seal, 5 secondary filling, 4 smooth plastic duct, 5 secondary grout
pipe, 6 tendon, 7 corrugated plastic duct, 8 spacer, 9 primary filling, 10 grout
pipe
a rubber strap, or by some means compatible with the structural arrangement of the anchor. When the prestressing has been carried out, the head
is covered with a cap made of sheet steel or reinforced plastic material to
facilitate grouting of the head with cement mortar or synthetic resin under
increased pressure (Fig. 18-18).
279
A very reliable anticorrosive protection was devised for the heads of the
above-mentioned anchors installed at the pumping station for the water
supply to Bratislava (Czechoslovakia). The steel casing pipe of the borehole,
left in the ground as an external sheathing, was telescopically inserted into
a steel pipe of larger diameter concreted into the anchored structure co-
axially with the anchor (see Fig. 18-12). Such a telescopic connection of the casing pipe to the structure excludes the danger of a drop in the prestressing of
the anchor together with a lack of response from the prestressed ground;
such would be the case if there were a fixed connection between the casing
pipe and the structure, because the casing pipe would then function as
a compressed pile.
The telescopically free connection is sealed with a rubber ring, and after
prestressing of the anchor by grout. The internal insulating sheathing of the
anchor, passing through the casing, is connected to a flange on the anchor
head. The anchor has a cast-steel head in which the spliced end of the cable
is concreted; this fixing arrangement is the least susceptible to corrosion.
Considering that even where fixed heads are used the wires are pulled out to
some extent from the head during prestressing of the anchor (Fig. 18-19),
the connecting flange must have a watertight fixing to its seating surface and
the insulating sheath of the anchor inserted into this flange must be sealed
inside the latter with a flexible rubber collar. The head, including the spacer
headplates on which the head is supported after prestressing, is covered by
a protective wrapping which makes it possible to grout the head, the headplates, and the mouth of the borehole in the final stage of installation.
280
tensile force MN
Fig. 18-19. Extraction of wires from an anchor head under tensile stress.
(The wires are embedded in concrete within a steel cone-shaped bucket)
18.2.5
281
18.2.6
282
18.3 E L E C T R I C A L A N T I C O R R O S I V E P R O T E C T I O N
283
284
TABLE 18-11
Minimum current density value for the protection of metals
Metal
Medium
Minimum
protecting
current
density
[mA/m 2 ]
Author
Experimental
conditions
Steel
0.0010.1 %
H2S04
600
Klement
Gentle mechanical
stirring
Iron
0.00020.6 % NaCl
106
Bayer
and Forel
Zinc
0.05 % KC1
1,500
Bulach
Steel
400
Pritula
Iron
Sea water
170
Negrejev
Iron
Soil
16.6
Olsen
With damaged
bitumen coat
Iron
Soil
0.7
Olsen
With undamaged
bitumen coat
18.3.1
Gentle
stirring
W/w/X.
6^
7 ^
I
?>0
- +
source of current
285
One of the most important parts of the cathodic protection system is the
anode, from which current is distributed over the protected surface. The
placement of the anode should therefore be such as to distribute the current
as uniformly as possible over the protected surface; in order to achieve this,.
a system of anodes is often used (see Fig. 18-21).
The Sigri Elektrographit Co. of Meitingen (GFR) has developed a system
of electric protection, "Elprot", consisting of graphite anodes impregnated
in a vacuum. These have a much longer service life than metal anodes. They
are connected by specially designed cables to batteries in which graphite
powder is used for the filling between the anodes. This system guarantees
reliable long-term protection for structures embedded in the ground, using
small amounts of power.
The electric current for the system can be obtained from an external
source (usually a mains rectifier), or can be created internally, by setting up
a galvanic cell involving the protected surface itself and some less noble
metal, which is then termed the sacrificed anode, or protector. In the latter
case the system and its installation are considerably simplified, because output
required from the source is very small. The protectors can continue to supply
a low output for a long time, which means that this type of system is the more
cost-effective; there are no operating costs, and no service or maintenance
is required. External sources can nevertheless be used to advantage under
certain conditions (large numbers of anchors, proximity of an electricity
286
supply, protection system already in operation for other installations
nearby, etc.
In Czechoslovakia, protectors are usually made from magnesium alloys,
and are 10 cm in diameter and 80 cm long. Another type of protector is made
from zinc and aluminium alloy. Below are listed some data pertaining to
sacrificed anodes. (Table 18-111).
TABLE 18-111
Characteristics of sacrificed anodes
Specific weight
Theoretical current yield, [Ah/kg]
Theoretical loss of weight, [kg/A year]
Effective current per cent, of theoretical
Actual current yield [Ah/kg]
Actual loss of weight, [kg/A year]
Potential relative to copper sulphate
electrode [V]
Part of potential more negative than
potential of steel 0.85 V (relative
to copper sulphate electrode)
Pure
magnesium
Special alloy
of magnesium H
Aluminium
with 5 % zinc
1.73
1.94
2.92
2,200
2,200
2,870
39.5
39.5
29.5
49
55
39
1,080
1,210
1,120
80.5
71.8
75.7
1.7
1.55
1.1
0.85
0.70
0.25
287
currents are needed. In any case, cathodic protection gives confidence and
reassurance to all concerned that their anchors will have a service life outlasting that of the structure which is being secured.
288
materials used for the fixing of the anchor in the borehole. In Czechoslovakia, for example, the three-component reactive paint S 2008 is recommended; this creates a phosphate layer and an organic anticorrosive
film on the surface of the steel. Wires for prestressing purposes treated with
this paint and exposed to the atmosphere, have not been found to show any
signs of corrosion for at least three months. The protective coating does not
reduce the adhesion of grout to steel. The coats are applied by painting,
spraying, or immersing in a bath of the protective material.
Dipping in a bath is the most efficient application method. Coils of wire
or rope which are to be used for the preparation of anchors should be
protected under Polyvinylchloride or polyester wrapping during transport
and storage. Coils of wire wrapped in this way together with a suitable
desiccant, were found to be untouched by corrosion after a year of storage
in an open, unprotected place.
Chapter 19
LONG-TERM OBSERVATION OF ANCHORS
290
On the basis of tests made on various types of steel [2], the losses caused
by relaxation after 100 hours of loading are found to be approximately double
the losses occurring after 1 hour of loading, 80 per cent, of the loss of stress
after 1,000 hours of loading, and 40 per cent, of the loss after 30 years of
loading.
The relaxation values vary in relation to the loading of the steel. When
steel is stressed to 50 per cent, of its strength, the relaxation losses are
negligible, but they rapidly increase with higher loads, and also increase
significantly with temperature above 20 C.
The introduction of stabilized wires and strands has reduced stress losses
from the 5 10 per cent range of ordinary stress-relieved steel to 1.5 per cent.
at 75 per cent, of the guaranteed tensile strength at 20 C.
In steel loaded for long periods, losses of prestressing due to creep deformation have also been found. These losses are negligible, however, compared with the effects of relaxation.
19.1.2
Creep of the ground under load arises from plastic compression, or failure
of the rock or soil under the stresses brought about in the zone affected by the
load. In the case of prestressed anchors, creep occurs primarily in places
of concentrated stress near the anchor root and below the anchor head
at the surface of the anchored structure.
19.1.2.1
291
20
30
time
40
50
[days]
50,
300
20
100
0
- - 00
<o<o <o
time
(months)
^^:
Fig. 19-1. Drop in prestressing in different types of anchor with time
A bolts; 1 wedge bolt 1.80 m long (the ultimate strength of the bolt not exceeded),
2 wedge bolt (ultimate strength exceeded). (Both bolts fixed in strong migmatite). 3 bolt
in cement mortar (60 cm root) in clayey shale [227], B bar anchor 11.00 m long, 5.00 m
root, C bar anchor 14.00 m long, 5.00 m root [159]
losses reach a maximum of 10 per cent, and are caused more by the relaxation
of steel and creep of the concrete than by creep in the bedrock. The longest
monitoring of anchor prestressing has been carried out at the Cheurfas Dam
in Algeria. After three years the losses were 4 per cent., and after 18 years
they had reached only 5.5 per cent [120]. The anchors, prestressed to 10 MN,
were fixed in strong sandstone (see Chapter 24).
Comte [34] recorded losses of 4 8 per cent in 1,250 kN BBRV anchors
fixed in very variable fissured argillaceous schist in the Nendaz Cavern.
These losses were notably within the 10 per cent, margin allowed, and the
292
greater part of the loss was found to occur in the very early stages of a fiveyear period of observation.
In the course of prestressing two test anchors (fixed anchor length 6 m,
diameter 99 mm), Barron et al. [8] subjected one of the anchors to three
loading cycles prior to lock-off, whereas the other anchor was loaded
directly with the lock-off load. Both were installed in jointed granite
(Fig. 19-2). The tension in the first anchor remained stable throughout the
no
135
130
-^125
\l20
\l15
|Wj
^105
wo r
95
90
r*> ~
10 V \
-0)
_-*
v
*-*-Xs
10
3
4
*
6
time(monfns)
10
Fig. 19-2. Comparison of anchor prestressing performance with time and temperature [8]
1 length of tendon 59.5 m, anchor not repeatedly loaded before lock-off, initial load
133.8 kN, 2 length of tendon 10.1 m, anchor subjected to three loading cycles before
lock-off, initial load 119.5 kN
observation period, whereas a stable state was achieved in the second anchor
only after a marked loss had occurred (by the end of the first week) owing
to the closing of fissures in the rock. The authors concluded that it is better
to raise the loading to its maximum value through a series of cycles, as
a means of minimizing tension losses after lock-off. There also appeared
to be a temperature effect on the apparent tension in the shorter anchor.
Mschler and Matt [138] presented data on the performance of a 1,330 kN
VSL anchor (root length 4.50 m) after test-loading it to 1,725 kN in fractured
calcareous schist in Waldeck Cavern (Fig. 19-3).
19.1.2.2
293
clayey soils and in fine, uniformly grained sands [154]. In these soils large
creep displacements of the anchor root, and plastic flow of the soil around
the root, take place at the ultimate load. The displacements continue to
increase with time and the required tension in the anchor cannot be maintained
permanently; thus the load-bearing capacity drops and the danger increases
that the anchor root will be torn out of the soil.
1.33.
\j\\ . / ^
.132
2
3
1.131
1.29
\ f
1000 hours
i
i
1M
-c:
c:
5^
<=5 I
1.23
1.27
CO
6
8
time (months)
10
11
1t
294
time
10
/minutes)
100
1000
580kN
\580kN
2610 20 30 W 50 60
295
first 2 4 months following the prestressing of the anchor and do not increase
thereafter. Measured values are generally lower than those calculated using
the creep coefficient obtained during the initial loading.
The test result of a cable anchor fixed at a depth of 11 m in loess loam
with a bulb concreted at the foot of the blasted-out borehole (permanent
loading force 345 kN), is shown in Fig. 19-5.
Losses of prestressing caused by creep in soils and soft rocks may be
compensated for by repeated additional stressing at increasingly longer time
intervals (up to one year). This can be done provided that there is no danger
of the load-carrying capacity of the root being exceeded, and that the anchor
was designed for additional prestressing.
Anchors cannot be installed in highly compressible soils with large
amounts of organic matter, or in very soft ground (made-up ground, loose
sand) of low consistency ( < 0.9) or high liquid limit ( > 50 %), because of the
large creep deformations that would occur.
19.1.3
296
19.2 CHANGES IN ANCHOR PRESTRESSING DUE TO EXTERNAL
FACTORS
297
allows a gliding movement of the tendon in the base, and gives very efficient
shock protection to prestressed bolts with mechanical bases. Whereas normal
bolts were found to lose all their load-bearing capacity, and collapsed along
with the rock after a blast was let off in the anchored roof, yielding bolts
held the rock roof intact and only required tightening. Some types of yielding
bolts are described in Section 13.1.5.
40 L-Li
1 I i
U 5
i | i
10 11 12 13 1k 15 16 17
^ - time[days]
Fig. 19-6. Drop in prestressing of bolts with time and as a result of shocks from blasts [68]
a> byc,d tests bolts, 1 to 30 successive blasts
298
299
state of stress of the anchored structure, especially where such changes could
not, or were not considered as part of the static analysis. A very dangerous
phenomenon is the increasing tension that occurs in short bar anchors
supporting underground excavations when the latter are extended, or when
new excavations are going on nearby. The increase of stress within the rock
can give rise to a load exceeding the tensile strength of the bolt. In such cases
a minute displacement of the anchor head suffices to decrease the load to
within the admissible limit, so that the bolt can maintain its stabilizing
function. As in the case in dealing with the effects of shocks, the problem is
solved by using bolts with a small automatic yielding capacity, which comes
into operation as soon as the tensile force reaches a critical value. Another
solution is to supplement the reinforcement with further bolts.
Sometimes a foreseeable increase in the load is allowed for by setting
a lower value for the initial prestressing of the anchor, or by installing the
anchor without any prestressing. The most reliable assessment, of course, is
provided by a systematic observation of the changes of stress (deformation)
occurring in the rock, and measurement of changes in anchor prestressing. Thus
appropriate steps can be taken in time, these usually involving a strengthening
of the reinforcement. Sometimes special measuring anchors are installed
solely for the purpose of observing the changes which take place in the state
of stress of the ground with time, and under the influence of external factors.
Of the latter, the effect of further excavations on the surface or underground
is of primary importance.
Changes in the prestressing of stabilizing anchors caused by a change
in the state of stress and of pressure within the rock or soil medium in the
surroundings of the excavation, are often observed on the supports of underground openings or on the sheeting walls used in the course of construction
operations (see Figs. 20-16 and 22-30). The measured values are compared
with those considered in the design. From the results the correctness of the
calculations in the design, and the effectiveness of the support, can be assessed.
Long-term and short-term observations of changes in the loading of prestressed anchors are carried out with numerous types of instruments (load
cells), working on mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, vibrational and photoclastic principles. According to the system used, these instruments have
different ranges of measurement, different degrees of precision and independence from external influences, and different susceptibilities to damage. They
300
are usually slipped on to the anchor tendon below the anchoring or stressing head, and care must always be taken to ensure that they are loaded centrically (evenly around the perimeter of the instrument). Their condition must be
checked regularly.
19.3.1
Mechanical instruments
Further progress in this direction is represented in the Roof bolts' 'lockplate'\ which functions as a nut at the same time (see Fig. 16-8). This washer is
slipped on to the unthreaded bolt rod, and after prestressing, the washer grips
the rod strongly and reliably by means of self-gripping. The curved and triangular shape of this washer guarantees support at three points on the rock
301
surface. The deformation of the lockplate is so consistent that its various stages of deformity can be used as a visible guide as to the different tensile force
in the bolt and stresses or movements of the bolted rock formations as
illustrated in the photographs. Bolts with these heads can be restressed, if
necessary.
The French Bachy Company makes use of a set of spring washers to check
changes in the prestressing of anchors with large loads (up to 10 MPa). The
washers are covered, together with the anchoring head, by a wrapping
containing sensing elements which automatically register anchor deformation
beyond an admissible set value (Fig. 19-8).
19.3.2
Hydraulic instruments
302
Fig. 19-10. Hydraulic
instrument for measuring
anchor load (Maihak)
A view of complete
instrument, B Cross-section of instrument;
dimensions A, B, C, D, E
vary according to the
capacity of the instrument,
1 anchor, 2 pressure
vessel containing liquid,
3 equalizing washer,
4 pressure gauge
B)
19.3.3
Photoelastic instruments
303
Fig. 19-11. Horstman optical load
meter in service
a) small type (up to 100 kN) on the
bolt head, b) large type (up to
400 kN), installed in cast-steel tubing
forming tunnel reinforcement (in
the left bottom corner the portable
optical gauge is shown in use)
304
Fig. 19-13. Huggenberger A. G. load meter. The dynamometer is shown on a bar anchor
in (A) and the reading equipment is shown in (B)
19.3.5
String instruments
These are among the most reliable and most accurate load-measuring
instruments. The measuring system is based on the vibration of three or six
strings fixed in a cylindrical body with a central opening for the anchor. The
vibration of the strings, induced by a vibration exciter in the reading apparatus, changes with the load. These instruments are made by the renowned
German firm of Maihak, with ranges of 0 to 200, 0 to 500, 0 to 1,000, 0 to
2,000, and 0 to 3,000 kN (Fig. 19-14). They can be read directly or from
a remote point, and are equipped with automatic recording.
19.3.6
Tensiometric instruments
305
Fig. 19-14. Maihak string dynamometer
306
ill
Fig. 19-16. Strain gauge dynamometers DMS of Proceq SA for compressive forces of 1120,
2020, 3030, and 5050 kN
Chapter 20
A N C H O R I N G OF U N D E R G R O U N D
EXCAVATIONS
309
1 - v
= .
(Fig. 20-1)
.-*"
\r
If the slow changes taking place in the stress pattern of the rock during
excavation are considered in terms of Mohr's representation for homogenous
medium (Fig. 20-2), then circle 2 denotes the state prior to excavation.
Circle 3, which touches the rock failure curve, represents the limit state of the
rock load-bearing capacity at the commencement of excavation, and circle 4
represents the substantially increased tangential stress developing in the rock
as excavation proceeds (the radial stress being zero). The rock is usually
unable to withstand the increased tangential stress, and consequently fails
(loosens). Failure occurs initially in the roof, where tensile stresses occur
(as shown in Fig. 20-1); the rock is unable to withstand these to the same
extent as compressive stress. Only when the weight of the overburden
310
Fig. 20-2. Stress values in a rock mass before and
after the breaking of an opening, represented in
a Mohr's diagram (ace. to A. Hugon)
1 envelope of full rock strength, 2 circle
representing stress state in the mass before the
breaking of the opening, 3 stress state at the
moment of rock failure, 4 stress state in the natural
arch after completion of the opening (radial
stress = 0), p radial stress needed to secure the
face against collapse
311
312
WTT
where Fs
xt
hs
y
=
=
=
=
<cm)
The bolts are always prestressed to the assumed value of the load, P (given
by P = y . hs. / r 2 ), in order to verify their load-bearing capacity and reestablish (at least partially) the stress state in the rock existing before the
commencement of excavation. The extreme bolts are placed as close as
possible to the walls of the excavation, because the support zone of the rock
beam can only be assumed to extend for a short distance back from the face.
This distance is theoretically given by h I tg 45 J, as with a natural arch
(see Fig. 20-6).
The distance lr is sometimes assessed by considering the admissible tensile
stress on the lowermost bed of the supported strata, between the two bolts.
The bed is assumed to be partially fixed in the anchoring point.
The permissible span is:
/ 20 .hf
h = J-V m .q
where 0
ht
m
q
=
=
=
=
(cm),
If l'r < / r , either the spacing of the bolts must be equal to l'r and narrower
bolts used, or the bolts must be connected by flangeplates in one direction,
whilst the spacing is reduced to l'r in the other. It is also possible to secure
the roof bed with wire netting, fixed to the roof with bolts spaced at the
distance lr apart. The latter procedure is recommended as the most reliable
means of preventing the loosening of the rock between bolts; the tensile
strength of rock under the influence of bending is highly variable because
of the presence of many transverse cracks and fissures, and is therefore
preferably not taken into account.
The fixing depth of the bolt in the load-bearing rock is determined by the
requirement that the resistance to extraction of the bolt be greater than the
bolt strength. It has been shown in tests that a dish-shaped body of rock is
torn out by the anchor from a strong compact rock mass, whereas in fissured
rock the natural planes of separation have a strong influence on the shape
313
of the torn-out part of the rock, which in this case closely resembles a regular
cone with its apex (apex angle 90) at the bolt fixing point (Fig. 20-4).
From the condition:
Fs. ] ^ . hu. Th
sin 45 '
a /
_l_y\4f
*-A
er
1
^l^
10.22 .F..o>
/= K + K
or
/ = K + /.
314
derived from the nomogram as to the effect of the proposed bolt anchorage
under different conditions. A coefficient of consolidation of 1.5 to 2 may
be considered satisfactory, since this will mean that the downward displacement of the roof is reduced by 33 to 50 per cent, at the collapse limit, compared
with a roof without anchorage.
Fig. 20-5. Nomogram for the design of bolt anchorage in stratified rock over openings
(according to L. A. Panek, modified by R. Kvapil and K. Luffr)
20.1.2
315
threatened by collapse under the natural arch is obtained from the formula:
-x-h'-*(-*)]-
<
316
TABLE 20-1
Height of rock load over an opening (according to Terzaghi)
Category of rock
Behaviour of rock
A - - massive rock
00.256
B - - bedded rock
horizontal beds
vertical beds
inclined beds
00.500
00.256
0.250.506
falling of stones, no
pressure
C - - irregularly
jointed rock
0.250.35 (6 4- h)
0.351.10(6 + h)
E - - cohesive soil
of medium depth
1.102.10(6 + h)
2.104.50(6 + 6)
D - densely jointed
rock, crumbly
rock
non-cohesive
soil
lateral
Caverns are usually designed with vaulted ceilings, so that the major part
of the loosened rock below the natural arch is removed in the excavation.
In caverns which have already been excavated, the zone of the natural arch
can be ascertained approximately by any direct measuring method (for
example geophysically).
If the theoretical height of the natural arch is known, the optimum length
and spacing of the bolts can be roughly assessed. The purpose of the anchorage
is either to suspend the loosened rock of the cavern roof from the loadbearing zone of the natural arch, or to strengthen the loosened rock so that
it becomes self-supporting, further loosening of the rock thus being prevented.
The former type of anchorage which draws the excavated face in towards
the zone of the natural arch, can be used if the arch zone is not too far in
from the cavern face, and comprises strong and little-damaged rock. The
maximum bolt length required is usually that of the bolts placed in the centre
of the roof, and is equal to the sum of the distance between the lower edge
of the natural rock arch and the ceiling, and the fixing length of the bolt
in this zone:
317
I = + hu
or
v + /,
/,- /SIS,
V
where Fs =
xt =
y=
v =
.
area of cross-section of the bolt,
permissible tensile stress of the bolt material,
volume weight of the rock,
loading height.
For practical purposes and for the sake of economy lr is usually taken as
being at least 1 m, and the diameter of the bolts is adjusted accordingly.
In the second case, which applies in the presence of weaker or damaged
rocks and where the natural arch is formed farther in from the excavation
face, the rock in the loosened zone is reinforced and prestressed by bolt
anchorage to form a load-bearing arch, d [166] (Fig. 20-7).
Fig. 20-7. Artificial arch formed by locking the loosened rock above the opening with a system
of prestressed bolts
/
/
A width of arch formed where = 3, B width of arch formed where = 2
lr
lr
If the apex angle of the pressure cones issuing from both ends of a bolt
of effective length / is 2a, and the bolt is prestressed with a tensile force P,
the compressed zone, d is subjected to a radial stress from each bolt [69] r
given by the expression:
8P
Gp
nl2Ag2a'
This radial stress induces a peripheral stress in the rock mass; the latter
318
stress acts in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the bolt, and substantially
increases the strength of the rock in the compressed zone [113]. It has been
found from triaxial tests that a rock, the strength of which was very low
under uniaxial compression, acquired a strength of 2 to 8 MPa under a lateral
compression load of 0.2 MPa. An arch formed from rock which when
prestressed acquires a strength of 5 MPa in a zone 100 cm wide, can take
a peripheral load of up to 50 kN/cm, and is thus equivalent to a concrete
arch 20 cm thick [69]. The width of the compressed zone, d, with effective
bolt length /, bolt spacing / r , and pressure cone apex angle 2a = 90, may be
approximated as
d= I - lr.
In this way, a continuous compressed zone of rock is created of sufficient
thickness to transfer the dead weight of the loosened section of the overburden. The length of the bolts is often determined empirically, as described
in Section 20.2.2.
20.1.3
Fig. 20-8. Placement of bolts for various directions of the planes of discontinuity
A horizontal, B vertical, C slanting
319
of the rock mass) which tend to bring about this movement. If the angle of
inclination of the main system of planes is a (see Fig. 20-8), then the maximum
tangential force, , which must be secured is given by T = G . sin a =
= G cos a . tg + Rk = y . V . /r2 . cos a . tg + Rk, and therefore,
Rk = y . . /r2(sin a cos a . tg ),
where y
/'
lr
=
=
=
=
Furthermore,
where Fs = area of cross-section of the bolt,
xt = permissible tensile stress of steel.
The force Pk will be most efficient (creating maximum Rk) when the angle
of inclination of the bolts, , is + 90. For horizontal beds and
vertical bolts, Pk = G.tg(p.
A detailed analysis of the equilibrium conditions in a block of rock near
the walls or ceiling surface of an underground excavation was worked out
by Lang [113] on the basis of a two-dimensional stress system. He considered
a block in the ceiling or wall, intersected by one or two joints, and subjected
to (apart from the effect of its dead weight) the resultant of external forces
and the compression effects of prestressed bolts in various directions. The
conditions of equilibrium for the block of rock in the roof and wall of the
excavation are shown in Fig. 20-9. At the joint surfaces, it is assumed that
the only resistance to movement is that induced by friction.
According to Heuze [77], there is still another resistance to displacement
along the joints in strong rocks, namely that occurring as a result of the
unevennesses of the joint surface; this effect would have to be overcome by the
dilatancy of the rock (lifting, increase of volume) before any sliding could
take place along the joint. The difference between the shear resistance at the
< tg ( + )
B : tg (>
tg (a + )
displacement mm
joint which does induce dilatancy, and that which does not induce dilatancy
on shearing, is shown in Fig. 20-10. Prestressed bolts are an effective restraint
on rock dilatancy.
If non-prestressed bolts, cemented in the boreholes along their entire
length, are used for roof stabilization, they resist movement along the
discontinuity by virtue of their shear strength. In this case only the permissible
shear stress, , of the bolt steel is considered:
k
cos ( + ) '
and the required cross-section of the non-prestressed bolt (to provide the
necessary shear strength) is given by:
_ y . /' . /,(sin a cos a . tg ) cos (a + )
If the angle of friction along the planes of discontinuity is small, nonprestressed bolts embedded in grout along the entire borehole length offer
greater resistance. Such bolts offer resistance only when the rock strength
is exceeded.
20.2 A N C H O R A G E D E S I G N FOR U N D E R G R O U N D EXCAVATIONS
321
and the excavation method. These starting conditions may vary from the simple to the very complex, and from situations which are well understood at the
outset to those that can only be more accurately understood as the excavation
proceeds. The anchorage design is decided by these starting conditions, which
are known either empirically or from the results of analysis; thus the design
may be complemented, if necessary, by the results of observations and
measurements carried out in the course of excavation.
Even where rule of thumb is followed, preference must always be given to
a general pattern of bolting, rather than to the installation of bolts only where
the engineer or inspector considers they might be needed [61].
No jointing pattern in the rock is completely regular, and therefore the
positioning of bolts only according to superficial surface conditions could well
have disastrous consequences. Pattern bolting has many advantages from the
construction point of view. The number of bolts in each row and the distance
between each row are arranged so that it is possible to install one or more
rows after each round (cut) is fired, and the installation crews can then
work systematically and quickly. With such systematic working, each bolt
is assured greater attention both during its installation and its subsequent
checking. These advantages far outweigh the cost of the few extra bolts that
may be used in this way.
The design must in every case be based on up-to-date geological information concerning the location of joints and other major features of the geological structure, and there must be a careful appraisal of the information
obtained from rock behaviour measurements in areas that are already
opened up.
A very important part of this appraisal is the observation of the effect
of deformation on the loading of the excavation and the change of this
loading with time. Immediately after excavation of the cavity an elastic
displacement of the rock into the free space takes place together with a marked
drop in radial pressure. The time of this occurrence is also the most suitable
time for setting up the support and reinforcement of the rock, because
a relatively weak reinforcement then suffices for its stabilization [175].
Delay in placing the reinforcement leads to a gradual loosening of the rock
in the surroundings of the excavation and a further increase in pressure.
An inadequate reinforcement then has to be strengthened, and above less deep
excavations, the ground surface may sink [35].
20.2.1
Analytical procedure
According to Gerhart [61] the analytical methods used for assessing the
stability of rock structures are direct developments from structural analysis
and applied mechanics. Their complexity ranges from the simple case of
322
323
kx>
A**TZ
Empirical procedure
When neither the geological conditions nor the scale of the operation
justify the use of exacting analytical procedures, anchorages for the stabilization of underground excavations can be designed according to empirical
rules based on experience. Many kilometres of tunnels all over the world
have been successfully built in this way. Also the well known New Austrian
tunnel driving method, which is described in detail in the following Section,
is based on a rule-of-thumb anchorage design according to qualitative
evaluation of the natural rock conditions.
In Europe, the most widely used empirical rule for the design of bolt
anchorage in tunnels was laid down by Rabcewicz in the fifties [172]. He
recommended that the effective length of the bolt should be equal to, or
greater than, one third of the excavation width, and that the spacing of the
bolts should not exceed a half of the effective bolt length. The prestressing
of the bolt should equal approximately the weight of the secured rock.
324
0
I
5
'
10 15
'
20
1 m
Fig. 20-12. Finite element mesh for Machu Picchu underground power station in Peru [42]
In the USA, a detailed set of empirical rules governing the length, spacing
and prestressing of bolts was laid down by the Corps of Engineers [61].
They recommend the following parameters:
Length (minimum)
a) Two times the bolt spacing.
b) Three times the width of unstable rock blocks.
c) For roof bolts
spans less then 6 m one half of span,
spans from 6 to 18 m interpolated within the range 3 to 4.5 m bolt
length,
spans 18 to 30 m one quarter of span
325
d) For wall bolts
height less than 18 m length as determined in c) above,
height more than 18 m one fifth of height.
Spacing (maximum)
a) one half of the bolt length,
b) one-and-a-half times the width of unstable rock blocks,
c) 1.8 m (a spacing of more than 1.8 m makes the attachment of a surface
net such as chain-link fabric difficult).
Prestressing (minimum average confinement pressure at yield point of
bolts)
1. For roof bolts
a) pressure equal to that of a rock load of vertical thickness 0.2 times
the opening width,
b) pressure of 42 kPa.
2. For wall bolts
a) pressure equal to that of a rock load of vertical thickness 0.1 times
the opening height,
b) pressure of 42 kPa.
3. At intersections of underground passages
Twice the confinement pressure as indicated above. This reinforcement
should be installed in the first passage (opening) excavated prior to
forming the intersection. Stress concentrations are generally higher at
intersections, and rock blocks are free to move towards openings.
20.2.3
This method has come into use all over the world during the last two
decades, although it is based mostly on empirically derived knowledge. It is
not new as regards the driving procedure, the main innovation being the
method of securing the excavation by the stabilizing effect of anchors. The
rock in the surroundings of the opening, damaged and loosened by the
excavation work, is strengthened by a regular system of steel bolts to form
a self-bearing, but yielding, roof arch. The bolt system is complemented at
the rock surface by a layer of gunite of varying thickness, reinforced by wire
mesh or steel ribs, if necessary. This reinforcement can be adapted for either
temporary or permanent stabilization of underground excavations of a variety
of cross-sections; it can be used in full face tunnel sections or in parts, while
explosives, tunnelling machines or shields are being used nearby. The extent
of the strengthened zone around the excavation can be varied according to
the quality of the rock and the outline of the opening. This zone can easily
be strengthened with further anchors or layers of gunite, if such seems
necessary on the basis of deformations of the rock and rock reinforcement
326
registered by instruments set up in the course of excavation. The reinforcement is quickly installed with a high degree of mechanization, made possible
by the fact that the opening remains free all the time. The full opening usually
has a circular or horseshoe shape.
The design of the anchorage and its complementary strengthening is
usually carried out according to a standard scheme, there being groups of
such schemes corresponding to particular qualities of the rock or soil. In
Europe, the classification of standard schemes compiled by the Austrian
experts Rabcewicz, Lauffer and Pacher [114, 161] is well known. There are six
classes with corresponding construction sequences and reinforcement
(Fig. 20-13).
1st class. Massive, unjointed, or slightly jointed dry rocks the compressive
strength of which is sufficient to withstand the tangential stress in the excavation line. The complete excavation is permanently stable without reinforcement, or with minimal local strengthening of individual rock blocks, or
places susceptible to bursting; for the latter purpose, short bolts are fixed
individually or in groups.
/.
//.
///
Fig. 20-13. Six classes of tunnel excavation scheme, with corresponding support construction
sequences (New Austrian tunnelling method, according to Pacher) [161]
327
in the roof, together with wire mesh. The walls and floor are locally
strengthened with anchors as required.
3rd class. Rocks densely or very densely dissected by planes of discontinuity
in different directions (stratification, foliation, and/or jointing). Crushed zones
and clayey infillings are present and there is visible water seepage. The rock
strength in the excavation line is exceeded and the rock must be systematically
strengthened to form a load-bearing roof arch around the excavation. The
zone of loosened rock above the ceiling is threatened by collapse first of all.
Excavation proceeds in two stages, first the roof section and then the floor
section, with immediate securing with gunite initially, then with anchors
or steel girders, and subsequently with gunite again. Prestressed bar anchors
can be used for this category of rock, but after prestressing they must be
fixed in the rock with cement over the entire borehole length. The more
the quality of the rock mass has deteriorated, the more do prestressed anchors
have to be replaced by non-prestressed anchors fixed in the rock along their
entire length.
4th class. Badly broken to technically crushed rocks, regions of rock
failure and cohesive soils of stiff consistency. Plastically deforming rock or
soil intrudes spontaneously into the excavation from the roof and walls and
the floor rises. There is marked water influx. Excavation proceeds in several
successive stages, always with immediate securing with anchors, steel girders
and gunite. The strengthened rock zone must be completed with an adjoining
concrete vault at the bottom. The class 4 standard anchored reinforcement
scheme used for the Taurus motorway tunnel in Austria, is shown in
Fig. 20-14 [69].
5th class. Crushed, mylonitized rocks, cohesive soils uncompacted, much
squeezing (pressure-exerting). Plastically deforming material intrudes into
the excavation from all sides. There is a considerable water influx. Securing
is achieved in the same way as in the previous class, except that longer
anchors are used. Excavation and anchoring sequences are shown in
Fig. 20-15.
6th class. Loose soils, detritus and crushed rocks at great depth, and
generally the most difficult conditions for excavation. Excavation progresses
in short stages analogous to the sequence for class 5, or a shield is used;
however the length and density of anchors is greater, and the spacing of
steel girders smaller. Even the front face of the excavation must be secured
with gunite or anchors. The bottom of the excavation is also anchored to
create a conjoined load-bearing arch, which must, however, show a sufficient
degree of yielding. The rock pressure is significantly reduced if a small
yielding of the reinforcement is possible. If, however, excessive deformations
of the rock are registered in the surroundings of the opening (Fig. 20-16),
the reinforcement is strengthened with further anchors.
328
Fig. 20-14. Standard support system
for the 4th class of rock (according
to the New Austrian tunnelling method),
as applied in the Taurus motorway
tunnel in the Alps. Anchors installed
in the sections with strong lateral
pressures are shown by dashed
lines [69]
cross-section
0.15
A-A
, 0-15
concrete
ottom vault
0.75ml
\ steel laggings
> wire mesh A 65
\ shoterete 26 MPo
steel nis TM 36/58
isolation
inside concrete lining
Fig. 20-15. Excavation and anchoring sequences for the 5th class of rock, according to the
Austrian classification [69]
329
Fig. 20-16. Installation of measuring
equipment in tunnel excavation, according
to. Mller [143]
A 1 prestressed anchors with load
meters, 2 multiple position extensionmeter, 3 section between studs fixed
in the rock face for the measurement of
the convergency of the excavation
B measurements of convergency in the
Taurus tunnel by workers of Interf els,
Salzburg;
330
The New Austrian tunnel driving method has proved its worth not only
in strong rocks, but particularly also in squeezing and loose ground where
astonishingly good results have been obtained. For instance, during the
construction of the Massenberg tunnel (Austria) [174] in slope detritus and
weathered shales, caving-in occurred even with strong concrete reinforcement 80 cm thick; the rock was eventually stabilized by the use of anchorage.
Another example of the successful application of this method in very
adverse conditions is that of the construction of the underground railway
in Frankfurt (GFR) [69]. The tunnel of diameter 6.35 m was driven through
cohesive soils with a maximum compressive strength of 0.3 MPa, angle of
friction 20, and cohesiveness 10 65 kPa. The overburden was only a few
meters thick and the tunnel passed the foundations of buildings at a distance
of only 6.20 m. The geological data necessary for the design of the anchorage
system were obtained from an exploratory gallery, driven in advance. The
faces of the full excavation were anchored with particular care to minimize
settlement of the ground surface.
The New Austrian tunnel driving method is very adaptable to new conditions of the rock mass met with in the course of excavation, and the reinforcement can be strengthened almost arbitrarily, if necessary. For example,
when sections of the Taurus tunnel were driven at a depth of 800 to 1,000 m
into highly compressed phyllites originally placed in class 4, the reinforcement turned out to be inadequate. Large deformations rapidly developed
during excavation of the roof section as a result of large lateral pressures.
To deal with this, further non-prestressed grouted anchors 6 m long (and
later 9 m long) were installed, and ultimately two rows of 13 m-long rope
anchors, prestressed to 600 kN had to be added. Only then was the section
stabilized.
Most of the communication tunnels all over the world are driven by this
method nowadays.
20.3 EXAMPLES OF T H E A N C H O R I N G OF U N D E R G R O U N D
EXCAVATIONS
20.3.1
331
Period
of stability
Maximum
spacing
between
supports
A strong rock (compact, igneous rock, massive thickbedded sediments, massive gneiss)
B jointed rock (jointed igneous rock, thin-bedded sediments, metamorphic rock with marked foliation)
C densely jointed rock (densely jointed igneous rock,
shales and weaker metamorphic rocks)
D crumbly rock (soft rocks, clayey shales, disturbed and
partly weathered hard rocks)
E very crumbly, disturbed rock (weaker soft rocks, much
disturbed and weathered hard rocks)
F pressure-exerting rock (weathered and disturbed clayey
shales, cohesive soils with solid to hard consistency, sand
and gravel with high moisture content)
G high-pressure-exerting rock (cohesive soils with soft to
stiff consistency, saturated sand and gravel, fills, organic
20 years
4 m
6 months
4m
1 week
3m
5 hours
1.5 m
20 minutes
0.8 m
2 minutes
0.4 m
10 seconds
0.15 m
soils)
When a new cut is made, a rock arch or beam is assumed to come into
effect between the last line of bolts and the excavation face. Over the newly
broken roof section, between the points of support, a normally parabolic
332
zone of loosened rock develops, with a height not exceeding . A new line
of bolts is placed at the stated distance lr to secure the roof. By tightening
the nut on each bolt the washer is pressed against the rock surface with
a force of at least 30 40 kN, and this prestressing strengthens, stabilizes
and prevents further loosening of the reck in the close vicinity of the anchoring point.
When the rock is densely fractured, there is the danger that rock fragments
may fall from the roof in between anchoring points, or in massive rocks,
bursts may occur as a result of concentrations of stress in the excavation face.
In such cases protective wire nets are laid along the roof surface immediately after its first rough dressing, which can be carried out from the preceding,
already secured section. The fixing washers of the anchors press the wire net
against the rock surface (Fig. 20-17). Steel bands, connecting several bolts
in a row, and used in place of the individual washers, provide a high degree
of stability. A layer of gunite or concrete sprayed on after the anchors have
been prestressed provides a lasting protection of the surface (Fig. 20-18
and 20-19).
333
S*C
a)
*>'-'/:
^^mm^^mM
*j*jT
^
*>)
The whole cutting cycle, including drilling, placing the explosives, blasting,
dressing the roof, removing the spoil, and anchoring the roof, should be
organized in one working day. When suitable machines are available,
particularly multi-purpose wagon-drills and loaders, the cutting may advance
across the full cross-section (Fig. 20-20), even though this may be very large
(over 100 m 2 ). Thus, for example, when a railway tunnel in Norway (area
of cross-section, 70 m 2 ) was driven into strong granite, the length of cut9
IM
bolting floor
f^f
^ f
^r
*4 Fig. 20-19. Excavation of a gallery (diameter 5.8 m) for the Suassaz hydroelectric
power plant (France). The excavation is secured with a regular array of bolts
covered with a layer of gunite [212]
335
and therefore the daily advance, was 3.60 m. Eighty boreholes were made in
the advancing face, the peripheral boreholes carrying limited amounts of
charge so as to obtain a smooth blast face. A Jumbo wagon-drill with four
drilling booms of Atlas Copco advanced 50 cm/minute using a 1 7/8" (48 mm)
bit [74].
The entire roof anchoring operation across the full width of the excavation is now highly mechanized. Several firms produce special Jumbo wagondrills which are remotely controlled from the previously secured section.
Such a machine (Fig. 20-21) automatically drills the anchoring boreholes
whether vertical or inclined, places the mechanical or grouted bolts and then
prestresses them by tightening the nut to the required tension. Only 3 minutes
are required for the fixing of one bolt into the roof.
The smallest existing self-propelled single-boom hydraulic jumbo
Secoma ATH 12-1F can drill and bolt in galleries as small as 2 x 2 m and
as large as 3,9 x 4,2 m. For higher openings, other types of wagons are
manufactured with telescopic platforms (Fig. 20-22) from which the roof
is dressed, anchored, and covered with wire net or mesh after the blasting.
20.3.2
336
a)
Fig. 20-21. Bolting jumbos of Tamrock BH 20-8 (a) and Secoma CTH 15-1B (b) for fully remote-controlled rock bolting
337
Fig. 20-21.
drive and reinforce narrow galleries around the perimeter of the full cross
section (Fig. 20-26). Because a reduction of the cross-section width by up to
150 cm took place under the very high lateral pressures, more than 800 anchors
from 6 to 9 m long, prestressed to 580 kN, had to be installed in this section.
The final concrete lining of the tunnel could only be carried out after gradual
disappearance of the rock pressure.
The stabilizing effect of anchors was exploited in a remarkable way when
the wide stations of the Washington underground railway were excavated
at a short distance below the ground surface [35]. The stations, excavated to
a width of more than 20 m, are mostly less than 30 m below the ground
surface, and the rock cover over the crown is often less than 10 m. The
schistose gneiss in which many of the stations are cut is unweathered, and
contains four or five sets of joints which are planar, continuous, and often
smooth-faced. The joint spacing commonly ranges from 1 to 2 m. The shear
338
Fig. 20-22. Wagon-drill with
telescopic platform, in service, A anchoring the face
of the cavern for the Churchill Falls hydroelectric power plant in Labrador
(photo Williams)
ill.
1
\Mmmm
i f f If?
'"/'"
wmwM i
zones which strike parallel to the foliation are typically 0.5 to 2.0 m wide
and consist of layers of fractured rock with smooth interfaces. The quality
of the rock apart from the shear zones is usually high (RQD = 70 % or
more). At first the inter-station tunnels of 6 m diameter were excavated by
339
cross - sectional
^ 777^?Zyr^77r^7/>
luMjitudinel section
io
bolts 3.5m
<
) 2 layers of
J shoicreie with mesh Fig. 20-23. Support for the Monte Piazzo
tunnel, according to class 3 of the New
inside concrete
1
11
12
1.1
T-*
^R;
o)
Fig. 20-25. Two hydraulic booms HB 450 of Bhler with drilling and bolting equipment
mounted on a boom cutter
a) schematic drawing, b) see page 340
340
II,
b)
Fig. 20-25.
6) view of a cutting machine with two booms of Bhler in idling position
341
b)
Fig. 20-26.
b) view of excavation [66]
the wall plate and the lower portion of the concrete arch. The final structural
lining, consisting of steel ribs and gunite, was installed as the heading of the
fullwidth excavation was advanced (Fig. 20-28). Detailed measurements of
rock deformation made with extensionmeter demonstrated the high efficiency
342
typical joint
orientations
recessed
rock bolt
foliation
shears
initial
^rib W n*61
shoterete layer
sho terete
of the anchorage, even under the extremely adverse conditions prevailing in the
Dupont Circle Station (Fig. 20-29), where the line tunnels had not been
excavated in advance.
20.3.3
343
multiple position
Connecticut A ve
underpass
cluster ofdouble
V strain gauges attached to
position ettensometer
steel sets
rock bolts f 28 mm
Jo
0f\^
bolts^z
f35mm
concrete
^b
/ 6b
0
1 i
i i i
1 i
10m
i i ij
the best results are obtained with non-prestressed bars without externally
projecting heads which might obstruct the passage of spoil etc. Cements based
on synthetic resins are particularly suitable in these situations, as they remain
sufficiently elastic after hardening to absorb and withstand the severe shocks
produced by explosives and movement of disintegrating rock [130].
The anchoring of the concrete linings of pressure galleries and penstock
shafts fulfils a different function, namely that of combining the strength
of the lining with the strength of the surrounding rock against the internal
pressure of water. A reinforced and anchored gunite lining (see Fig. 20-19) can
be used successfully in place of more costly steel armouring.
Very effective strengthening by means of prestressed bolts and anchors
can be achieved in rock pillars and in corners, where the anchors assist in
distributing high concentrations of stress throughout the rock of these forma-
344
Fig. 20-30. Anchored flat roof of a gallery in underground mine (photo Titan, Australia)
345
:.?1
9.0 m
-A
section A -A
3m
tion of a swelling clayey shale forming the floor of a coal mine gallery is
shown in Fig. 20-34 [69]. In these situations the bolts must be fitted at the
earliest opportunity after excavation, the anchoring must be of sufficient
depth (1/3 to 1/2 of the gallery width), and the grout must be of a rapid
hardening type.
20.3.4
346
wmi
mm
9*
'-.
Ji
v&e^'i'w
4-
b>r
'
^
v
-*/*'
t * * , l&h,~*&.
,*M%ippi
Fig. 20-33. Anchoring of the upper part of a rock pillar 6 m high iii the Olkusz mine
(Poland) [201]
has been made possible by the technique of rock anchoring. As long as only
supporting types of reinforcement were available, the excavation of large
caverns in weaker types of rock was difficult and very- costly. Nowadays
the excavation of large spaces proceeds quickly and is economical. Under-
ground
plan
^J
fc
S*
-o
-o
o-
fcs
-oo
-i
o-
4.2/77
o~
"if
5k
cross - sect/on
ground caverns are much cheaper than surface constructions of the same
usable volume.
Among the first large, anchored underground caverns in the world was
the machine hall of the power plant at Lipno in Czechoslovakia (Fig. 20-35),
the maximum width of the arch being 32 m [230]. The project involved an
investigation of the structural conditions of the granite mass, carried out
by geophysical surveying in pilot tunnels. As a result, faces of up to 30 m
in height in the main cavern were reliably secured with anchors. Steel bolts,
36 mm in diameter and from 4 to 9 m long, were installed in boreholes filled
with grout, the grout having been passed to the blind end of the borehole
by means of a glass tube. When the grout had hardened, the bolt's were
prestressed with a tensile force of between 40 50 kN, by tightening the
nuts with a flat spanner. The average density of bolt placement was one per
4.2 m 2 (Fig. 20-36).
Of the large number of anchor-stabilized underground power plants
constructed in the past 25 years, some typical examples are cited in the
following.
The Lutz underground power station excavated in a flysh series of sandstone, limestone and soft marly shales, is exemplary as a project in which all
modern construction methods were used in the securing of the excavation
as appropriate for the existing geological conditions (Fig. 20-37) [188b]. During
348
V
M%
\>;
*s%
>
>
Fig. 20-35. View of the northern part of the excavation for the main cavern of the underground
hydroelectric power plant at Lipno (Czechoslovakia)
349
350
the breaking of the roof for the protective parabolic vault, the former was
temporarily secured with short bolts mechanically fixed in the rock. The
longitudinal walls were stabilized by means of vertical pillars secured with
long anchoring reaching deep into the rock, across the beds. The shorter
walls, however, were protected from sliding and the collapse of pieces of the
rock bedding into the excavated space, by thin reinforced concrete vaults.
The Veytaux underground power plant in Switzerland has a cavern
30.5 m wide, 23 to 26.5 m high, and 137.5 m long. It wa& excavated in stages
in horizontally bedded and much jointed limestones and marlstones; the
perimeter was excavated first, followed by the core of the cavern. The entire
face of the excavation was temporarily secured by a regular system of bar
anchors, wire mesh, and gunite of 15 cm minimum thickness. The bolts
which were 4 m long, were fixed with resin so that it was possible to prestress
them (to 160 kN) after several hours. When the excavation had been complet-
Fig. 20-37. Securing of the Lutz cavern (Austria), excavated in a flysch series
a) groundplan (double lines with bedding symbols of strike and dip denote the main
positions of soft shales), b) cross-section of the cavern
ed, the roof and the walls were permanently secured with VSL cable anchors
11 to 18m long, with service loads of 1.35 and 1.15MN. There was an
average of one cable anchor per 14 m 2 of roof area (Fig. 20-38). The originally
planned concrete arch was abandoned.
The underground El Toro power plant in Chile is built in a cavern shown
in cross-section in Fig. 20-39. It was excavated in granodiorite with three
main systems of joints. The excavation progressed from the top downwards.
At each stage of the excavation the rock was immediately secured with long
351
cable anchors (service load, 1,200 kN), together with short bar anchors
prestressed to 160 kN, according to the local requirements in regions between
long anchors. The spacing of the long anchors was 6 m longitudinally, and
3 to 5 m transversely. When the entire length of the roof section had been
b)
352
Fig. 20-39. El Toro underground power plant (Chile), showing excavation sequence
and anchorage [122]
353
a)
Fig. 20-40. Anchorage of rock walls of a circular shaft for the Vianden III power plant
(Luxemburg)
a) cross-section and horizontal section, b) see page 354
354
b)
Fig. 20-40.
b) view into the shaft
One of the largest caverns in the world (for the underground Waldeck II
power station in the German Federal Republic) is 106 m long, 54 m high,
and 33.5 m wide. It is situated in a series of clayey shales and greywackes,
inclined at 20, with marked thick-bedded jointing. The compressive strength
of these rocks [69, 45, 122] was found to vary from 50 to 80 MPa, and the
shear parameters for the bed joints were = 20, c = 0.15 MPa. In view
of the dimensions of the cavern, the only feasible method of stabilizing the
rock was to construct a self-supporting vault with the aid of prestressed
anchors, since an adequate concrete lining would have been far too costly. The
stress conditions around the cavity were computed from photoelastic analyses,
and the necessary anchoring forces and anchor lengths were determined
355
rockbolts
long tendons 1.
(1320kNtensioned)IH
(22 5 kN
tensioned)
elev.
-y 151.00
I long tenders
~^j(132QkH tensioned)
rockbolts
(22 5 kN tensioned}
unten sionedgrouted
dowels(32mm diameter)
Fig. 20-41. Anchoring scheme and excavation sequence for the cavern of the Paolo Alfonso IV
power station (Brazil) [122]
356
1.7 MN
^ /
/ /
357
Fig. 20-43. Situation and geological features of the site of the Norad Expansion Project
(USA) [170]
358
Fig. 20-44. Excavation and support of exhaust valve chamber of the Norad Expansion
Project [170]
Chapter 21
S T A B I L I Z A T I O N OF R O C K
A N D S O I L S L O P E S BY A N C H O R I N G
The stability of a rock or soil slope depends on its gradient and height,
the stresses (vertical and horizontal) within the slope, the weight and strength
of the ground as it has been naturally formed, the pressure of water in the
soil pores or rock joints, and the effect of various external forces, such as
permanent and changing loads impinging on the surface, shocks of all kinds,
changes of temperature, etc. Slope surfaces are formed over long periods
of time by the activity of all these factors, as well as atmospheric processes
and sometimes also the effects of vegetation which break up the surface and
reduce the stability of the slope.
The main forces contributing to slope failure are those arising from the
dead weight of the rock, soil, or other materials which place a load on the
slope and from the pressure of water in the slope. These forces tend to bring
about a downward movement of material as long as a gradient exists. A restraint on this tendency is provided by the shear strength of the ground.
This strength is considerable where the ground consists of solid rocks,
although it is often reduced by planes of discontinuity (cracks, joints,
failures, fracture zones). It is substantially lower in the case of soils.
The stability of slopes can be increased to good effect by anchoring them
into the bedrock below the probable shear surface. The prestressing of the
anchor increases the effect of friction at this surface and creates forces which
directly act against possible movement%af the slope.
The anchoring method can also be applied profitably when artificial
slopes are created in the construction of roads etc., and in open pit mines.
If the slope faces are secured with anchors as excavation proceeds, steeper
gradients can be created. This not only means economy in terms of land,
but also reduces the cost compared with earthmoving for unanchored,
flatter gradients. This is shown by data given later in Chapter 29.
Anchoring is most applicable where the superficial layers of existing or
newly formed steep rock slopes need to be strengthened. A prestressed
superficial layer of rock, unless it undergoes weathering, may well serve
instead of concrete retaining walls, and at far less cost.
360
21.1 CALCULATION OF A N C H O R I N G FORCES
Soil slopes
The surface along which failure most often occurs in soils is cylindrical.
The equilibrium of such a surface is usually expressed according to the
method of K. E. Petterson, as described in any textbook on soil mechanics.
The stability of a slope is maintained when the moments of those forces
acting on the cylindrical shear surface (i.e. moments contributing to slope
stability) are greater than the moment tending to bring about slope failure
(Fig. 21-1):
AN.f.r
+ Ic . / . r ^ AT. r,
77
^^^^P7^7P^^
361
Ic.Al
f(I AN + Pn) + Ic . Al
-Pt
The optimum value for the angle has been stated by Hobst (see Chapter 4) as being the complementary angle of the angle of friction, :
tg = -j = cotg .
The importance both of the inclination of prestressed anchors, and the
coefficient of friction along the shear surface, for the degree of prestressing
needed to stabilize a slope is apparent from Fig. 21-2. The effect of inclining
anchors is more pronounced when the friction at the slide surface is low.
However, as the angle between the prestressed anchors and the normal to
the shear surface increases, the effect diminishes.
The attainment of slope stability depends solely on the magnitude and
angle of inclination of the resultant of the anchoring forces (Fig. 21-3). The
point at which the resultant of these forces intersects the shear surface is
of no particular importance, unless the coefficient of friction changes along
the shear surface. If the latter is the case, the anchoring forces should be
362
Fig. 21-2. Dependence of the required anchoring force on its angle of deflection from the
perpendicular to the shear surface (deflected so as to oppose the active tangential forces),
taking the components acting at the shear surface as N = T = 1 MN, with safety factor
m--= 1.5
Fig. 21-3. Diagram of forces acting on strips of prestress-anchored soil above the shear
surface of a slope. A uniform height of the strips is assumed
a) in the vicinity of the emergence of the cylindrical shear surface at the foot of the slope,
)__at the lowest level of the slide surface, c) near the upper edge of the shear surface
located in the zone of the maximum coefficient of friction. Usually it is
convenient to arrange for the anchoring forces to act near the lower point of
intersection between the shear surface and the ground surface. It is quite
possible to obtain a favourable angle of inclination for the anchors in this
363
lower position, where the boreholes may be short and only slightly deflected
from the vertical; the drilling of such boreholes is technically the simplest.
The analysis of slope stability and the calculation of the necessary anchoring forces must be carried out assuming the least favourable shear surface.
The position of the latter is usually not known, except in very simple cases.
Thus the analysis involves a large number of similar calculations, which were
formerly carried out graphically, but are nowadays done with the aid of
a computer. For the setting up of the computer program, the method of
taking slices is expedient, since not only heterogeneities of the ground and
variations of pore water pressure, but also surface loads and the influences
of the individual anchor forces can be taken into account.
When the least favourable cylindrical shear surface is sought, the procedure
described by Otta [160] may be adopted. First, a circular shear path is
selected in the longitudinal cross-section of the slope, such that it passes
through the soils of the lowest shear parameters found in the investigation
(Fig. 21-4). The safety factor for this path (the sum of the stabilizing forces
divided by the sum of the destabilizing forces, acting on the shear surface of
unit width) is determined without considering any effect of anchors. Further
centre points of sliding surfaces
-25
10.0 22.5
35.0
7.5
500
72.5
85.0
97.5
Fig. 21-4. Longitudinal slope cross-section, and data required for stability analysis according
to Otta [160]
364
cylindrical surfaces with smaller and greater radii, but with the same centre
locus are considered, and the respective degrees of safety are noted. Proceeding further, small changes are made in the locus of the centre of the shear
surface (as shown, for example, in Fig. 21-4), until it is found that the calculated degree of safety cannot be decreased any further. The magnitude of the
anchoring forces required for stabilizing the shear surface of the smallest
degree of safety is then calculated, taking into account the required safety
margin also, and the positioning and lengths of the anchors are determined.
To conclude, the overall stability of the anchored slope is assessed by substituting the parameters of all the relevant forces into the computer program. The
use of computers has made it possible to analyse the stability of slopes and
retaining structures of all types (see Chapters 22 and 23) in situations far
more complex than those that could be handled by graphic methods or
simple calculation. Thus, for example, the program of the Swiss Stump
Bohr Co. has a capacity for dealing with 15 soil layer boundaries, 10 surface
loads, 5 horizontal loads, 3 ground water levels, 1 ground water table, 10 pore
water isobars, 15 anchor lines and 5 lines of support structures (for example
piles).
21.1.2
Rock slopes
365
/ /
Fig. 21-5. Simple stability analysis of a rock slope with plane, parallel shear surfaces inclined
in the same direction as the slope. Diagrams of forces are shown for: a) an unstable slope
( < ), b) a slope at the limit of equilibrium (<p = a), K^,K2 main stabilizing anchors,
K local strengthening anchors, Pl9 P2 anchoring forces at the limit of equilibrium,
P,Pm2 anchoring forces required to stabilize the slope with a safety margin, m(m = 1.5),
/ length of the unstable part of the slope, G weight of the unstable part of the slope
V
<p>oc
til
of being upset by external forces such as additional loading of the slope (Fig.
21-6), ground water pressure, or atmospheric effects, the required prestressing
of anchors acting perpendicularly to the slip surface is computed from the basic formula:
P =
m T
-l.c
f
N.
The forces acting normal to the slip surface are increased most efficiently
366
when the anchoring forces also act perpendicularly to this surface. However,
structures can be secured more effectively against shear failure when the
inclination of the anchoring forces to the slip surface is less than 90, as
pointed out in the preceding Section (see Figs. 21-5 and 21-6). Although the
pressure, Pn, on the slip surface is reduced, a force component, Pt, is created
acting parallel to the tangential destabilizing force, T, but in the opposite
direction. The greatest effect of anchoring forces is achieved when they are
deflected (by an angle, , equal to 90 ) from the normal to the slip
surface, or when their angle of inclination to the slip surface is equal to the
angle of friction along this surface (as can be seen from the graphical solutions in Figs. 21-5 and 21-6).
The value required for an anchoring force deflected from the perpendicular
to the slip surface by an angle , is usually computed from the formula:
p> =
- l . c - ^m - . N
=
=
=
=
=
If reliable data from field tests are not available, c is assumed to be zero
for hard rocks, or the effects of cohesion or unevenness are included in the
value for the angle of internal friction, . Usually it is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain precise values for , since otherwise the condition of
limit equilibrium of the slope in its natural state could be expressed by:
tg<P
=^1
tga
or
= a,
where a is the gradient of the slip surface. The degree of stability could then
be increased by anchorage, etc. to obtain the required value for w, e.g. m =
= 1.2.Usually, however, it is more economical and generally more reliable
to ascertain the angle of friction for the simple sliding of at least one small
rock block over another.
Z. Roth [181] analysed a more general case of slope stability with one
or more joint systems inclined away from the slope face. He came to the
conclusion that where there is a definite slip surface, a rock slope is permanently stable, regardless of the frictional resistance, provided that the slope
367
intersects this joint slip surface along its line of steepest descent (pitch line)
(Fig. 21-7). If is the maximum gradient of a stable slope, a is the gradient
of the planes of the joint system, and is the angle between the slope face
foot line and joint system, respectively, then
Of all the joint systems that are surveyed in the field, those which are
considered as being not conducive to stability have a gradient angle flatter
than their probable angle of friction, . For the remainder of the systems,
the permanently stable (slope) gradient is ascertained by substituting the
angle of the least favourable case into the above formula, that is, the smallest
angle computed for an individual joint system inclined in the same direction
as the slope.
If the proposed or existing slope is steeper, the weight of the rock above the
plane of the permanently stable gradient must be secured by anchoring. The
simplified calculation of the required anchoring force (incorporating a greater
safety margin) can be done by assuming a slip surface of inclinatin /?,
parallel to the slope, and a substitute angle of friction > j8, as in the
preceding case in Fig. 21-5.
The total anchoring force, P, allocated to a unit width of slope, is divided
equally between as many individual anchors up and down the length of the
slope as are needed to ensure that all potential slip surfaces above the foot
of the slope are intersected and locked. If necessary, shorter local anchors
can also be used (see Figs. 21-5 and 6-3).
368
slope face
rock wedge
a)
369
great circle
representing slope face
Pensioned
anchor
average friction
angle <p
370
aligned according to the line of intersection of the two shear planes, and it
should make an angle equal to the average angle of friction with the line
of intersection (Fig. 21-10).
In rock slopes and faces in which the dominant planes of discontinuity
are dipping towards the slope, the equilibrium analysis and determination
of the necessary anchoring forces is also complicated. A completely reliable
transfer of forces to the bottom region of the slope, across a joint system
of angle of inclination, a, is only possible when the angle between the plane
of the slope and the perpendicular to the planes of discontinuity is equal
or less than (Fig. 21-11). The stable part of the slope is delimited by the
Fig. 21-11. Anchoring of a rock face with planes of discontinuity inclined towards the slope.
The labile part of the rock formation is shown hatched; Kx to K3 are anchors placed in various
directions in relation to the joints
371
selected gradient (Kl, K2, K3) are determined from the force diagram,
and the total force is again divided equally among the individual anchors.
More complicated slope stability situations in which the surfaces of
discontinuity are parallel to the slope and dipping towards it or vertical,
can be successfully solved by the well knownfiniteelement method [64]. A suitable computer program must be available for such an analysis. By this method
it is possible, for a slope of given shape, to locate zones of tensile stress which
are always sites of potential failure. In thefield,open joints may be observed at
such sites. A typical example of the use of this method was given by Bukovansky and Pierce [27]; this concerned the stability of a high cutting made in a rock
slope composed of a horizontal sequence of marlstones and shales with vertical
joint planes running parallel to the direction of the slope. Fig. 21-12 shows
the calculated lines of the principal stresses in a diagrammatic section of the
slope, both before excavation, and after excavation of the step-shaped
cutting of overall gradient 3 to 1. An outstandingly tensile zone appears,
prior to excavation, behind the upper edge of the slope. After excavation,
the zone is still affecting the rock ledges, but the stresses are of much smaller
value (max. 0.2 ksf = 10 kPa). Tensile stresses of this magnitude can be
handled effectively with horizontal rock bolts.
tensile stresses
0 6 12 18 meters
negative, stresses in KSF (1 KSF=50kPa appro*.)
Fig. 21-12. Model of the slope in Parachute Creek Valley, showing rock joints, and minor
principal stress contours before and after excavation [27]
372
v=4-(cotg'Cofa<*)
373
50
60
70
slope angle oc
Fig. 21-14. Relationship by which the inclination, , of the shear plane of maximum shear
stress, , can be determined for a given slope gradient, a, and coefficient of friction, /, in the
shear plane [8]
374
21.1.3
ml AT
-,
fr
375
mIAT-frIAN
m sin -f fr cos ^
fr
'
m.T-fr.N
m . sin + fr. cos '
The actual forces Pnr9 Pr, P'nr, Pfr generally need to be twice as great as the
calculated values when the prestressing is introduced in advance; hence, it is
recommended that nonprestressed anchors be used for stabilizing small
slides only.
The coefficient of kinetic friction also comes into effect in soil slopes in the
active zone near the upper edge of the slip surface. It is therefore profitable
to introduce prestressing forces into this zone also, in order to prevent any
initial movement of the ground with the consequent loss of cohesion, and
transition from a situation of static friction to one of kinetic friction.
When a rock slope is threatened with collapse along a plane surface, and
where failure occurs, as it often does, at the slope foot, anchors should be
concentrated at these sites, and should provide an adequate degree of locking
of all the beds that are traversed by dangerous planes of discontinuity. In
other cases, the distribution of anchors over the entire slope is not necessary
either, because solid rocks are usually strong and are sufficiently incompressible to remove any possibility of their gradually slipping down from the upper
edge of the slip surface, as occurs on soil slopes. In fact any movement tends
to occur simultaneously over the entire surface, and it therefore suffices to
secure the most dangerous region near the slope foot.
L. Mller introduced an original method of slope stabilization (usually
applied to rock) [143], in which a system of non-prestressed steel ropes is laid
on the slope surface, either across the slope (with the contour lines), or down
the slope (with the lines of steepest gradient) according to which is the more efficient (Fig. 21-16). The ropes are anchored at both ends into concrete blocks,
or directly into the stable strong rock.
In the first case, where a slope bulge is anchored, the great advantage
of the method is that there is minimal interference with the labile part of the
slope, and yet a large force can be created. This arises from the fact that an
arched anchoring arrangement provides a support (i.e. a force opposing
376
Fig. 21-16. Stabilization of a rock slope by laying a surface reinforcement of steel ropes [143]
a) parallel with the contour lines, b) parallel with the lines of steepest gradient
movement) nearly twice as great as the tensile force in the ropes. In the second
case, in which the ropes are laid up and down the slope and are anchored into
concrete blocks (sills) at the foot of the slope and above its upper edge,
the main purpose is to relieve the rock at the foot of the slope which is under
the greatest stress, and transfer a part of the dead weight load to the upper,
less heavily loaded part of the slope.
In both cases the condition of the anchorage can be checked at any time
since the entire system is accessible, and further ropes can be added if necessary.
The stabilization of a rocky ridge slope with horizontal surface-laid steel
ropes fixed to either side of the ridge, was carried out in the German
Federal Republic. The densely fractured front slope of the basalt ridge was
found to be sliding into the brown coal open-cast mine at Hessen. The slope
was stabilized with four steel ropes of combined load-carrying capacity
2.4 MN (Fig. 21-17A). The lateral anchoring blocks were embedded in sound
bedrock.
Another, much larger scheme of this type, in which foundations were
stabilized under historically important buildings, was carried out in Kassel
[47]. Stabilization with horizontal anchored ropes provides a useful means
of preserving structures generally.
377
CROSS -
SECTION
ig. 21-17. B Design of high mountain slopes anchoring for coal pit mining in Czechoslovakia (according to J. Zajic)
378
Slope movements and the destruction of slopes can occur over large areas
along deep-situated shear surfaces. In rock slopes, it is often only the superficial parts of the slope, individual rock blocks, or the superficial rock layers
damaged by weathering, that are in danger of collapse. The design and method
of applying slope anchorage must therefore take into account the size of the
anchored part of the slope and its importance. Reliable functioning of all
the proposed components of the system must be ensured, and maximum
effectiveness and economy must be kept in mind.
21.2.1 Stabilization of slopes
The conditions for anchoring slopes to prevent them from slipping along
shear surfaces extending through the entire slope or through a major part
of the slope, were discussed in the preceding Sections of this Chapter. Besides
the magnitude of the anchoring forces, the positioning of the anchors on the
slope is also important.
The anchoring forces calculated to be necessary, are usually divided
equally among the individual anchors, or among lines of anchors running up
and down, or across the slope. On non-uniform slopes, the anchors are
placed on ledges, at the feet of the steeper parts of the slope (see Fig. 21-15).
The loosened rock on the slope surface between individual anchor heads is
secured by means of concrete sills with reinforcement and wire netting
attached to the anchors. The dimensions of the latter structures can either
be calculated by making a simplifying assumption concerning the effective
rock weight [8], or, as is more frequently the case, they can be empirically
designed according to the local conditions.
The distribution structures, such as bearing plates, reinforced concrete
sills, pillars or grids, are assembled from precast elements or are concreted
in situ.
The width of distribution sills and their foundation depth both principally
depend on the type and quality of the rock. In strong hard rocks, the
dimensions can be reduced to a minimum. In soils, on the other hand, bases
1 m2 or more in area have to be used. However, where soils are likely to
379
freeze, the bases must be founded sufficiently deep to prevent their being
lifted by freezing, with a pressure greater than that of the prestressing.
On rock slopes, the superficial rock layer on which the anchor heads
bear may become weathered, and its compactness may be reduced. This
surface must therefore be protected with gunite or reinforced concrete ribs,
and those parts of the surface that are apt to fail must be covered with
reinforced concrete slabs, or filled with concrete.
As mentioned earlier, rock slopes are best stabilized with anchors sited
in the lower part of the slope, particularly near its foot, with a suitable angle
of inclination (Fig. 21-18). However, it is sometimes convenient, or even
o llol
ollol
o Mol
o o
o o
ollol
<^=-
=J
ZJ
|
ZZJ
J
z==-^o
necessary where-cuttings are made, to place anchors first in the upper part
of the slope, thus improving the stability as excavation of the cutting
progresses. Inclined anchor boreholes are usually made in lines along different
cutting levels (see e.g. Fig. 21-15). Sometimes, anchors are installed in
vertical boreholes (Fig. 21-19), although this practice is statically incorrect
since a vertical anchoring force always has a tangential component acting
along the potential slip surface, thus increasing the danger of movement.
This unfavourable effect can be partially eliminated by bracing beams,
oriented up and down the slope [195], fitting between the transverse horizontal
sills which support the anchor heads.
Anchors installed on slopes are fixed into the mass beneath or behind the
slip surface (or beneath that surface which delimits the labile rock body).
The fixing depth measured from this surface must be such as to ensure
sufficient rock resistance against extraction of the anchor (see Chapter 10).
Due regard must be given to the possibility of other ground stresses developing, or the appearance of new slip surfaces immediately below the roots of the
anchors. In any case the positioning and length of the anchors must prevent
the development of any potential slip surfaces in the slope.
380
Fig. 21-19. Distribution of
vertical anchors stabilizing
a cutting for the Oakdale
highway in California. Such
anchors are only suitable for
securing the bases of large
rockslide masses, the anchors
being placed in large diameter
boreholes
1111
/*4VAS.WA*U*y/4*
Fig. 21-20. Relief of transverse tensile stress in a rock by means of prestressed anchorage:
a) where a structure is sited at the edge of a steep rock formation, b) at the fixing points
of arched dams
381
I
!
I
i
I
i
I
i
" "
W\\x*\\o\VA\\W<
oo
21.2.2
Rock slopes often contain detached blocks whicrTate liable either to slide
downwards over a plane of discontinuity, or to collapse when the rock
strength is overcome at a point of weakness. Stability of these blocks is
achieved by locking them to the stable rock mass with anchors. The necessary
anchoring forces are computed in the same way as those required Tor the
stabilization of rock slopes threatened by slides along plane shear surfaces
(Section 2L1.2). If the block seems likely to fall by tipping up, the anchorage
design* must stake into account the magnitude of the component (moment)
of the block dead weight giving rise to movement.
The stabilization of rock blocks on slopes by anchoring may be usefully
complemented by the insertion of concrete beneath the labile block, or by
grouting the surrounding joint spaces. Concrete applied under the block
forms a sill and has a marked stabilizing effect; the anchorage may be used
to secure the sill thus formed (Fig. 21-22). On a steep slope, where a rock
block may be displaced as a result of being overturned, the anchorage must
pass through the centre of the threatened block, close to its centre of gravity,
Smaller rock blocks are anchored with short non-prestressed bolts fixed
into the rock with grout along their entire length; the grout also protects the
382
b)
bolts from corrosion. For larger rock formations, prestressed cable anchors
may even be used. The anchor heads are sometimes located in a small hollow
cut in the rock surface, and are covered to preserve the natural appearance
of the rock.
The region of Cretaceous, boulder-shaped sandstones in Northern
Bohemia typically suffers from block-like disintegration of the rock on the
upper parts of valley slopes. After a survey, a large programme of conservation was drawn up, mainly relying on anchoring techniques. In
383
Fig. 21-23, a scheme is shown for the stabilization of individual rock columns
and blocks near Decin, where a large collapse of rock occurred several
years ago.
Fig. 21-23. Scheme for securing an articulated sandstone face near Decin (Czechoslovakia)
with a system of anchors (groundplan horizontal section)
27.2.5
Stable rock faces can be a source of falling rock fragments and pieces of
oose rock. Once they become detached, these fragments accelerate and
present a danger to structures, vehicles, or people nearby. Anchored nets
provide an efficient and economical means of eliminating this danger, for
although these do not strengthen the rock, they retain any fragments detached
from its face. The minimum anchoring forces necessary for the nets are
obtainable at a relatively small depth into the stable rock surface.
Protective nets are usually made of wire mesh or welded wire grids of
various wire diameters (3 to 6 mm, depending on the size of the fragments
to be retained). If necessary, double nets can be used. The wire grid is supplied
in rolls of varying mesh size. For less exacting purposes, ordinary zinc-plated
wire fence netting (3 mm diameter wire with a 5 x 5 cm mesh) is satisfactory
(Fig. 21-24). When work is carried out on slopes and under rock faces,
effective protection from falling fragments and pieces of rock is provided
by synthetic fibre nets (Figs. 21-25 and 14-13). These are very elastic, strong,
non-corrosive, easily handled, and give good adherence to the rock even
on a very uneven surface. However, they are liable to severance on the sharp
edges of large rock fragments, and they are more expensive than wire netting.
Lengths 2 to 4 m wide, are most convenient for this purpose. Such nets are
384
Fig. 21-24. Protection of a rock slope near Freiburg with wire nets (documentation /. Kaim,
Wien)
used only temporarily, and are usually fastened near upper edge of the slope,
otherwise lying freely on the slope face.
Wire nets are anchored to the rock surface with short non-prestressed
steel bolts in boreholes 30 to 80 cm deep, according to the rock quality. The
bolts are regularly distributed on the slope at a maximum density of one bolt
per 4 m 2 of the rock face. The bolts are of the deformed bar type, with
a minimum diameter of 20 mm, and a thread at the external end. They are
inserted into boreholes 34 to 38 mm in diameter and grouted with a thin
grout along their entire length. When the grout is hard, the protecting net is
tightened against the rock surface with the nuts and larger washers of the
bolts. The service life of these wire nets is estimated to be 15 to 20 years.
21.3.1
385
Fig. 21-25. Rock slope above a railway line near Prague covered with synthetic fibre nets.
These served as a temporary protection for workers during the drilling and installation
of anchors
386
^^:
Fig. 21-26. Cross-section of the slope of a railway cutting near Cebin stabilized by means of
prestressed anchors (VU1S 1961)
1 anchor head, 2 load distribution plate, 3 anchor tendon, 4 anchor root cavity,
5 slip surface
it.
HIT-- -L^
Fig. 21-27. Stabilization of a slope at Tallepied 8, Lutry with i?Fanchors for the construction of a new building, a eluvium, b old landslide, c dense lake sands, 1 most
dangerous theoretical slip surfaces, 2 BBRV anchors (2.4 MN, / 23.30 and 34 m),
3 planned building, 4 road
387
The prestressing of rock by means of anchors also gave good results in the
stabilization of a cutting at one end of the Ruzbachy tunnel on the Orlov
Podolinec railway line. The slope is formed in flysch beds of interbedded
sandstones and shales. When excavation of the cutting started, a slope failure
occurred and the work had to be halted until the rock had been anchored to
a depth of 11 to 13 m in the substratum, with cable anchors (Fig. 21-28). The
Fig. 21-28. Cross-section of a cutting of the PodolinecRuzbachy railway line which was
saved from collapse by anchoring the rock
1 cables of 1 MN load-bearing capacity, 2 load-distributing precast slabs, 3 calculated
slip surface, 4 position centre line of the railway track
slip surface was found (from the digging of test pits) to be situated at an
average depth of 6 m below the ground surface. The coefficient of friction,/,
along the slip plane was 0.2, and the cohesion, c, was 10 kPa. The slope was
secured by 212 anchoring cables (each with a load-bearing capacity of 1 MN)
concentrated in a belt near the top of the cutting (Fig. 21-29).
Rock slopes, natural or excavated, are particularly amenable to stabilization by anchoring, because the strong rock on the surface of the slope forms
a convenient distribution layer for the compression forces exerted by prestressed anchors.
An example of a very simple anchoring arrangement on a rock slope above
a railway line in Czechoslovakia is shown in Fig. 21-30. Bar anchors of diameter 36 mm and length 7.5 m and 9.5 m were fixed with grout into a strong
rock (phonolite), and then were prestressed to 100 kN and grouted in along
388
Fig. 21-29. Flysch beds of a slope in which the cutting of the PodolinecRuzbachy railway
line was excavated
389
'S
%i
VVVV \
i
Fig. 21-30. Simple stabilization of a rock slope above a railway line near Usti n. L.
(Czechoslovakia) by means of anchors and protecting wire nets
The static analysis was carried out for typical cross-sections where the slope
was steeper or the overhang greater. The most frequently obtained stable
angle was about 65 from the horizontal. The weight of the labile rock above
a theoretical shear surface inclined at 65 ( = ) was simply determined from
390
Fig. 21-31. Anchoring of the rock face
under the Orlik Castle
1 granodiorite, 2 veinous syenite
porphyry, 3 failure zone, 4 depth of
superficial weathering, a injection
boreholes, b protective reinforced
concrete lining anchored into rock
Sec
-No.33
151m
nom
130 m
6
*-*
0
10
15 m
0.6tlN\\
mnmfn
70/77 3 m
132 m
391
the area of an equivalent regular body of unit width and given volume weight.
The equilibrium of forces on this shear surface, taking a safety factor of 1.2,
may be expressed by the equation
1.2 G. sin 6 5 = G . cos 65 . tg 65 + 65. tg 65 + K. cos 65,
where K represents the total of the horizontal anchoring forces for the entire
height of the rock wall. This yields the relation K = 0.768 G (kN). The
anchoring forces required in the vicinity of cross-section No. 33, for example,
(Fig. 21-32) amount to 1.04 MN. This total force was distributed over
a number of anchoring levels in such a way as to provide the force needed
at the foot of the slope, and to secure labile rock blocks at the surface, the
stability of which was analysed separately. For these blocks, the degree of
stability according to the ascertained state had to be assessed individually
and the necessary anchoring forces had to be stated. The anchoring forces
necessary for stabilizing individual blocks were determined using a safety
margin of 2, because the parameters introduced into the calculation were
taken from field investigations, and therefore did not incorporate a reserve
factor as in the foregoing case of the theoretical slip plane. Following from
the static analysis, several horizontal rows of prestressed cable anchors were
designed. These anchors were 10 to 30 m long, with working loads of 0.2
to 0.6 MN. The entire rock face needed 436 such cable anchors, and 157 short
bar anchors (Fig. 21-33).
Effective anchoring of the rock abutments of the 233 mhigh bowed
Vajont Dam in Italy was the principal reason for the survival of the main
dam structure without serious damage during the disastrous overflow of
water in 1963. The overflow resulted from the sliding of the entire left-hand
valley face above the dam into the basin. The slopes near the dam were
strengthened with 300 anchoring cables 18 to 56 m long, prestressed to 0.5
to 1.0 MN. The support system for the anchor heads comprised vertical and
horizontal beams and blocks, concreted on to the slopes (Fig. 21-34); the
anchor heads were made permanently accessible by the installation of a system
of climbing irons, gangways and catwalks. About 10 per cent, of the anchors
were fitted with load sensors to allow the prestressing to be checked, and these
were connected to the building on the top of the dam housing the controls for
the entire dam. The disastrous overflow (a wave 100 m high was formed)
as a consequence of the landslide swept away the control building together
with the railings and all the access ways to the anchors, but the abutting
anchored structures remained almost completely intact, as did the dam
itself. In this case the large-scale anchoring of the valley sides was carried
out by Polensky and Zllner of the GFR.
Fig. 21-35 shows a similar example of the anchoring of a high rock face
at the bowed La Soledad Dam in Mexico, using anchors of the same PZ
392
Fig. 21-33. Securing of the rock
face at Decin (Czechoslovakia
performed by TSD and Stavebni
geologie n. p.); general view (a),
anchors installed in the face (b)
system (length 45 m, prestressing 1.4 MN). The often very simple arrangements by means of which complicated drilling, placing and prestressing
operations are carried out for long anchoring cables, are particularly noteworthy (Fig. 21-36).
At the site of the Kawamata Dam in Japan, prestressed anchors were used
to secure a wall to the rock, the purpose of the wall being to distribute the
pressure of the bowed dam into deeper, sound rock beds [56]. The superficial
393
Fig. 21-34. Steep rock slope below the Vajont Dam in Italy anchored by Polensky & Zllner
rock strata were permeated by fractures and failure zones, and could not be
relied upon to take the stresses transmitted by the dam unless special measures
were adopted. The load-distributing cross wall was constructed along an
extension of the centre-line of the dam, projected from the fixing point
(Figs. 21-37 and 6-5). The cross wall was secured to the surrounding rock
with prestressed anchors, using either the Dywidag type (total 155 MN) or the
BBRVtype (total 85 MN) according to local conditions. The Dywidag anchors
were made from high quality steel bars (diameter 27 mm), each prestressed
to 0.4 MN (i.e. to 80 per cent, of the yield limit). Each anchor consisted
of six parts interconnected by special couplings these parts being lowered sepa-
Fig. 21-35. Stabilization of rock face below the bowed La Soledad Dam in Mexico (photo
Polensky & Zllner)
a) view on the right-hand valley slope with PZ anchors, b) transport of a 1.5 MN anchor
to the site
395
Fig. 21-36. Anchoring of the steep rock face under the foundations of the abutment for the
Rio del Oro bridge in Mexico, using VSL anchors 10 m long, prestressed to 400 kN
rately into the boreholes from a special gallery excavated for the construction
of the cross wall. The prestressing of the tendons was adjusted after a month
or two, and finally the boreholes were filled with grout along their entire lengths
to establish an anticorrosive protection. The BBRVanchors were used to lock
the foot of the retaining wall to the slope mass.
At the site of the Aldeadavia Dam, the corroded beds on the left-hand side
of the dam were stabilized with prestressed anchors before the slope was
strengthened by pressure grouting; the designers feared that the pressure of
the grout might loosen and lift the superficial beds on the slope. 169 cable
anchors of 30 mm diameter and lengths between 12 and 36 m were used,
and each was prestressed to 200 kN [150].
The anchors used to secure blocks against shear failure at the left-hand
396
10 15 20 m
Fig. 21-38. Stabilization of the bedrock of the left bank of the Santa Eulalia arch dam in
Spain, by means of anchors A quartzite bank, B alternative quartzite and schists,
C siliceous schists
side of the 74 m-high Santa Eulalia arch dam in Spain, were designed to increase the strength of the bedrock under the dam by bracing the relatively
narrow beds of shales and quartzites (Fig. 21-38). The anchors were 30 to
397
40 m long, and were fixed into sound quartzite beds unaffected by the excavations for the foundations of the dam.
More than 1,000 anchors with load-bearing capacities of 1.0 to 2.3 MN
were installed in the immediate vicinity of the heel of the 134m-high El
Atazar arch dam. The anchors were needed to strengthen the slope, formed
of much jointed shales and sandstones, at the left-hand side of the dam,
which was threatened by the high water level. The anchoring heads were
seated on a reinforced concrete grid placed on the slope surface (Fig. 21-39).
0 10 2030W5060 m
Fig, 21-39. Slope reinforcement in the vicinity of the El Atazar arch dam (Spain), using
a system of anchored reinforced concrete sills
/ the dam body, 2 anchors 1.0 to 2.3 MN, 3 reinforced concrete grid, 4 concrete
slabs
The slope at the dam heel was protected by a continuous reinforced concrete
slab on the surface. Nearly 3,000 zinc anodes were used for the anticorrosive
protection of the anchors.
The abutment of the Libby Dam, Montana, USA, was secured by means
of prestressed anchors following the fall of a wedge-shaped mass of rock
of 300,000 m 3 volume from the left-hand slope, during the excavation for the
abutment foundations. On the basis of detailed investigation, the rock slope
was secured with 50 VSL anchors (Fig. 21-40), each with a working force of
1.8 MN (60 % of the ultimate strength) and a length between 20 and 45 m.
The fixing length was 6 m in all cases. The stability of the slope was continu-
398
Fig. 21-40. Anchored rock slope of the Libby Dam (photo VSL Corp.)
399
Fig. 21-41. Landslide from a valley slope into a construction pit of the lOOm-high rockfill
Dalesice Dam (Czechoslovakia)
a) view of the damaged slope, b) see page 400
400
Fig. 21-41.
b) stabilization of the slope with anchors
The excavated valley slope contained a serpentine wedge between two blocks
of damaged amphibolite. The slope had been stabilized by the installation
of a line of anchors at about its midheight, but the necessary number of
anchors and their dimensions were underestimated to such an extent that
they were unable to prevent the landslide from occurring when the foot of the
slope was cut away. The inadequate dimensions of the anchors were demonstrated by the fact that the anchors were severed in the landslide zone,
at a distance of 40 cm below the anchoring head. The anchors outside the
landslide region remained intact, and probably helped to limit the extent
of the disaster.
A great amount of unscheduled work was needed to prevent further earth
movements. First of all, a loading rockfill bench was constructed at the foot of
the slope, which was then relieved as the concreting of the penstock blocks
progressed. The weight of the bench was substituted by several lines of
slanting and vertical anchors fixed into the rock which remained unaffected
by the slide at the bottom of the pit. Prior to the removal of the loading bench
the slope was further secured by a line of anchors each of 1.0 MN, placed one
third of the way up the slope (Fig. 21-41 b).
The drilling of boreholes in the damaged rock of the landslide was
401
extremely difficult. The drilling proceeded from one level to the next down
the slope, with simultaneous grouting or cement mortar filling of the boreholes, which otherwise would have collapsed. The grouting of the boreholes
was complicated, by the presence of running water and the leaking of the
grout through the open joints. Here, as in many similar cases, it was clearly
shown how the coat of effective anchoring installed at the proper time in the
slopes of the excavated pit would have amounted to only a fraction of the
cost of salvaging the slope after a landslide. The disproportion is yet more
marked when the time needed to carry out the work is taken into account
in each case.
The very strong and very little technically damaged rock masses of
Scandinavia make possible not only the excavation of large underground
caverns, but also the formation of other structures out of rock. Very large,
stable, vertical rock faces can be formed, the surface being secured only by
prestressed anchors. In Finland, for example, several docks 380 x 56 m,
or 250 x80 m, with water depths of 9.5 and 12 m, were excavated in these
rocks (Fig. 21-42).
.0f
DCs
r"
1
/ <
"12.00
ii
Fig. 21-42. Anchoring of the rock faces of a dry dock in Finland (Oy Wrtsil Ab's Perno).
The anchors are Dywidag bar anchors of 32 mm diameter protected with steel sheet ducts,
lengths and spacing as follows:
1 12 m, 2.5 m, 2 12 m, 5 m, 3 (2 x dia. 32 mm), 12 m, 6.6 m
402
30 m-long cables (1 MN). These were fixed into the massive part of the slope
behind the headland; only then did the cutting of the tunnel commence
(Fig. 21-43). Smaller blocks in this section were secured with separate
anchors installed on the slope according to need.
Fig. 21-43. Securing of a rock headland in the Lueg Pass in the Salzach Valley (Austria) with
movable anchors PZ of 0.5 to 1.0 MN prestressing
The stability of galleries built below steep, high mountain slopes to protect
highways from falling stones and avalanches, can also be achieved by means
of anchoring. This method was used, for example, in Switzerland on the
Zurich Sargans highway along the steep banks of the Walensee lake
(Fig. 21-44) or in Austria (Fig. 21-45).
Another example of a purpose-designed anchorage system is that which
was used to stabilize the foot of a cutting for the A 8 motorway in France.
The foot of the cutting was strengthened with a system of concrete beams,
oriented in the direction of maximum slope, and anchored at three levels.
The prestressing of the anchors was 540 kN in the highest line, increasing to
1,080 kN in the lowest line. Precast reinforced concrete slabs were slipped
into rectangular grooves in the sides of the beams (Fig. 21-46). With this
arrangement, the progress of the construction was speeded up and an
aesthetically pleasing view of the slope was created.
403
b)
c)
Fig. 21-44. Anchoring gallery foundations into the foot of a rock slope near the Walensee
lake (Switzerland)
a) transport of VSL 1.22 MN anchor cables to the slope foot, b)inserting the cables
into the boreholes, c) bottom part of the gallery with two rows of anchors
21.3.2
404
section
,^^ y
Fig. 21-46. Stabilization of the foot of a cutting for the A 8 Esteret-Cte d'Azur motorway
in France
1 anchored ribs, 2 retaining slabs, 3 porous concrete, 4 anchors, 5 motorway
stabilization can only be used in a modified form in which the shear-stressed
anchors are located in concrete-filled boreholes or in pits of sufficient diameter for the rock face to rest on the concrete wrapping of the anchors.
405
was expected to pass. The concrete blocks reached down to the bedrock
and were anchored to it by means of prestressed cable anchors. Extra safety
against shear failure under the slope and the retaining wall was obtained
by increasing the size and prestressing of the blocks. Such a stabilization
method is technically simple, because it involves a gradual, step-by-step
excavation of the pits, concreting of the blocks, and prestressing of the blocks
by anchors fixed into the bedrock.
The slope of the Presna Dam lake in Poland was stabilized in a similar
manner (Fig. 21-48).
Non-prestressed anchors should always be placed so as to intersect the
shear surface at the most acute angle possible, since shearing movement is
then resisted by a larger cross-section of the anchor, and when movement
begins, tensile stress is created in the non-prestressed anchor and becomes
effective at the earliest possible moment. This method has been used, for
example, in Jurassic stratified limestones to secure a rock cliff above the
fixing zone of the left abutment of the bowed Chaudanne Dam, on the river
406
Verdon in France (Fig. 21-49). The anchor cables were composed of 125 wires
of 5 mm-diameter high quality heat-treated steel with a strength of 1,400 MPa.
The wires were placed in 13 layers separated by spacing nets to facilitate
complete envelopment in grout. The diameter of the cable was 90 mm and
that of the borehole 100 mm. The rock in the vicinity of the boreholes was
grouted thoroughly from the top downward, whilst the cables were grouted
in the opposite direction [221].
Short shafts filled with concrete have been used for the stabilization of
rock slopes; the concrete filling is connected with concrete facing slabs on the
slope surface by means of steel cables. This method was used for securing
the slopes of the 94 m-high Kukuan arch dam in the central mountain range
of Taiwan, completed in 1961. The rock slope, composed of beds of quartzite
and sandstone, was to have been stabilized by prestressed anchorage, but
since the Chinese engineers were highly skilled at tunnelling, they decided
on a system of reinforced concrete prisms (1.80x 1.50 m in cross-section);
these were made by filling specially made shafts (drifts) with concrete (Fig.
21-50). The shafts were driven at right angles to the slip planes (bedding planes), and were 6 to 12 m deep. According to the data cited in the report [147],
this solution was the most convenient one under the existing conditions.
The stabilization of rock slopes with steel ropes placed on the slope
surface (see Fig 21-17) is also based on the principle of non-prestressed
reinforcement, which is stressed by tension only after a slight movement
of the slope has taken place.
Chapter 22
A N C H O R I N G OF WALLED
EXCAVATIONS
Fig. 22-1. Anchoring of the concrete walls of a foundation pit, thus allowing fully mechanized
excavation (Langnau, Switzerland)
408
Earth pressure
409
, or for a loose
soil, K0 = 1 sin . In this equation, v is the Poisson ratio for the soil,
and is the effective angle of internal friction. The total pressure at rest, S0,
on the vertical rear face of a supporting structure of height //, with
a horizontal ground surface behind the support, is:
S0 =
^yH2.K0.
The resultant of the pressure acts horizontally in the lower third of the
height, H, at the centre of gravity of the loading triangle. If another uniform
load, q, rests on the ground surface, the earth pressure is increased by =
= q . K09 and the resultant pressure on the back of the support is increased
by 5 0 = q . K0 . H. The total pressure at rest is given by the sum S0 + AS0,
and acts at the centre of gravity of the loading trapezoid.
The pressure at rest in partly consolidated, or lcose, saturated soils is
increased by the pore stress, or hydrostatic pressure. Extra'-pressure-^afr rest
is also exerted on the supporting structure by swelling cohesive soils or by
excessive mechanical compaction of the soil behind the supporting structure.
Active pressure
This pressure is exerted by non-cohesive soils only when the deflection
of the upper edge of the support attains 0.001 H to 0.002//(for cohesive soils,
0.003// to 0.005//). The coefficient of this pressure, Ka, depends on the inclination of the supporting structure, the inclination of the ground surface
behind the support, and the friction, cr adhesion of the soil to the rear of the
support. Generally, Kah determined separately for cohesive and non-cohesive
soils, according to current textbooks on soil mechanics. The design requirements usually involve a horizontal ground surface and a vertical
support structure; friction on the rear of the support usually need not be
considered.
410
For non-cohesive soils,
K. = t g * ( 4 5 - f ) ,
and the pressure of the activated earth, , at depth /?, is given by,
= .
\5-\.
Sa = l y . f i 2 . t g 2 ( 4 5 - f ) .
surface of ground
"7
I 7(H-hc)Ka\
411
y.h.Ka-2Cy[K;9
where
^j.
In this way the calculation of the pressure of a cohesive soil can be carried
out as the calculation of the pressure of a loose soil of reduced height (see
Fig. 22-2); similar graphic or calculation methods may be used to solve
more complicated problems.
If a cohesive and relatively impermeable soil has to be supported below
ground water level, the hydrostatic pressure need not be considered, providing
that the soil acts directly on the rear of the sheeting or wall. The pressure
of a stratified medium is ascertained by taking each bed separately, and
considering the overburden in each case as a permanent uniform load.
The frictional resistance of the soil on the rear of the sheeting is estimated,
according to the conditions, in terms of a deflection of the resultant total
pressure, Sa, from the horizontal by an angle, 5, not exceeding the angle
of friction of the soil, .
412
Passive resistance
This is the pressure that is exerted where a supporting structure is pressed
hard against the soil (e.g. at its lower, embedded margin) within the limit
of shear failure of the soil. It is determined principally from a consideration
of curved shear surfaces by using graphical methods; these methods can
also be found in current text books on soil mechanics. For approximate
calculations, or in situations where the support has a smooth rear face and
the shear resistance at the plane of contact between the soil and the support
can be neglected, plane shear surfaces may be assumed, thus simplifying
the numerical solution. When the surface of the ground is horizontal and
the rear of the support is vertical, the coefficient of passive resistance of the
soil is given by,
K = tg*(45 + f-).
For non-cohesive soils, the passive resistance is, at depth h
ap^y.h.Kp
= y.h.tS2^45
+ ^y
The total resistance of the soil on a structure of height, H, can be represented by a loading triangle, and the resultant, acting in the lower third
of the height, H, is given by,
S,-^.*".tf(+*).
With a uniform, vertical, sustained load on the ground surface, the nonstressed earth pressure is increased by = q. Kp.
For cohesive soils, the assumption of a plane shear surface is too far
removed from reality to be acceptable, and therefore a cylindrical shear
surface is usually assumed for an approximate solution. Nevertheless,
a simplified relation derived for loose soils is frequently used (as in the case
of active pressure), when the passive resistance is increased by a permanent
cohesion effect. The pressure at depth h, is given by,
413
ffl=0.65y.ff^g
i45-|\
414
Some authors and also the compilers of the Swiss Standard [239] consider
it correct to assume a uniform load of earth pressure over the entire height
of the retaining wall (see Fig. 22-3a), when the latter is anchored at one or
more levels in non-cohesive and cohesive soils. Therefore
= 0.65. H. Ka.
If a uniform load, q, on the ground surface behind the wall is considered,
then,
=
22.1.2
\.3(0.5. . Ka +
Ka.q).
415
The anchors are fixed in a sufficiently stable region of the ground behind
the supporting structure, and the overall stability of the entire structure
is assessed.
22.2.1
Types of retaining wall that can be anchored are sheet steel piling, soldier
beams with laggings (Berlin method), piled sheeting, underground walls
(Milanese method), and element walls (Swiss method). The static efficiency
and distribution of earth pressure on the wall are influenced principally by
the rigidity and continuity between components of the wall.
Steel sheet piling is a relatively pliable, continuous supporting structure,
which allows sufficient deformation above the excavation floor for the active
earth pressure to develop. This characteristic is particularly valuable when
the sheet piling yields along the line of the supporting anchors installed at one
level.
Sheet piles are usually driven below the excavation floor to a depth which
still permits some angular displacement of the embedded pile ends to take
place. The resistance of the soil to shear failure at the foot of the sheet piling
prevents soil extrusion in the excavation floor. It is assumed in the static
analysis that the displacement of the piles may even suffice to form a passive
earth resistance. The loading diagram is shown in Fig. 22-4a. If it is expected
that the displacement of the piling below the floor of the excavation will
be less than that required to develop a passive resistance, a reduced value for
this pressure must be introduced into the calculation, or if necessary, the
r)
b)
Fig. 22-4. Earth pressure load on the anchored vertical sheeting of an excavation
a) loading of sheet piling, b) loading of sheet bracing
416
part of the sheet piles embedded below the floor must be lengthened. A reduction of the earth pressure can be made, for example, by a reduction
of the coefficient, Kp, by 1/3 of the value of Kp K0, for the given soil.
The Berlin method, using soldier beams with timber, concrete, or steel
laggings inserted in succession, also represents a yielding type of sheeting
(Fig. 22-5). Steel soldier beams are erected in, or sometimes rammed into,
Fig. 22-5. Sheeting comprising timber laggings (Berlin method), anchored in two rows
(photo Brckner Grundbau)
vertical boreholes below the floor level of the excavation. Although they are
very rigid relative to their small width, these beams still allow sufficient soil
deformation for the development of an active earth pressure with a triangular load distribution. Each beam receives the earth pressure from a width
of ground equivalent to the axial interval between beams.
According to Krey [110], the passive resistance of the soil, Sp, acts to
prevent any angular displacement of the beam around the point of a one-line
anchorage, while the resistance, Rp, acts against shear failure of the soil on
either side of the beam. This resistance is expressed in terms of the resistance
417
to movement along two parallel vertical planes FLM (Fig. 22-4b). In loose
soils, Rp is determined by the friction at the vertical shear planes
Rp = Es. tg .
The horizontal pressure, Es, acting on these planes, is expressed as the
pressure at rest of the given soil (with K0 = 1) on the area FLM. Thus,
s = !v.</ 3 .tg(45 + f - ) .
For cohesive soils, Rp is constant (assuming = 0), and is equal to the
cohesion c at the two planes FLM:
Rp = c.d\tg(45
+ ^\.
gunned concrete
I I t D' i t
earth pressure
t t i
( <> )
conditions for an active earth pressure above the excavation floor, nor for
a passive resistance below the floor. Therefore it is recommended, especially
when there is no significant yielding of the anchors, that the coefficients Ka
and Kp in the load diagram be reduced to the values K'a and Kp, respectively,
as in the following:
K'a
Ka + (K0 Ka),
418
it
|.
tfKj
|.
t_
r(Htd)KZ
j,
Fig. 22-7. Earth pressure and earth resistance loading on an anchored pile wall (K' values),
and an underground wall {K" values)
Underground walls for supporting the soil are usually continuous reinforced concrete structures cast in deep, narrow trenches. This type of
structure is very rigid and creates a soil angle cf friction of to at
its rear face. It is recommended, therefore, that the coefficient of earth
pressure and earth resistance be adjusted in the following way:
2
K"a = Ka + {KQ Ka),
K'p = Kp (Kp K0).
This is shown in Fig. 22-7, where the earth pressure at rest must also be considered at the anchoring level.
Element walls are made and anchored in a succession of horizontal levels
from the top downwards, as the pit excavation proceeds (Fig. 22-8). Their
advantage over the preceding methods is that any drilling, ramming, or
excavation with special machines, does not have to be carried out prior to the
opening of the pit. The individual reinforced elements are made on the spot
and the reinforcements of the elements are welded together as the elements
are formed.
419
front
view
cross-section
v///////,
>/////////
O
llll
1 I ~T
I I
|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l
v)//////}///////\
v///;///;///;//////;///,
>///////;//;
/V// >////,
>////////)//
v///////;
I I 1
W///////V))})///
y/////////
x I * 1 I
1 1
\ , \ \
v$/\))/\
e
'///////////////},
777777777
^7 >/////////)/,
Fig. 22-8. Wall of anchored concrete elements construction sequence [158] (A), anchored
element wall for the Beaux Arts underground station at Charleroi (Belgium), constructed
by Bruckner Comp. (B)
Such element walls are yielding and the calculations therefore assume
an earth pressure evenly distributed up and down the entire height of the wall.
For the individual stages of the excavation, however, an additional arch
loading on each line of mostly recently installed anchors arises from the
420
pressure of the yet unanchored next part of the excavation [158], and this
has to be taken into account. For the bottom lines of anchors, this transient
load will be greater than the sustained load (Fig. 22-9).
22.2.2
The required anchoring forces are calculated on the basis of the equilibrium
of forces acting on the retaining wall. If the anchors are fixed in one line,
the calculation is simpler than that needed for several lines of anchors one
above the other.
22.2.2.1
421
where Sx, S2, S3 are horizontal components of the earth pressure or resistances already solved graphically, and Rp is the resistance to shearing along
vertical planes on either side of the beam, as indicated previously.
By substituting the respective dimensions of the structure and the soil parameters into the equation, values for the individual forces and their distances
from point K are determined (according to the loading diagram) in terms
of the unknown d. Substituting into the equation IMk = 0, a value of d
is tentatively obtained from the biquadratic equation; this should then be
increased by 10 to 20 per cent, (according to H. Blum [20]) for the actual
construction of the wall. By entering the value of d, values for the individual
forces are computed, with the exception of the anchoring force which is
determined from the equilibrium of forces in the horizontal direction:
Pk = St + S2 - S3 -
2Rp.
422
The security of individual anchors against extraction from the soil was
discussed in Chapters 10 and 13. This security is achieved by using an anchor
root (a plate or bulb) of appropriate dimensions at the fixing point of the
423
anchor in the soil. The system must be tested by loading test anchors before
work begins on the anchored structure, and by overstressing standard service
anchors with a higher, testing load (see Chapter 17). All this, however, is not enough to guarantee the stability of the anchored structure.
It is also necessary to ensure that the tendons are of sufficient length and
orientation to reach a region of the ground of which the load-bearing capacity
is unaffected by the excavation. In principle, the anchor root is at a greater
distance from the wall than that of the shear surface delimiting the soil
wedge which loads the wall. Two shear zones are formed behind the wall,
these being defined by an upper and a lower slip plane (see Fig. 22-11).
The formation of two slip planes behind an anchored wall has been demonstrated in model tests carried out by H. Bendel [15] (Fig. 22-10). The
fixing of anchors beyond the surface of the permanently stable slope, as
discussed in Chapter 23 in the context of permanent retaining walls, is
uneconomic for the temporary walls of excavations. To establish the most
reliable anchor lengths and the conditions for of internal stability of the
system: wall-earth body-anchors along the so called deeper shear surface,
the methods proposed by E. Kranz [108] and N. Janbu [98] are most
often used. Both methods were compared by Huder and Arnold [93].
cm
135-
^ ^ V,\
\
\ ' k\\\ \\
k
I
I
S\\\,u
fr\
I
^\ vu
' \\\
\v w
\\\
v
< \w\ \ \\\
I
\
M \
I
\
t\ \\ ^
*\ l
5 \N\\
1
1
\ \\ Si \
\
V
^ 1\ ' v
\] s
^v|\
>
\
\
\ \'
I
I
I
115
*v
35
75
'v
55
35
15
20
22.2.3.1
40
60
w w
w
Internal stability
The stability can fail when the soil mass behind the wall, compressed by
the forces (Rk) of the anchors, shears along a plane connecting the theoretical
foot, F, of the embedded load-bearing wall with either the centre of gravity
of the mass, or the tips of the fixing devices, D, of the anchors (Fig. 22-11).
In addition, when the anchor roots are placed near the ground surface, the
soil may fail along a shear plane running through the points D, up to the
424
f t
A6F\ loading
CJDf wedges of soil
FbCO earih body securing
stability of anchoring
area
long anchor
roof
anchor
bulb
425
_ A - A + [G - (hSa - A ) t g 3 ] . tg(y - )
cos a + sin a . tg ( #)
'
where hSa, hS1 are horizontal components of the relevant earth pressures
(see Fig. 22-11),
a = angle of inclination of the anchor,
= angle of internal friction of the soil,
$ = angle of inclination of shear surface FD,
= deviation of earth pressure Sa and St from the perpendicular to the wall, as determined by the friction between the
soil and the rear of the wall.
It may be necessary to introduce the extra pressure of ground water into
the static analysis. The sustained service load, q, of the ground surface behind
the wall is introduced into the calculation only if the inclination of the slip
plane FD is reduced to a safer, lower angle.
The anchored structure is stable when the limit anchoring force, Rk,
which disturbs the equilibrium at the shear surface DF, is 50 per cent, greater
than the anchoring force, Pk, needed to secure the wall (see Section 22.2.2).
The safety margin, m, is thus
The procedure just described was initially proposed for sheet piling
anchored in a non-cohesive soil, the anchor tendons being fixed in the soil
with the aid of vertical anchoring plates or trench walls (see Fig. 22-11, I).
It was subsequently applied to other fixing methods involving a long or
426
expanded grouted root, or a rammed tensile pile (see Fig. 22-11, II, III). In the
latter examples, a hypothetical vertical anchoring plane CD, is assumed for
the purposes of the calculation. This plane passes through the centre of the
anchor root or fixing section of the pile (length /), or within 2 m of the expanded anchor root bulb (Fig. 22-11, III) [50]. When the anchors are arranged
with their roots in a row, their spacing is assumed to be more than /.
For cohesive soils, the calculation is similar to that for non-cohesive soils
but the earth pressure on the supports and the resistance at the shear surface
FD are determined taking an effective angle of friction of the soil, ', and
an effective soil cohesion, c'. In unconsolidated cohesive soils, it is assumed
that = 0. In the diagram of forces, a force C = c'. FD, acting along
the slip plane, is introduced before the force Rt.
When the soil is of more than one type, so that the soil mass behind the
wall comprises two or more beds, of different physical and mechanical
properties, the stability is calculated as follows (Fig. 22-12):
Fig. 22-12. Graphic analysis of the stability of an anchored wall in front of a stratified medium
The body AFDC is divided vertically into parts at the points of intersection
between the shear surface FD and the individual beds. The weights of these
parts always act in the diagram of forces from the points of intersection
of Rly R2, etc. with the direction of the anchoring force, Rk. The section
between the point of action of the first force, Sx, and the point of intersection
of the previous component of shear resistance with the anchoring direction,
determines the value of the limit anchoring force, Rk.
If the supporting structure is anchored at several different levels, the
stability of the structure is calculated in stages from the diagram of forces
(Fig. 22-13). The state of equilibrium for the first line of anchoring forces is
considered initially, (this involves the weight, Gl9 of the body FDXCXA and
427
Fig. 22-13. Analysis of the stability of a wall anchored at several levels in homogeneous
non-cohesive soil
the forces acting at the shear surface FD^), and thus Rkl is found. The next
force diagram is constructed for the soil body FD2C2A, the shear plane FD2,
and the sum of the anchoring forces Rkl and Rk2. This procedure is repeated
until the lowest shear surface is reached. The resulting safety factor is obtained
from the relation
In Fig. 22-13, this analysis is shown for three lines of anchors in a homogenous non-cohesive soil.
22.2.3.3 External (overall) stability
It appears from the results of research and from recent practical experience
that an assessment of the external, or overall stability is necessary, particularly
for high structures or where complex geological conditions exist. Here, the
formation of a curved shear surface is assumed, the depth of this depending
on the depth of the foot of the structure (Fig. 22-14). In the analysis, the least
favourable shear surface with respect to the supporting structure is sought,
using the above-described procedure for the internal stability. The position
and shape of the least favourable shear surface is not known in advance and
therefore the investigation requires a large number of similar calculations,
for which a computer and suitable program must be available.
To set up this program, it is convenient to use the method of slices as
applied to the stability of a soil slope. The procedure for finding the least
favourable shear surface may be that described in the preceding Chapter
428
Fig. 22-14. Overall stability analysis for a tied-back wall, assuming cylindrical slip surfaces.
Geological parameters, the topography of the site, and an account of the loading are given
according to L. Otta [160]
(21.1). The axis of the cylinder is gradually shifted as shown in Fig. 22-14,
until it is found that the calculated degree of safety does not decrease any
further. To obtain a more accurate result, it may also be useful to investigate
the state of stability at that part of the shear surface where the cylindrical
surface approaches ground level; the shear surface in this section takes the
form of a plane inclined at the angle a = 45 , according to the theory
of active earth pressure.
If the smallest degree of safety found in this way is less than the required
degree of safety (usually 1.5), longer anchor tendons must be used, or the
number of anchors at the lower levels must be increased. The new design
is assessed in the same way.
Several hundreds of shear surfaces can be processed by the computer for
one design of an anchored wall, and conditions can be introduced into the
analysis that are for more complicated than any that could be handled by
graphic methods.
22.3 EXAMPLES OF A N C H O R E D WALLS AND THE M O N I T O R I N G
OF THEIR FUNCTION
429
Fig. 22-15. Anchored sheeting of drilled-in piles in the foundation pit for the National
Assembly Building in Prague
430
Fig. 22-16.
A Anchored pile sheeting of the foundation pit for the Kacerov underground station,
Praha,
of the anchored soil was reduced, both under the anchored soil mass and
along the anchor roots. The soil failed along a curved surface emerging at
ground level up to 8 m from the top of the wall; the anchors were torn out
and the braces uprooted.
Anchored drill-rod sets (Hagconsult system) have been successfully used
in Sweden to anchor the sheet piling of foundation pits in dense urban areas.
Fig. 22-18 shows a cross-section of the sheet piling for a foundation pit in
Stockholm. The sheet piling is anchored by an upper line of bar anchors
fixed in morainic gravels and sands, whilst the lower line is anchored in the
bedrock. The bored anchor bars, which were of 32x16 mm cross-section,
were grouted with cement slurry under a pressure of 0.52.0. MPa, and
prestressed to 360 kN; they underwent elastic elongation only. A view of the
sheeted pit is shown in Fig. 22-19. The external anchor heads were mounted
on load-distributing rolled steel beams, and these in turn were seated on
oblique props welded to the sheet piles.
Anchored sheet pilings are also commonly used to support banks, and
are used in the construction of embankments. Sheet piles are rammed into
the underlying strata of the bank, and the ground level is raised up to the top
431
of the sheet piling which is then anchored with tie bars, usually positioned
from above. The tie bars are connected at one end to the sheet piles, and
at the other to embedded or rammed-in anchoring screens (or plates)
(Fig. 22-20). Another example involving an embankment is given in
Chapter 23.
Anchoring is used in a similar way to secure quay walls constructed by
the slurry trench method or the so-called pile-wall method. The quay wall at
a port near Cremona in Italy may serve as an example; the port is built on
a canal connecting Milan with the Adriatic Sea. The quay wall was constructed as an underground wall of reinforced concrete, 70 cm thick
(Fig. 22-21). It was secured by tendons spaced at intervals of 3 m and
prestressed to 540 kN. A parapet wall served as a base for the anchors; this
wall was concreted in a trench 2 m deep below the ground surface, at
a distance of 10 m from the quay wall.
432
21.70
^rayelandsand
\
\ Qs^wage main
433
tir-
J?**'
Fig. 22-19. View of a foundation pit walled by sheet piling (Anchoring by Hagconsult AB
Stockholm)
t
embankment
sheet
piling
500 kN and a fixing length of 6 m while the two lower levels comprise rope
anchors with a load-bearing capacity of 1 MN, and a fixing length of 13 m.
The construction was carried out by the Soletanche Co.
The underground walls of the pumping station supplying water to
Bratislava (Czechoslovakia) provide an illustration of another method of
anchoring. The station is sited on the flood plain of the Danube, where
434
330
Fig. 22-22. Anchored walls at the sides of an excavation for a canal in France
(Soletanche Co.);
) view into the canal, b) see page 435
both frequent floods and considerable fluctuations in the ground water level
occur. The anchors had to be fixed in beds of fine-grained gravel and sand
which are often saturated, and because of the small load-bearing capacity
of anchors fixed in such material, an excessively large number of them would
435
'ft 2
r
^alfu'viaf-t. ~
vv
+7.5
"
Fig. 22-22.
b) cross-section
b)
ill
i I
--
=^
TT
I
I
I
I
JJ-
^ ^
**:
/
/
/
! ''
I
tfj
I / /
I /
'
436
have been needed to secure the station walls. Thus it was proposed that the
anchor bases might rest against the walls of open caissons lowered in advance
around the circumference of the pumping station (Fig. 22-23). The anchors
were to be made from 65 mm diameter single ropes with both ends fixed in
cast steel heads.
The design gave particular attention to anticorrosive protection, the
individual strands of the anchor rope being coated with red lead during the
stranding. The insulating wrapping of the rope consisted of a layer of insulating paste and an anticorrosive bandage, which was protected from mechanical
injury during manipulation of the anchor by a PVC foil bandage.
horizontal
section
open pit
Fig. 22-24. Anchored element wall of the excavation for a new hospital at Chur (Svitzerland)
a) plan; b) cross-section showing the anchoring system and the distribution of horizontal
deformation in the wall [159]
437
prestressing that was applied, since the calculations were based on a wall
load of 1.2 times the active earth pressure. The old building did not suffer
any damage.
An interesting example of the movement of an entire sheeting wall into
the soil was reported by S. K. Saxena in the USA [73]. The wall, securing
the excavation for the World Trade Centre building, was 18 m high and
1 m thick. It was constructed of reinforced concrete panels and was secured
by six lines of anchors with a fixing length of about 10 m. The movements
of 10 panels were observed throughout the construction. The wall acted as
a semi-rigid member and tended to rotate about a point near its base, the
position of this point being determined to some extent by the depth of the
foot of the wall in the bedrock. It was observed that the wall moved continuously into the soil as excavation proceeded and successive layers of ties were
prestressed. The maximum lateral movement was about 6.5 cm, recorded
a year and a half after the excavation had been started. The anchor loads
decreased steadily with increasing deformation of the wall, owing to elastic
contraction of the prestressed tendons (Fig. 22-25).
The excavation for a new telephone building in New York was protected
by means of timber panels and steel battens anchored by long triple rope
prestressed tendons grouted into the rock [73]. Above the centre section
of the wall the tied-back concrete underpinning of the existing six-storey
telephone building was realized. The total depth of the excavation was 23 m.
A problem arose when the basement excavation was required to be taken
down into a rock stratum underlying an earth overburden. The support
system for the overburden could have been tied back with anchors dipping
at 45 degrees into the rock, but these would have given rise to a vertical
loading on the support system that would have been transmitted to the rock
in which the support was resting, very close to the excavation face. This
would have created a danger of rock failure at the face.
Both the importance and the usefulness of monitoring excavation support
structures are apparent from the example described by Otta [159]. An
excavation 16.5 m deep, carried out in Zurich, was protected with a reinforced concrete underground wall anchored at four levels under unfavourable
conditions (Fig. 22-26). The behaviour of the structure and the surrounding
ground were observed during the progress of the excavation and afterwards
by measuring the inclination of monitoring boreholes behind the wall, and
by measuring the changes in the prestressing of the anchors. Systematic
measurements commenced when the excavation reached a depth of 7 m,
at the level of the second line of anchors (day 0, see Fig. 22-26). Until then,
no deformation had been registered either at the ground surface or in the
wall. The deformation was considerable, however, when the excavation reached the third anchoring level (after 16 days) and the fourth anchoring level
438
^- IT|ti
. Ilil i:aa :
^*>*<
rrpfi^
^^^^^mm^mm
600
(3.0j
[
50 .
|(25)| \^4
.^.V.-
-..---^:.~.
- -; "
.5- 300
(1.5)
- 1 .- _ ; :
^ - > "~
^?2
^5
\
X
150
150
300
50 600 750
time days
Fig. 22-25. Anchors securing the excavation wall for the World Trade Centre [73]
A view into the foundation pit, B measured decreasing loads in different anchors
(after 139 days). Gradually the ground behind the wall sunk by as much as
3 cm (at a distance of 5 m from the wall), the upper edge of the wall was
displaced 4 cm horizontally, and at the level of the third line of anchors the
439
deformations and distances
cross- section
o 2 i 6 fe^fe1L(control points
observo^ ^
^tion borehole
*>.*A/
^
440
Fig. 22-27. The use of
anchored piles to protect the
foundations of a Gothic
church against ground
settlement in the course
of excavation of the station
tunnels for the Nuremberg
Underground (GFR).
a) cross-section; b)plan
securing of
St Lorenz Church
a)
cross - section
Knigstrosse
L 9.60 , | * & , 9.60
i; \ ! / > j \
i / >
441
deep and 177 m long, and the computed force exerted by the earth per 1 lineal
metre of the supporting wall was 1,900 kN. The excavation was secured by anchors installed at six levels in succession, beginning at the top, with a spacing
of 1 m between anchors in the same line. The anchors were 20 to 27 m long,
slightly inclined from the horizontal, and the injected cylindrical roots were
7 m long. The horizontal displacement of the top of the wall was regularly
checked during the excavation (Fig. 22-29). Midway along the pit, the top
of the wall was displaced horizontally by almost 12 cm in the course of seven
months of excavation, after which time it remained stable. In view of this
**'
0
r-
120
100
80 |
1
1
1
1
/
(
10
40
1
J
^ J
15-
20
//
XI
XII
1969
20
/
t
1
II
///
IV
1970
VI
VII
VIII
yo
|
442
large deflection of the wall, the forces in the anchors were checked, and were
found to correspond with the force of active earth pressure, which the anchors
were designed to hold.
In another example from the same locality [24] a large excavation in clay
was secured by an anchored wall; in addition to the systematic observation
of the loading and deformation of the wall as well as the anchor prestressing,
comparative calculations of these values were carried out by the finite element
method (Fig. 22-30). The results of the calculations and measurements were
calculated
measured
Fig. 22-30. Deformations and anchoring forces in the wall of a construction pit in Frankfurt
(GFR), according to the results of both calculations and measurements [24]
A profile of the wall and geological profile; 1 gravel, 2 clay, 3 limestone;
B deformation of the wall, C earth pressure, D increase in anchoring forces with
excavation depth
in very close agreement, both for the deformations and the anchoring forces.
Some differences appeared at the foot of the wall, where the effects of interlayers of strong limestone in the clay was not considered.
The displacements of walls anchored in plastic cohesive soils, not only
in the upper part but also at the foot of the wall, are a consequence of the
compressibility of the soil below the excavation floor. The various forces
involved are shown in Fig. 22-31 [154]. The earth block AB DE experiences a horizontal pressure, and in order to satisfy the condition
of equilibrium, the resulting earth resistance at CD must be equal
to the earth pressure acting on AE. This means that the soil below the floor
of the excavation, compared with its original state before excavation began
(pressure at rest) is now under a lower vertical pressure and a higher horizontal
pressure, resulting in compression of the earth and displacement of the wall.
In addition, shear strains are imposed on the block ABDE which must be
compatible with the strains occurring below the excavationfloor.The displacement of the walls may be influenced favourably by the length of the anchors,
443
excavation
Fig. 22-31. Stresses and strains around an anchored soil block behind an excavation wall,
according to Ostermayer
Chapter 23
A N C H O R I N G OF SLOPE R E T A I N I N G WALLS
Retaining walls are usually built to take over the function (static effect)
of a ground body removed from a natural slope. These vertical, or slightly
inclined walls are constructed for the purpose of preparing a horizontal
surfaces for roads (Fig. 23-1), water course (Fig. 23-2), or foundations for
cranes, industrial buildings, warehouses, quays, and harbours. The purpose
of the retaining wall does not usually have any bearing on its design.
445
Anchoring the retaining wall into the underlying ground helps to satisfy
these requirements efficiently.
Slope retaining walls offer a wide range of possibilities for the positioning
and orientation of anchors. The vectors of the anchoring forces can be
vertical, inclined, or horizontal, and they can be arranged so as to pass
through the centre of gravity of the cross-section of the wall, or even across
its upper edge (according to which best contributes to the stability of the
wall).
When the stability of slope retaining walls is achieved by anchoring.
objections are sometimes raised, unjustifiably, that the anchoring must
inevitably lead to an increased pressure in the soil, since the wall is pressed
against it and gives rise to a passive earth pressure as a result. Such a situation, however, can only develop if the moments or shear forces arising from
the anchoring pressure, are larger than the sum of the forces arising from the
earth pressure and the weight of the wall acting in the opposite direction.
The application of anchor prestressing to this extent is obviously uneconomic
and out of question, and a passive earth pressure as a reaction to the anchoring cannot be allowed to appear behind an anchored retaining wall.
The greatest pressure exerted by the soil itself on the supporting structure
is its pressure at rest. This occurs where the supporting structure, including
the anchorage, is designed in such a way as to disallow even a small degree
of deformation, the soil behind the retaining wall being held in its original
position. When a linear or angular displacement takes place, the pressure
of the soil gradually falls to the lowest value of active earth pressure. The
displacement at the top of a retaining wall is assumed to range from 0.001 to
0.005 times its height, according to the soil type.
A discussion of earth pressures on supporting structures was given in the
preceding chapter. Slope retaining walls are comparatively massive, rigid
structures, and their loading is therefore generally considered in terms of the
pressure at rest, with coefficient K0 (see Section 22.1), or, if the active earth
pressure is considered, the coefficient is increased by 2/3 of the difference
K0 Ka, to the value K"a (see Section 22.1.2). The load on the wall at depth, ,
in a non-cohesive soil is determined from the expression:
= ..0
or
y . h . K"a
or
y.h.K"a-2cJK.
The additional loading of slope retaining walls by the hydrostatic pressure of ground water trapped behind them is reduced as much as possible by
providing reliable drainage. Thus a vertical sand or gravel layer is interpo-
446
sed behind the wall, and this is drained from its base. In this case the effect
of friction between the soil and the rear of the retaining wall need not be
considered in the static analysis of the external forces.
The value of the anchoring force required is determined simply from the
equilibrium of the moments of forces with respect to the fulcrum (most
often the external lower edge of the wall), if overturning of the wall is considered, or from the diagram of forces acting on the wall, if a displacement
of the wall along its foundation is considered. The basic formulae for the
static analysis were introduced in Chapter 3 and 4. Whether the problem is
one of overturning or one of displacement, it is clear that there is an essential
requirement for the foundation of the masonry to be sited on a stable and
load-bearing rock bed.
If active earth pressure is considered in the analysis, the necessary deformation of the support must be made possible. In most cases it is recommended
that the anchors be designed so as to allow development of the full active
pressure together with the necessary deformation of the wall; on average
the latter is about 0.002//(see Section 22.1). The required stressing force, P'k,
may thus be determined from the expression:
P'k = , 5 ;
-XE.F.
If
. / = 0.002//,
then,
P'k = &-0.002^-.
where tS'a
H
/
E
F
=
=
=
=
=
=
E.F,
447
*-(I-
0.0024^).
^tga
Fig. 23-3. Graph for rapid determination of the limit gradient of a permanently stable
slope in a cohesive soil (after Fellenius)
448
23.2 S T R U C T U R A L A R R A N G E M E N T OF A N C H O R E D SLOPE
R E T A I N I N G WALLS
/;
J\1c 0 | .
> s
i J
560
660
100
*^ I "
660
Fig. 23-4. Example of the anchorage of a buttressed retaining wall loaded on one side
1 foundation of a buttress, 2 buttress, 3 retaining screen
S2
449
(Fig. 23-6). The anchorage should be prestressed because this makes good
use of the load-bearing capacity of the wall footing (Chapter 4), and is fully
complemented by the masonry weight in contributing to the stability of the
structure.
Anchors which introduce horizontal forces only into the wall, do not
increase the pressure in the wall footing, which is an important advantage
where walls are founded on ground of low load-bearing capacity. On the
other hand, horizontal boreholes are more difficult to drill than vertical
boreholes, especially in non-cohesive soils and detritus. Retaining walls held
by horizontal anchoring forces acting near the top are also loaded by bending
moments, which they must be designed to withstand.
The wall is secured against shear failure not only by the anchoring, but
also by the passive resistance of the soil to extrusion above the footing at
the wall face; the foundations are generally situated below ground level in
order to protect the footing from frost. A wall anchored by horizontal forces
is thus secured in the same way as anchored sheet piling or underground
screens, except that in the case of a slope retaining wall the weight of the
structure is an extra aid to stability.
Anchoring finds application, both economically and technically, in all
current types of retaining wall. Its economic advantage is increased, as
already mentioned, in structures of reduced weight and increased stress
moment (foundation width), such as buttressed walls and reinforced concrete
cantilever retaining walls. In some instances it is possible to reduce the
weight to such an extent that this factor can be entirely neglected in the static
analysis; thus the retaining wall functions purely as a load-distribution plate
supporting the anchor heads.
23.2.1
450
of the slope as a whole will be ensured by the buttresses and the natural soil
arches which are formed in the detritus and which rest on the buttresses. The
precast elements of the retaining screen only take the pressure of the detritus
inside the natural arches and protect the site from falling stones. Where
extra fill is placed behind an anchored retaining wall, (e.g. quay and harbour
walls), the anchors are oriented horizontally and pass through the fill to
connect with anchoring plates. The latter are of sufficient area to create
the necessary resistance to anchor extraction, yet allowing an admissible
displacement of the plate under pressure (Fig, 23-8 and 23-9).
23.2.2
451
Fig. 23-8. Design
for an embankment
wall anchored into
the back-fill
1 buttress, 2 arched
retaining screen,
3 tie bar,
4 anchoring plate
a) vertical section,
b) plan
^\\^^^^^
452
Fig. 23-10. Cantilever retaining wall anchored into
bedrock (Rio de Janeiro). The rear of the wall is
provided with a drainage layer
11 |0*y/4v//
453
Fig. 23-13. Replacing an old retaining wall with an anchored structure (Brunnen,
Switzerland)
a) general view of the reconstruction work, b) drilling of boreholes from a scaffolding,
c) anchored load-bearing buttresses
454
anchors also support the weight of the partly completed supporting structure,
until the entire wall has been completed.
This method was used in Switzerland for the reconstruction of an old
retaining wall when a highway was widened (Fig. 23-13). The old retaining
wall, 42 m long, and made of rubble stone, was replaced in stages by a revetment wall anchored from the top downwards and shifted progressively
deeper into the slope. The load-bearing elements were anchored into reinforced concrete buttresses which were lengthened in stages (Fig. 23-14).
VSL anchoring cables 14 to 22 m long, prestressed to 650 kN were passed
through a thick morainic overlayer containing large blocks, and fixed into
a fractured limestone bedrock. A concrete layer made with coarse aggregate
was built at the rear of the revetment wall to prevent any accumulation of
water which might percolate through the slope and thus increase the pressure
on the supporting structure.
Again in Switzerland, a single track railway was widened to make a double
track line through a long, 7 m-high cutting, without causing any interruption
Fig. 23-14. Detailed view of work on the anchored retaining wall (shown in Fig. 23-13)
progressing from the top downwards (Brunnen, Switzerland)
J
455
to the traffic. 122 anchors 7 to 10 m long, prestressed to 320 kN, were fixed
into the non-cohesive soil of the slope.
The construction of a light retaining wall with load-bearing anchored
buttresses is shown in Fig. 23-15. Here, a slope had to be cut in blocky limestones for the foundation's of a new hospital. The buttresses were secured
with a total of 111 VSL cable anchors from 16 to 2 0 m long, prestressed
to 1.23 MN.
Fig. 23-15. Anchored revetment wall of the excavation for a hospital in Monaco
456
Fig. 23-16. Stabilization by
an anchored wall of the
entrance cutting for the
Richard Sud tunnel (France)
1 tunnel for the northern
motorway branch,
2 tunnel for the southern
motorway branch, 3 retaining wall, 4,5 anchors
resulted in the bottom of the tunnel starting to rise, as soon as test anchors
were installed; this was followed by damage to the lining and the penetration of grout into the tunnel. When the circumstances of these problems were
investigated, it appeared that there had been a change in the hydrogeological
conditions as a result of the flushing water permeating into the rock mass, and
above all, as a result of the high grouting pressure (2 MPa) applied in the
fixing of the anchors. It was recommended, therefore, that water flushing
be abandoned during drilling, and that the grouting pressure be reduced to
0.5 MPa. Following the completion of grouting, drainage was provided to
reduce the hydrostatic pressure of the ground water [57].
This example demonstrates the correctness of the recommendations made
in Chapters 14, 15 and 17, namely that when deciding on which drilling system
to use, and more particularly on the optimum grouting pressure to apply,
it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the characteristics of the
ground in which the anchors are to be installed. Only then is it possible
to avoid any unfavourable effects of the anchoring technique on the hydrogeological conditions within the ground, and its overall stability.
The diaphragm retaining walls for the new Neasden Lane underpass on
the North Circular Road in London are permanently tied back with a total
of 580 Fondedile Multibell anchors (Fig. 23-17). These anchors have working
loads ranging from 100 to 500 kN, and are fixed (with a safety factor of 3)
in clay.
457
*td.75m
3d
33^0
Landslides along highway cuttings in residual and colluvial soils have been
a recurring problem in some areas of Brasil. The mass of the slope soil,
rainfall, a slip plane in an undrained water layer collecting on the underlying rock, and the force of gravity, all occurring in various combinations,
give rise to landslides of greater or lesser importance. An effective solution
to this problem was found by reshaping the slope into a sequence of terraces,
starting from the top, and building concrete walls against the exposed faces
of each terrace with post-tensioned tie-backs to anchor the walls into the
underlying rock. A 15m-high cutting near Agra dos Reis for an access
road to the construction site of a nuclear power station, was stabilized by
creating four terraces. These were supported by precast concrete elements
measuring 1.25 x 1.00 m, each anchored with 20 to 28 m long cables (working
load, 280 kN) comprising 12 wires of 8 mm diameter (Fig. 23-18). The anchors
were installed in 100 mm-diameter boreholes dipping 15 from the horizontal.
The holes were extended about 15 m into the rock and the fixing length was
10 m. The work was undertaken by Tecnosolo SA of Rio de Janeiro [22].
The anchored wall of the basement hall at the reconstructed central market
Forum des Halles de Paris facing the Pierre Lescot street has a special
foundation on piles. On these piles of 80 cm diameter rest the pillars of the
458
wall, which is 5.30 m wide and 1.50 m thick. Between the pillars are blocking
screens of 2.70 x 0.60 m cross-section to take the horizontal earth pressure
[92] (Fig. 23-19).
Chapter 24
A N C H O R I N G OF C O N C R E T E
DAMS
24.1 A N C H O R I N G OF CONCRETE D A M S
BY NON-PRESTRESSED A N C H O R A G E
Dams should, in principle, be anchored in bedrock with prestressed
anchors, because this guarantees efficient co-operation between the shear
resistance of the rock and the anchoring forces from the very start of the
loading of the dam. When non-prestressed anchorage is used, a partial shear
failure of the dam may take place before the anchorage becomes activated.
This leads to a reduction of the absolute shear resistance value of the rock,
because the co-operative effect of the rock cohesion, c, will be lost and the
static coefficient of static friction, / , will be replaced by the coefficient of
460
Fig. 24-1. Allt-na-Lairige Dam (Scotland)
1 bar bundles of the anchors,
2 anchoring shaft, 3 anchor root,
4 anchor head, 5 couplings
-'
A
c3
\\
\v
SJQ
461
kinetic friction, fr, which has a lower value (see also Section 21.1). For these
reasons, non-prestressed bar anchors are only used for dams under a height
of 6.5 m (according to J. K. Wilkins and J. Fidler [223]).
Only in exceptional cases is non-prestressed anchorage used in the construction of taller dams. The 54 m-high Aventino Dam in Italy (in the
Apennines) was secured with non-prestressed steel bars 24 to 30 mm in
diameter. These were placed in 95 mm-diameter boreholes 10 m deep, and
grouted along their entire lengths [5]. The upper ends of the anchoring bars
projected 2.0 m into the dam buttresses, which at this level were strongly
reinforced with 24 mm-diameter steel bars (Fig. 24-3). The bedrock of the
A-A'
B-B'
B'
462
m, = -*
7b -
ih1
2
+ Kjtgcp =
[{n-T)+lf\^
463
m,
Therefore,
-4[<i-)^]If the anchoring forces form an angle, , with the perpendicular to the
footing of the dam, their required value is given by:
-K
_m^_
-'(T-)
B =
tg<P
40
10
2.0
B\
1.0\
%=0,65 1 = 0.60
~~
^OB
0.0'
-1.0
OJO J0.20
0.30
^ ^
0.40
T*
&9
0601
0.70 \ :
>
^#?
'2.0.
I, B =
, in the computation of
h
J
tg<p
the anchoring forces required to secure gravity dams against horizontal displacement
464
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
H[m]
Fig. 24-6. Relationship between required anchoring forces and the gradient of the downstream
face of the dam
465
determining the degree to which the function of the weight of material can
be substituted by anchoring forces.
The Australian engineers [223] who over the last decade have made
significant contributions to the development of anchoring in dam construction, have drawn up a synoptic aid for obtaining an approximate design
encompassing the anchoring forces and corresponding shape of the dam
cross-section (Fig. 24-7).
a
h)
force PMN.m1
Fig. 24-7. Synoptic graph, compiled in the Hydro-Electric Commission of Tasmania, for
obtaining an approximate static analysis of the profile of a gravity dam anchored into the
bedrock;
a) diagram for determining the anchoring forces,P, according to the height of the dam, and
obtaining the profile width at different depths below the crest for any selected value of P,
b) diagram for determining the height of a 3 m-wide dam crest, according to the value
of P9 c) example of a design for the dam profile, using diagrams a and b, A optimum
width line for the footing of the dam, B optimum value line for the anchoring force, P,
C height of the dam crest (width 3 m), according to the applied force, P
This design, however, does not take sufficient account of the mechanical
properties of the foundation ground; the behaviour of the ground is important
with respect to the anchoring forces that will be required, and can be highly
variable. When the dam is founded on sound rock, the anchoring forces
can attain, or even exceed the force arising from the weight of the dam
masonry. On the Allt-na-Lairige Dam, for example, the force arising from the
weight of the masonry was 440 MN, and the anchoring forces amounted
to 480 MN per meter along the dam. The weight of the wing part of the
466
Mellegue Dam was equivalent to 100 MN, while the force in the anchors
was 124 MN. On ground with a low bearing capacity, the magnitude of
the anchoring forces depends on the area of the footings and the groundplan
shape of the structure. By articulating the structure, the moment of resistance
is increased (Fig. 24-8) and the safety of the structure with respect to the
I
I JL *
* JL *
J |\_ ^ "
' i i
Fig. 24-8. Articulation of a dam built on foundation ground of low load-bearing capacity
danger of overturning is improved; moreover, the load acting on the foundation ground is reduced. The exact effect of the shape of the structure on the
value of the anchoring forces required as a substitute for weight in the
structure, cannot be generalized, and each case must be solved separately.
This is particularly important because the stress pattern induced in the
structure by the anchoring forces is also of considerable significance.
The effect of the properties of the foundation ground (particularly the
load-bearing capacity) on the relationship between the necessary anchoring
forces and the weight of the structure, is apparent from the graph in Fig. 24-9.
This shows the maximum and minimum stresses transferred to the footing
base as the weight is progressively replaced by anchoring forces. The reduction achieved in the volume of masonry of the dam is represented in the
graph by a reduction in the gradient of the downstream face of the dam.
In the graph the stress in the footing of the dam is determined for different
loading states, namely, a dam with a variable gradient of the downstream
face, but without anchoring; a dam anchored into the bedrock by a force
directed through the centre of gravity of the footing; and finally, a dam
anchored by a force located within a metre of the upstream face. In all cases,
the empty and full basin conditions are considered, and the stresses pertaining to both the downstream and upstream sides are determined.
Apart from the stress pattern within the footing, the safety limits for
overturning of the structure with various types of anchoring, plus the adopted
safety factor, mp = 1.5, have also been shown in the graph.
Graphs such as this, for different dam heights, contribute to the first
stage of the design in which the anchoring forces required to stabilize the
467
QfiQ
OfiQ
0A3 0.34
0.25
gradient of downstream face
Fig. 24-9. Growth of stress in the footing of the dam when the weight function of a 50 m-high
dam is replaced by anchoring forces
structure are considered. From the maximum permissible load, the limit
to which the volume of the dam concrete can be reduced may be fixed. To
achieve this, the permissible load on the footing is set out on the stress-axis;
a line parallel to the gradient-axis is drawn from this point until it intersects
the maximum stress line computed for the examined type of load. It is then
ascertained whether, with this limit volume of concrete, tensile stresses
appear at the upstream heel of the dam under a full load, or tensile stresses
appear at the downstream heel of the dam when the basin is empty. If such
468
stresses do appear, the volume of masonry must be increased until the stress
is eliminated, particularly on the upstream side. In well founded dams,
a small tensile stress may be permitted on the downstream side, or the dam
body may be secured by means of tensile reinforcement, in the concrete of
the dam. Finally it is ascertained whether the proposed design guarantees
safety from overturning; for this purpose vertical lines are drawn on the
graph for the different types of load.
24.2.2
The first dam to be anchored in the bedrock was the Cheurfas gravity dam
in Algeria during its reconstruction in 1934. This operation followed the
design of A. Coyne, who was also the author of this idea. Since then it has
been used on many sites, mainly at first in dam reconstruction, and then
increasingly in the design of new dams and coffer-dams.
24.3.1
The reconstruction of the Cheurfas Dam [106], built between 1880 and
1882 as a 30 m-high masonry gravity dam on sandstone bedrock (Fig.24-10)
was started when failures occurred in the Bouzey, Oued Fergona, and Hebra
469
Fig. 24-10. Cheurfas (Algeria), the world's
first anchored dam (1934)
1 anchors (10 MN), 2 anchors
(2 MN) installed in 1967, 3 drainage
boreholes
darns, built at the same time with identical structural features. In its reconstruction, the Cheurfas Dam was raised by 3 m. The dam was secured
with 37 cables, each composed of 630 high quality steel wires of 5 mm diameter, and prestressed to 10 MN. (The sum total of the anchoring forces
were equivalent to one third of the dam weight). Reinforced concrete cable
heads were located on the raised dam crest (6.0 m apart), whilst the lower
cable ends were fixed into twin anchoring cavities. After 20 years the prestressing loss was only 3 per cent.
In another check in 1965, after 30 years of operation, summary prestressing losses amounting to 9 per cent, were found; these losses were caused by
corrosive damage in two anchors at the connection between the tendon and
the anchor head. A second reconstruction was carried out in which the forces
contributing to the stability of the dam were increased by installing 30 new
anchors each prestressed to 2 MN [106]. The new BBRV anchors were
composed of 54 7 mm-diameter wires (Chatillon 07-B) arranged in three
layers of 12, 18 and 24 wires, respectively, around a grouting pipe. The
diameter of the cable was 70 mm, and that of the borehole was 146 mm. The
anchors were from 55 to 60 m long and reached 25 m below the footing.
They were fixed in the bedrock by grouting the lowermost 10 m with a plasticized cement mortar. The anchor tendon was protected against corrosion
with heavy bitumen oil forwarded into the borehole after the borehole walls
had been sealed by chemical grouting (see Section 18.2.6). The oil also
protected the anchoring head and the space above it. Such an arrangement
allowed for the possibility of checking whether the wires or the anchoring
head were properly covered, and if necessary, topping up the sealing medium.
470
The Tansa Dam in India, a gravity masonry dam 40 m high and 2,700 m
long built in 1892 on a foundation of basalt, was reconstructed in 1955 [52].
2,400 cables, each composed of 37 5 mm-diameter wires, were used for the
anchoring; the final prestressing of the cables was 700 kN, after expected
losses had taken place. The cables were inserted into 65 mm-diameter
boreholes and fixed at their lower ends by adhesion over a length of 5.5 m;
their upper ends were fixed into strong cast steel heads. The cables were
prestressed to 800 kN three weeks after the concreting of the lower ends.
After four more weeks the prestressing was checked. Those cables which
retained a tension of more than 700 kN were grouted, since it was assumed
that prestressing losses as a result of cable relaxation and plastic creep of
the rock and masonry would not increase further. The cables were enveloped
in cement mortar injected into the boreholes from the dam crest.
The heights of the Joux (France) and Gafarsa (Ethiopia) stone masonry
gravity dams (Fig. 24-11) were increased in a similar way. The advantages
of anchorage are particularly evident in the case of the Gafarsa Dam the
original height of which was increased by a half. The reinforced concrete
anchoring heads of the Joux Dam are installed in a covered gallery to
facilitate access and inspection. The new masonry on the downstream side
is lined with stones taken from the original dam crest, so as to preserve the
appearance of the structure.
The Steenbras Dam in South Africa, the Mazoe Dam in Zimbabwe, the
116.20
471
Witbank, and Argal Dams in Great Britain, the Spullersee Dam in Austria, and
many other dams have also been heightened with the aid of anchoring. The
height of the concrete Steenbras Dam (Fig. 24-12) which supplies Capetown
with water, was doubled in 1927 by enlarging the body of the dam at the same
time; this was possible because the dam was founded on sound rock. For the
second increase in height (3.6 m) executed in 1953, anchors composed of
37 wires of 5 mm diameter were installed [136]. The cables were doubled-back over saddleheads mounted on the dam crest, and thus the anchors
were prestressed inpairs. The lower free cable ends were inserted into cement
mortar over a length of 2.5 m. This mortar was forwarded into the
65 mm-diameter boreholes in 50 mm-diameter tube containers, so as to
prevent the cement mixture from being diluted as it passed through water.
The cables were prestressed with a 2 MN jack placed under the saddle-head,
exerting a force double that of the 770 kN for each cable. A control
measurement showed that after 28 days, each pair of cables retained a tension
of 2 x 700 kN after all losses had taken place. The tension was made fast with
reinforced concrete blocks inserted under the saddle-heads on completion of
prestressing. After checking the prestressing, the boreholes were grouted
under a pressure of 1.4 MPa. The reconstruction took 18 months to complete.
At the Mazoe Dam the anchors were extended through the underlying
ground so that they could be fixed in undamaged strata of the bedrock
(Fig. 24-13). Both theory (see Section 9.3) and site experience indicate that
472
damaged rock beds are quite capable of resisting the extraction of anchors;
hence, anchors need only be fixed into sound rock, as in the dam described
above, if this rock is not too deep below the footing of the dam [70].
In Great Britain, the Argal Dam near Falmouth [134] was heightened by
the application of anchoring. This concrete gravity dam (Fig. 24-14) was
200mt cables
(2MN)
built just before the Second World War, and soon after the end of the war,
it was found necessary to increase the height by 3.0 m. The reconstructed
dam was stabilized with 47 cable anchors up to 41.5 m in length, prestressed
to 2 MN per cable. The cables were composed of 102 wires (4.5 mm diameter)
arranged in three coaxial layers with ring-spacers in between layers. A grout
pipe 12 mm in diameter was passed through the centre of each cable. The
cables were located in 100 mm-diameter boreholes which connected with
AC pipes embedded in the concrete of the added height of the dam. Through
the original dam body and the bedrock, the holes were bored with a pneumatic
percussion drill set. The boreholes reached not less than 8 m below the footing
of the dam, into beds of relatively sound granite. Impermeability of the borehole walls was ensured by grouting and re-drilling within 48 hours. The
boreholes were rinsed with water prior to insertion of the cables. When the
grout (water-cement ratio, 0.4) which enveloped the fixed cable ends had
hardened (after a minimum of three days), its level was checked to make sure
that the fixed length of the cable was 4.0 m. Then a reinforced concrete
anchoring head was made for the upper end of each cable. The heads were
cylindrical, 60 cm in diameter and 45 cm high. Each was seated 37 cm above
the dam crest to leave room for the stressing jacks and seating blocks, which
consisted of steel pipes filled with concrete. 21 days after the concreting of
473
the heads, the cables were prestressed in three stages to overcome prestressing
losses from cable relaxation.
Between 1963 and 1965, both dams of the Spullersee water scheme in
Austria (Vorarlberg) were heightened. These concrete gravity dams were
built between 1920 and 1925 by the poured concrete construction technique.
The southern dam is 34 m high and 278 m long, whilst the northern one is
24 m high and 186 m long (Fig. 24-15). The dams retain a common reservoir
3.80
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for a peak power station, and were therefore raised by the same amount
4.6 m. They were secured by anchoring into the bedrock with 119 BBRV
cables, prestressed to 1 MN. These cables were fixed into boreholes in the
Cretaceous limestone bedrock, by the cohesion of concrete roots 2.5 m
long [185].
Sometimes it is necessary to reconstruct a dam because it no longer
satisfies present day design standards, or because in the original design the
effects of possible extreme loading conditions were underestimated. Another
reason may be that some components of the system, such as ground water
drains, etc., have been impaired or put out of action. Even in these cases
anchorage is an efficient method by which the structure can be saved. In
Czechoslovakia, anchoring was used to make safe the Bystficka Dam
(a masonry gravity dam, Fig. 24-16) which was constructed between 1908
and 1912. It was found during routine inspection that the dam was no longer
474
Fig. 24-16. Reconstruction of the Bystncka Dam (Czechoslovakia), by anchoring into the
bedrock
safe enough, and the maximum permitted water level behind the dam had
to be lowered. To improve the stability of the dam, a grout curtain was
constructed to reduce the penetration of water into the bedrock, the effects
of uplift were reduced by curtain drains and wells located at the downstream
heel of the dam, and third and most important, the body of the dam was
anchored into the bedrock with 26 cables of load-bearing capacity 4 MN
per cable (Fig. 24-17). Each cable, between 33 and 54 m long, was made
from Hercules multiple rope comprising 37 strands of 19 2.8 mm-diameter
wires each. Anchoring cavities for the fixing of the cables were made with
depth charges at the borehole bottoms. 110 mm-diameter boreholes for the
cables were drilled after the surrounding rock had been thoroughly grouted.
The grouting of the sealing curtain was completed after the cables had been
prestressed and the borehole space around the cables had been filled with
475
grout to seal all possible cracks in the rock around the anchoring bulbs.
The upper cable ends were fixed into cast steel heads resting on a reinforced
concrete load-distribution sill along the dam crest. The prestressed sections
of the cables were insulated with a multiple layer of paste and PLU bandage
(see Section 18.2.2.1).
The Laing Dam, situated on the Buffalo River 40 km west of East London
in South Africa, was secured by similar means in 1977. During a flood
in 1970 the flow over the spillway exceeded the original design discharge
(4,100 m 3 sec" 1 ) by 80 per cent, and it was decided to stabilize the dam so
as to comply with present-day standards, using large prestressed anchors
(Fig. 24-18). 131 anchors with working capacities of 4.80 to 6.0 MN were
installed 1 m from the upstream face; the distance between centres ranged
from 0.9 to 5.3 m, depending on the height of the dam wall at the same
position. The anchor lengths varied from 14 to 63 m. They were embedded
in the doleritic bedrock at a minimum depth of 12 m below the footing of
the dam.
476
Fig. 24-18. Laing Dam on the Buffalo River
(South Africa)
/ reconstructed profile, 2 anchor block,
3 distribution beam, 4 prestressed ties,
5 inspection gallery, 6 drains, 7 anchor
roots
477
in 1974 and 1976. 576 vertical anchors each prestressed to 2.5 MN, were
used for the stabilization. The stilling basin is 186 m long and 36.60 m wide
(Fig. 24-20), and it is divided lengthwise into 12 sections. The bedrock
changes along the basin, shales, limestone and gypsum being the most
common rock type. The bottom slab is 3 m thick. Between sections 5 and 10
the bottom rests on a concrete filler which was used to repair the concrete
wash-outs. The anchor boreholes of 152 to 171 mm diameter were stabilized
and sealed by grouting. The anchors, ranging from 16.8 to 38.1 m long,
were composed of 14 and 16 strands of 15.5 mm diameter. The root length
was 6 m. Anticorrosive protection was provided by using a grout of sulphateresistant cement. The VSL anchoring heads were embedded in concrete
479
after prestressing, and the entire floor of the stilling basin was surfaced with
a layer of concrete containing a fibrous filler to resist cavitation.
The Conowingo Dam on the Susonchanna River in the USA was reconstructed after the events of 1972, when hurricane Agnes passed over the
river basin causing the rate of flow to increase to 27,216 m 3 sec" 1 , and the
water table to rise by 92 cm, which was outside the design limits of the dam.
The dam was reconstructed to withstand a water level increase of 1.6 m
(with a flow rate of 35,000 m 3 sec - 1 ). It was secured with 537 anchors
prestressed to forces of between 2.5 and 4.45 MN. The anchors were installed
in 152 and 178 mm-diameter boreholes sealed by grouting [126].
24.3.2
The first dam to be fully anchored into the bedrock, and in which the
concrete was also prestressed, was the Emestina Dam in Brasil, completed
in 1955 (Fig. 24-21). The dam is 300 m long, 20 m high from the foundation
level, and 13 m above the river bottom. The dam foundation is embedded
deep in the rock so that the dam acts as a cantilever fixed into the bedrock.
The securing of the dam is further enhanced by anchorage installed in boreholes under the upstream heel of the dam. With this design, the volume of
concrete was reduced from 22,000 m 3 for the classical dam shape, to 7,300 m 3 .
The anchorage consumed 140 t of steel.
The Allt-na-Lairige Dam in Scotland, completed in 1956, is founded on
sound granite in a wide valley [7]. It is 22 m high (see Fig. 24-1) and 408 m
long, and is anchored into the bedrock only along the higher central section
(a length of 290 m). The anchors were made of high grade alloy steel with
a 30 mm-diameter circular cross-section. The bars were assembled in 28-bar
circular bundles and placed in pits 120 cm in diameter and 7.8 m deep.
They were stressed on the surface by the procedure of the Lee McCall
Company, that is, by means of nuts resting on steel washers at the threaded
ends of the prestressed bars. The individual bars were coated with Denso
paste to enable them to slide inside the concrete during prestressing (see
Section 18.2.2). They were each stressed to 420 kN, bringing the total
anchoring force to 11.54 MN.
The relatively large diameter of the anchoring pits was intended to provide
access to the lower ends of the anchoring bars, which were fixed by abutment
on to common steel plates. The pits were driven by a combination of
pneumatic drilling and small blasts. A length of 2.4 m of the lowermost
part of the pits was expanded conically to increase the reliability of the
anchor fixing. Access to the anchoring pits and anchor installation was
facilitated by mounting the bars in sections, and connecting them with
Macalloy couplings as the concreting progressed. The bundles of prestressed
480
bars (anchors) extend to a depth of 6 m from the dam crest in the central
third of the cross-section; in this part, therefore, no tensile stress appears
on both sides of the dam. Below this level the anchors pass in the upstream
third (see Fig. 24-1); hence, when the basin is empty, these anchors create
tensile stresses of up to 0.35 MPa on the downstream side, which are taken
by tensile reinforcement [7], [44].
Anchoring into the bedrock enabled the gravity wings of the multiple
Mellegue Dam in Tunisia [135] to be designed with the maximum economy.
It was possible to narrow the cross-section of the dam to such an extent
that the gradient of the downstream face was reduced from the original
0.75 to 0.22. Thus the volume of concrete required for the dam was reduced
by 50 per cent. The dam was anchored by cables each prestressed to 12 MN.
The reduction of the gradient of the downstream face of the dam, however,
made it more difficult to create a hydraulically adequate spillway surface.
This problem was overcome in the 45 m-high anchored Catagunya Dam
on the river Derwent in Tasmania [33], by curving the upper part of the
spillway block upstream (Fig. 24-22).
The Catagunya Dam, completed in 1960, was designed as an anchored
structure because this reduced the construction costs by 50 per cent, compared with those of an unanchored dam. The anchoring force of 5.25 MN
per metre along the dam was transmitted by 7.5 cm cables (102 high quality
steel wires 5 mm in diameter) to 2 MN. The individual wires were separated
by means of spacing grids to facilitate their envelopment in grout, which
provided protection for the anchorage against corrosion after the prestressing
481
(see Section 18.2.1). A 2.5 cm-diameter pipe located centrally within the
cable allowed the grout pipe to be passed through. The cable wires were
undulated in the root section by alternately placed spacers and rings, which
tightened the cable in 1 m sections (see Fig. 12-7). The upper ends of the
cables were fixed into reinforced concrete heads 61 cm in diameter and
61 cm high. The anchoring boreholes, which were up to 58 m long, took
the form of embedded 12 cm-diameter AC pipes through the concrete of
the dam (a similar method was used in the construction of the sealing curtain
for the iermanice Dam in Czechoslovakia [81]), and were percussiondrilled (10.2 cm diameter) through the bedrock.
v97.9
^^j
A similar design was followed for the Cluny Dam [221], where the stilling
basin was also anchored (Fig. 24-23). Similar measures were adopted for
the Harlan County Dam in the USA [19], and the arched Repulse Dam in
Tasmania [3] (Fig. 24-24).
At the Avon Dam in England, allowances were made in the design for
a later 3.9 m increase in height, and for anchoring into the bedrock [206],
482
Pits 51 cm in diameter, and spaced 4.5 m apart, were prepared near the
upstream face. When the decision is taken to increase the dam height,
boreholes for the anchorage will be drilled from these pits into the bedrock.
The Thossfell and Neuensalz retention dams of the Pohl Water Scheme [60]
are founded on a relatively strong bedrock of paleozoic shales with interbedded diabase-breccias and conglomerates with tuffs. The mechanical
properties of the bedrock allowed a relatively large stress to be transferred
into the ground, hence it was possible to reduce the cross-sections of the
dams and replace the effect of dead weight by anchoring forces (Fig. 24-25).
The anchors were made from high quality steel bars arranged in bundles,
the size of which varied according to the height of the anchored block. The
larger bundles were inserted into shafts driven into the rock, while the smaller
bundles which were used for the lower extreme blocks, were inserted into
boreholes. The bars were fixed at both ends with nuts resting on steel loaddistributing plates. The bars were coated with asphalt along the prestressed
sections, and provided with a steel sheet wrapping. The anticorrosive protection was supplemented by cathode protection.
At the site of the Rauschenbach gravity dam (GDR), the coefficient of
483
friction (tg = 0.4) and the cohesion (c = 0.2 MPa) were ascertained in
a preliminary survey. The dam was thus secured by means of projecting blocks
which were anchored into the bedrock (Fig. 24-26) and connected to the dam
by prestressed anchorage [43]. With this arrangement, uplift under the footing of the dam is reduced by extending the filtration path. The stability of the
dam is further improved by the action of the vertical component of the
hydrostatic pressure on the horizontal area of the projecting blocks.
24.3.3
484
A-A'
Fig. 24-27. Mont-Larron multiple-arch dam (France). Security against horizontal displacement
was achieved by anchoring the buttresses into the bedrock
normol.FS.L.S.L.2i*0.0
S122k9
485
prestressed with cables forming an angle of 35 with the vertical, in a direction giving maximal opposition of the anchoring forces to the tangential
stress. The upper heads of the cables were placed on blocks resting on the
buttress bases, and the buttresses and the anchoring blocks were prestressed
together by the horizontal component of the anchoring force. Altogether
there were 155 cables, 16 to 55 m long, each prestressed to 2.65 MN.
The bedrock of the 32 m-high Muda Dam in the Kedah State of Malaysia
[215] was also highly unsuitable for construction purposes. It consisted of
quartzite beds 0.60 to 3.0 m thick, with claystone partings 7 to 30 cm wide
the properties of which were found to be even less favourable than expected
when the foundations were excavated. In some places the claystone passed
into soft clay, for which an angle of friction of 16 had to be considered
in the main design instead of the angle of 27 assumed in the preliminary
study. In view of these foundation problems a type of multiple slab design
was selected. This was secured against shear failure by means of 205 cable
anchors, each prestressed to 3 MN, and inclined at an angle of 10 to 15
from the vertical (Fig. 24-29). The cables consisted of 72 patented wires of
's
Fig. 24-29. Cross-section of the Muda Dam (Malaysia)
1 buttress, 2 spillway lip, 3 precast retaining screen, 4 spillway surface, 5 bracing
walls, 6 upstream heel, 7 stilling basin, 8 205 anchors prestressed to 3 MN each,
9 base concrete, 10 anchored blocks connected to the dam buttresses
486
24.3.4
Anchoring of weirs and the functional parts of earth dams into the
bedrock
A typical example of this type of anchoring is the weir on the river Tarn
in France [112]. The buttresses of this weir were anchored on the upstream
side to a depth of 11 m below the river bottom, the anchors being fixed in
excavated shafts which were conically expanded at the bottom. Each buttress
was anchored with 18 cables composed of 18 5 mm-diameter wires, which
were protected from corrosion by filling the shafts with concrete.
The buttresses of the spillway blocks of the dam on the river Vh near
Hricov (Czechoslovakia) were each anchored with three cables prestressed
to 4 MN (Fig. 24-30). The bedrock of the dam is formed of flysch sandstone
Fig. 24-30. View of the buttresses on the spillway section of the Hricov Dam on the Vh
(Slovakia). Each buttress was anchored with 3 cables prestressed to 4 MN
487
in rocks of similar composition did not exceed 2.4 per cent, after 19 months.
The cables were made of stranded Hercules ropes, consisting of 37 strands
with 19 wires of 2.8 mm diameter each (see Section 11.3). These were inserted
into vertical holes formed within the buttresses by steel tubes embedded
in the concrete, and continuing into the bedrock to a depth of 10 m below
the footing (Fig. 24-31). The lower cable ends were fixed into bulbs formed
by filling the terminal borehole cavities with concrete, while the upper ends
were fixed into cast steel heads. The prestressing losses resulting from relaxation of the cables and rock creep were restored by re-stressing the cables six
months after the initial prestressing. The cables were protected from corrosion
by grouting.
The weir on the Rhine near Schaff hausen, constructed between 1959 and
1963, was anchored with 66 BBRV cables prestressed with forces ranging
from 0.3 to 2.2 MN (Fig. 24-32). The bedrock of the weir consists of sound
limestone [34].
488
Fig. 24-32. Cross-section
of a weir on the Rhine near
Schaffhausen
24.3.5
489
was founded on the reinforced concrete slab of the stilling basin, and was
anchored with compound ropes prestressed to 4 MN. The ropes were secured
at their lower ends in pots made of seamless 30 cm-diameter steel pipe
embedded in the concrete, and the upper ends were fixed in cast steel heads.
With this design, there was a saving both in the amount of concrete used for
the cofferdam (reduced cross-section), and in the expenditure of labour when
the cofferdam was demolished at a later stage. By relieving the prestressing,
the masonry of the cofferdam could be removed as if it were plain concrete
structure (Fig. 24-34).
In the Kamyk Dam site on the river Vltava (Czechoslovakia) anchoring
was used to secure a dividing pillar, which during the construction formed
a common part of the right bank and (subsequently) left bank cofferdams.
The dividing pillar in its cofferdam role was successively loaded under
hydraulic pressure from both sides. In the immediate vicinity of the pillar,
an excavation was made to a depth of 7 m below the level of the pillar
foundation for the dam and power station foundations (Fig. 24-35). The
490
Fig. 24-35. Cross-section
of a dividing pillar of the Kamyk
Dam. The pillar, which during
the construction served as a part
of the cofferdam for the foundation
pit of the power house,
was anchored with anchors
prestressed to 4 MN
_^k
4-
*fMTiT>f^VP!i
dividing pillar was founded on caissons lowered into the bedrock, which
consisted of fractured beds of amphibolite-biotite, granodiorite, and granite
porphyry. The lowering of the caissons under these conditions was time
consuming, and threatened to delay the work schedule. For this reason the
cutting edges of the caissons were not lowered to the originally intended
level, but were placed somewhat higher; the pillar was then secured by
anchoring before the excavation for the power station foundation pit
encroached upon the pillar. The load centre of the anchoring forces was
located near the upstream side so as to reduce the stress under the foot of the
pillar to 0.3 MPa, even with a flood-water loading. In this way the structure
was also made safe from the possibility of a part of the rock breaking loose
from under the downstream side in the course of blasting. Multiple Hercules
ropes, prestressed to 4 MN, were used for the anchorage. They were installed
in inclined 156 mm-diameter boreholes. Within the pillar, the inclined holes
were originally to have been formed by steel pipes embedded in the concrete,
but they were eventually drilled instead. In the course of this drilling, however,
various parts of the reinforcement such as the steel components of the
caissons, obstructred and delayed the work, thus highlighting the advantages
of the original scheme using steel pipes.
For a similar reason the middle and lower parts of a dividing pillar in the
Aschach Water Scheme on the Danube (Austria) were anchored. The dividing
pillar also served as a cofferdam during the construction, and its height was
increased when another cofferdam was mounted on top of it (Fig. 24-36).
This extended pillar was secured with 46 bar anchors, each with a diameter
of 26 mm arid a yield strength of 600 MPa [109]. The anchoring provided
491
a safety margin against overturning of only 1.5, and it was admitted that the
pressure and uplift effect of flood water would create a tensile load over half
of the width of the footing. Consequently some opening and closing of the
footing was expected, the extent of this depending on the modulus of deformation of the bedrock. Such a deformation was capable of bringing about
mo
a local increase of stress in the anchorage, and in order to limit this increase
to an admissible 10 per cent., the anchoring bars were coated with 1 mm
of insulating asphalt over a length of 2 m on either side of the footing of the
pillar. This provision was made to allow the elongation of the anchoring
bars over a greater part of their length.
Chapter 25
A N C H O R I N G OF B R I D G E
STRUCTURES
longitudinal section
7819
\300\
\300\
900
494
GROUHDPLAN
VIEW
BLOCKS
495
Fig. 25-3. Anchoring applied in the construction of a bridge over the river Gouritz (South
Africa)
1 63 anchors of 2 MN each; 2 tendons from Dywidag bars
Difficulties arose when the ends of the suspended lateral spans came to be
connected with the ends of the suspended inclined struts; changes had
occurred in the lengths of the suspension cables as a result of daily variations
in the ambient temperature. Before work commenced on the connection of
these parts of the structure, the cycle of their movements was recorded for
some time so that they could eventually be avoided with respect to both
their vertical and horizontal components. Consequently, the work was
scheduled for the early morning hours.
The shuttering for an arched bridge with a span of 124 m over the Krummbach creek in Switzerland (Fig. 25-4) was suspended in a similar way. The
bars on which the bridge arch and the shuttering were suspended during the
concreting, were held by pylons anchored to footings located on both sides
of the valley; the footings themselves were secured with anchors fixed in the
bedrock. When the arch was closed, the suspension ropes were removed.
In the construction of suspension bridges, it may be profitable to dispense
with anchoring blocks altogether. A footbridge near the town of Porvoo in
Finland, erected in 1975 (Fig. 25-5), may serve as an example. The footbridge,
with a clear width of 3.5 m and a span of 78 m, was suspended on ropes
connected to inclined pylons from which the ropes were directed downwards
to fixings in the bedrock [151]. The anchors were protected by the concrete
of piles driven into the 20 m-thick layer of gravel and sand covering the
bedrock. A similar system, but on a much larger scale, was used in the con-
496
Fig. 25-4. Krummbach bridge (Switzerland). Anchoring was used to secure the shuttering
1 tendons, 2 pylon, 3 anchored footing
Fig. 25-6. Anchoring of main load-bearing ropes of the Forth Suspension Bridge in Scotland
1 anchoring, 2 load-bearing ropes, 3 bridge approach
Chapter 26
A N C H O R I N G OF
FOUNDATIONS
In the foundations for arched bridges and other structures in which the
weight is concentrated on a limited area, the ground may undergo sinking
and displacement as a result of plastic creep of the underlying ground. These
phenomena may, under adverse conditions, cause damage to the entire
structure. Deformation of the ground after the structure is erected can be
reduced by preliminary loading of the foundations by anchoring forces. Thus
deformation occurs before the ground is loaded by the structure's weight,
and precludes the possibility of structural damage. As construction work
progresses, the anchoring forces are gradually relieved, and in the final stage
they exert no additional loading on the foundation ground.
This procedure was followed in the construction of a 246 m arched steel
bridge spanning the Frser River in British Columbia [62]. The supports of
the bridge were founded on a bed of gravel and sand up to 24 m thick interpenetrated by layers of clay. The supports were loaded by a force of 80 MN
acting at an angle of 20 from the vertical. It was feared that this load, possibly
increased by dynamic effects, might under some conditions cause a depression
and displacement of the springings. Thus after various possibilities had been
considered, a decision was taken to preload the foundation ground before
the arch was constructed. The relatively massive bridge support (Fig. 26-1)
498
was first pressed into the subsoil by vertical anchoring forces equivalent to
the sum of the weight of the bridge and that of its load. Then the soil at the
rear of the support was compressed by means of horizontally acting jacks
placed in an excavated pit. The jacks exerted a force (T = 18 MN) equal
to the calculated horizontal load component exerted by the structure on the
support. By means of a cyclically reiterated load the choice between a gradual
relief of the prestressing during construction, and a complete immediate
relief was made. The deformation caused by the anchoring and bracing
of the support was small, the maximum depression being 12 mm, and the
displacement 2.1 mm. When the anchoring forces were relieved, the ground
showed an elastic relaxation of 3 mm. The depression under full load for
12 days was increased by another 3 mm, of which 1.5 mm were attributable
to an elastic response, and 1.5 mm to a permanent deformation.
A
8
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~
+[
1i
II ^
lbs M
499
500
sion. The static analysis by which the shape and dimensions of the anchoring
blocks are determined, is consequently rather complicated. The least favourable combinations of loading forces, originating both externally and within
the pipeline, have to be considered. The safety of blocks with respect to
lateral displacement and overturning has to be assessed at all points of
change of gradient. The magnitude and direction of the anchoring forces
required to obtain stability are calculated in the same way as those for
retaining walls.
Blocks under tangential (shear) stress (Fig. 26-4) are sometimes used
instead of blocks loaded by straightforward tension (e.g. where the ground
surface is of suitable shape, or where the blocks are to take tensile forces
making a small angle with the ground surface).
Tangentially stressed blocks can be used as auxiliary structures when
obstructions of various kinds have to be removed. In Vienna, for example,
blocks were anchored into the ground in order to provide a reliable support
for the heads of draw bars (Fig. 26-5); the latter were used to haul the
Q 10MN
.----^
Fig. 26-5. Anchored block for attaching the equipment used to retrieve the remains of the
collapsed Reichsbrcke from the bottom of the Danube
1 sheet piling, 2 VSL anchors (600 kN)
501
Masts for power lines, the supports for overhead pipelines and similar
structures, are mainly influenced by tipping moments when in service. These
moments are created by horizontal forces which act on the upper ends of the
structures. Stability is generally achieved by fixing the bases of the structure
into massive concrete foundations, which fulfil their purpose by virtue of
their dead weight, and because they are embedded in the ground. However,
this method requires large excavations for the foundations, and large volumes
of concrete, making it uneconomic particularly at less accessible sites.
When anchoring is applied, these massive blocks can be replaced by
foundation slabs or foundation beams, anchored by prestressed tendons into
the underlying ground. After they have been anchored, slabs and foundation
beams (cast in situ or prefabricated) form a stable structural unit with the
bedrock.
For the anchoring of foundation slabs, one anchor placed in the centre
of the slab (Fig. 26-6), or alternatively, two or more anchors placed near
the edges of the slab may be used; the anchors are oriented so that the
anchoring forces oppose the main tensile load forces. Foundation beams are
best anchored midway along their length.
The geometry of the anchors is governed by the properties of the underlying ground, the cost of drilling, the size of the anchors and stressing equipment which can be mounted on the foundation of the structure, the cost of
the seating plate (or the increased cost of this item if a central position for
the anchor head is considered), and the morphology of the ground.
A mast structure is fastened to the foundation slabs or beams with bolts
into a compact unit. The foundations distribute the weight of the mast and
the anchoring force over a wider area of the ground (Fig. 26-7). It is the
opinion of some experts that the anchors should not be fully prestressed, so
as to reduce the bearing pressure on the foundations (the dimensions of which
are determined by the safe bearing capacity of the ground). However this
opinion is incorrect, particularly with respect to foundations established
on less solid ground. When the structure is loaded by a tipping moment,
the anchorage is additionally stressed and tensioned, and the foundation is
torsionally displaced. As a consequence, pressure is concentrated in
a narrower belt of the foundation and its loading is increased in this area
(see Chapter 3).
502
VAV/A
PA~?,
503
504
Fig. 26-8. Breaking test
being carried out on the
footing of a pylon
anchored in the bedrock
(VIS)
521
--^
-^
13.90
Fig. 26-9. Anchoring of the footings of the 162 m-high television transmitter pylon on
Mt. Wilson in California
1 bar anchors of high-grade steel (44.5 mm dia.; 8 per pylon foot), 2 load-distributing
steel plates, 3 anchor bolts (8 per pylon), 4 levelling plate, 5 pylon stanchion
505
grade steel. The bars with nuts threaded on at both ends were lowered into
boreholes of 18 cm diameter and 7.6 m depth. The lowermost 3.0 m of the
boreholes were then filled with grout prepared from an expanding cement.
After this had hardened, the bars were prestressed to test forces of 600 to
800 kN. When the prestressing was relieved and the fixing of the anchors
in the rock had been found to be fully reliable, the remaining voids in the
boreholes were filled with grout.
Prefabricated supports for a conduit carrying sea water for cooling an
atomic power station in India were secured by anchoring instead of transverse
wind-bracing beams. The individual supports were anchored by cables,
prestressed to 102 kN, passing down the axis of the supports; on the outer
supports, a force of 184 kN was applied.
The foundation for the pylon of the cableway in Thule (GDR) was
anchored with bars of high-grade steel mark 10,600. These had a diameter
of only 26 mm, and were prestressed to 200 kN. Owing to the remoteness
of the site, drilling machines could not be used, and boreholes 60 mm in
diameter and 4 m deep had to be bored with a hand drill. To help overcome
these difficulties, the Research Institute of Civil Engineering in Brno proposed
that anchoring bars be fixed into cavities at the extremities of the boreholes,
so as to obtain a larger zone of contact with the substratum. Reliable fixing
of the anchoring bar into the concrete bulb was ensured by means of a base
consisting of a steel cylinder 35 mm in diameter and 500 mm long the surface
of which was threaded with a large lead-angle thread. At one end of the
cylinder a hole was drilled and threaded (M 27 x 2 thread), and at the other
end was a hollow 26 mm in diameter and 400 mm long. At the hollow end
the cylinder was cut longitudinally in an axial plane. An expanding cone
was inserted into the hollow (Fig. 26-10), and when the anchoring bar had
been placed in the borehole, its upper end was tapped, causing the cone to
splay the cut end of the cylinder, so that the arms opened to the full width
of the anchoring cavity. Immediately before insertion of the anchor, the
cavity was filled with grout; thus when the cone was rammed into the cylinder,
remaining spaces in the cavity and cylinder were reliably filled.
Anchoring gives the greatest economic advantage when it is applied to
inclined masts and similar structures, where the excentric loading does not
change to any great extent. The Capellis reflector antenna in Switzerland,
erected on the edge of a rock cliff of shales (see Fig. 26-7) can again be cited as
an example, as well as the graceful structure of the ski-jump at Obersdorf
(GFR). The ski-jump is fixed to the rock by a system of anchors (Fig. 26-11)
which take the tensile forces arising from the cantilever effect of the overhanging ramp. By adopting this design, it was not necessary to provide
supports which are unsightly in most instances, and would obstruct the
space around the structure which might otherwise be put to better use.
506
es
I \2-100-
Fig. 26-11. Ski-jump at Obersdorf (GFR), showing foundations anchored in the bedrock
507
26.4 ANCHORED BLOCKS UNDER TENSILE LOADS
Blocks are often used to anchor the tie bars which hold high masts in
position, as well as the stay ropes of cable cranes, suspension bridges, suspended roofs, etc. At present, these blocks are designed with sufficient weight to
resist the tensile forces created by the structures which they support. The
installation of such anchoring blocks requires the excavation of deep cuttings,
and large volumes of concrete are used, particularly when the blocks are
sited on slopes. Therefore it is often highly profitable to apply an anchoring
technique, so that the weight of construction materials can be replaced by
the forces of the anchorage.
The anchoring block which is under tensile stress and also anchored into
the rock, is generally constructed as a slab of such a shape and size that the
pressure of the anchor head is well distributed over the ground, and the block
fits the main stabilized structure (Fig. 26-12). Thus the block represents
Fig. 26-12. Anchoring of a block for a cable crane at the site of the Luzzone Dam in
Switzerland (1 MN VSL cables)
a kind of link between the anchorage and the structure. Its function and its
positioning are mainly dictated by the respective directions of the anchoring
forces and the tensile loading forces. If the axis of the anchor coincides with
that of the tensile force (Fig. 26-13), this link is a direct one in which the upper
ends of the cables or steel bars embedded in the rock are connected to the
tensile elements of the supported structure. In the case of blocks which are
loaded by forces making an acute angle with the ground surface and acting
in a direction different from that of the anchor axis, the blocks must be
of suitable dimensions to accept the loading forces (Fig. 26-14).
The blocks of crane ways must also be considered as anchoring blocks
stressed by shear forces. As a part of the Dalesice Water Project,
a 503.5 m-long radial crane way was constructed (Fig. 26-15). This had
a groundplan radius of 700 m and a maximum gradient of 28 per cent.; it
508
^J?
_
^M Qn
P
73^^^?
Fig. 26-15. Radial crane way anchored on a slope as part of the Dalesice Water Project
) cross-section, b) view of the crane way
509
was subjected to a moving horizontal load of 1.88 MNper m. The crane way
was divided by expansion joints into blocks 12 m long, each of which was secured by four 1.2 MN anchors oriented at an angle of 30 from the horizontal
(Fig. 26-15). The anchor heads were provided with a projection by means
of which additional prestressing could be applied if prestressing losses arising
from dynamic loading of the anchors occurred. The prestressing in a number
of selected anchors was observed continuously on dynamometers placed
between the head and the block of the crane way.
If the anchor axis coincides with that of the tensile loading force, the
value of the required anchoring force, Pz, is simply determined by multiplying
the load force, Z, by the safety factor, mz:
Pz = mx. Z.
mz has a value ranging from 2 to 3, depending on the type of structure
secured by the anchoring block. The area of the base of the block must be
such that the safe pressure loading of the rock is not exceeded; this loading
is usually a half or a third of the load-bearing capacity ascertained in loading
tests. Where anchored blocks are permanently loaded by tensile forces, as,
for example, blocks from which roofs are suspended, a higher pressure on the
underlying rock may be permitted compared with that which can be allowed^
for example, in the case of stabilizing blocks for masts since the stay ropes
of the latter exert a variable tensile loading on the blocks.
The settlement of foundation blocks, eh, under an anchoring load, q
(Fig. 26-16), need not be considered as it has no substantial effect on the
stability of the structure.
The settlement of blocks as a result of rock creep may cause small losses,
, of anchor prestressing, but these are partly restored where the blocks
are subjected to a tensile load, which relieves the pressure on the ground at
the same time.
The increase of tension in the anchor induced by a tensile load force,
Z(Z < Pz), may be determined from the extension of the anchor, or displace-
510
=
=
=
=
=
Vh)
FhEh
unprestressed
prestressed
1.5
-^ - -
1.0
0.5
'
V 20
/
A -A
40 60 80 WO 120 M
Fig. 26-17. Elongation of an anchor loaded by a tensile force, Z, in relation to the value of
anchor prestressing force, PA
511
with which the block is anchored into the rock. Such a situation is precluded
by ensuring that the anchoring forces are double or triple the loading force, Z.
Thus, the variation in the anchor prestressing (tension), ', under fluctuating
loading of the block can reach a maximum value of one third or a half of the
prestressing losses .
In no case can the prestressing of the anchorage increase by an amount
equal to the tensile load on the block, as is sometimes erroneously maintained.
The anchoring of blocks into rock is finding increasingly widespread
application. It can be used to advantage, for example, in the erection of
cable cranes (see Fig. 26-12), power-line pylons [148], and in loading tests
on masts (Fig. 26-18). In bridge construction, application of the method
on the largest scale so far can be found in the anchoring of the load-bearing
ropes of the Forth suspension bridge in Scotland (see Fig. 25-6). Anchored
blocks are often used to take the tensile forces of ropes from which the roofs
of large halls are suspended. With the use of anchored footings, the tensile
forces in the suspension ropes are transmitted into the underlying ground,
where they are opposed by the resistance of the ground to the extraction of
the anchors (Fig. 26-19). The transfer of the rope tension on the circumference
of the ceiling gives rise to large buckling stresses in this structure, and with
larger structures this method may be uneconomic to apply. By the use of
anchored footings, new designs for halls can be realized, such as the cantilever
roofed hangar at Munich airport (Fig. 26-20).
Fig. 26-18. Loading equipment for testing HT pylons at the National Testing Laboratory
in England
1 anchors, 2 concrete footings for the fixing of ropes, 3 pylon, 4 fixing in the
bedrock
512
Fig. 26-19. Anchoring of suspension ropes for the roof of the Sports Stadium at Dortmund
1 foundation, 2 anchored block, 3 prestressed anchor
65m
513
Chapter 27
S T A B I L I Z A T I O N OF F O U N D A T I O N
AND SUNKEN
BASINS
RESERVOIRS
0.yb.
515
a)
30m
516
Fig. 27-2. Anchoring of the stilling basin of a dam
Fig. 27-3. Anchoring of the stilling basin of the 40m-high Soulage sur le Gier dam (France)
1 anchors, 2 stilling basin, 3 spillway
Prestressed anchors were used on the Soulage sur le Gier dam in France
[140] to secure the stilling basin against uplift, should the drainage system
under the basin be put out of action (Fig. 27-3). It is noteworthy in this
case that the stilling basin was also secured by anchors against the dynamic
effect of the overflowing water.
In the static analysis of structural foundation slabs, the anchoring forces
are considered as single loads acting at the points where the anchor heads
are located. It is clearly better to use smaller anchoring units regularly spaced
at small intervals over the slab area, and thus reduce expenditure on reinforcement which would otherwise be needed to take the stresses of moment
loads. However, where a large number of boreholes for small anchors would
517
increase the construction cost, the slab can be strengthened with a system
of ribs. These are arranged to form a grid for siting anchor heads of greater
load-bearing capacity. Locating the anchors in the walls of the structure also
has an economic advantage (Fig. 27-4), because the walls in this respect
are similar in function to strengthening ribs. Moreover, prestressed anchor
tendons create a stress in the walls and this can be exploited statically as
partially substituting for wall reinforcement provided that the anchors
are suitably positioned in the perimeter walls of the structure.
Prestressed anchorage has been used, for example, to secure the foundation basin of the C.N.R.S. office building (Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique) against vertical displacement. The building is founded on beds
of gravel and sand; the ground water level is high, giving rise to an uplift
pressure of up to 80 kPa on the bottom of the foundation basin. The foundation basin rests on bored piles, some of which are alternately stressed by
pressure and tension because of fluctuation of the ground water level
(Fig. 27-5). At points where the upper surface of the foundation slab is not
occupied by the building's masonry, anchoring cables pass through the
piles into limestone beds; the cables are prestressed to 350 400 kN.
Anchoring was installed without piles to secure the bottom of a sump
for the hot-water plant of the new tyre factory in Otrokovice, in Czechoslovakia (Fig. 27-6). The cables, comprising 24 wires of P 7 mm diameter
prestressed to 1 MN were inserted into 156 mm-diameter boreholes
prepared in a bed of saturated gravel and sand on which the tyre factory is
founded. The boreholes extended 5 m into lower claystone beds. The cables,
which were provided with strong bases contracted in advance at their lower
ends, were fixed into the rock by means of anchoring cavities which were
518
Fig. 27-5. Anchoring of the
foundation basin of the C.N.R.S.
Building in Paris
1 beds of gravel and sand,
2 bedrock, 3 piles,
4 prestressed anchors
section A ~A'
Fig. 27-6. Securing of a hot water basin for the Tyre factory at Otrokovice (Czechoslovakia),
by anchoring into the substrata
1 bottom of the basin, 2 stiffening rib of the basin bottom, 3 anchor prestressed
to 1 MN
widened by depth charges and eventually filled with grout (Fig. 27-7). The
walls of the boreholes were permanently cased with steel casing in the section
passing through the gravel and sand. This facilitated watertight sealing of the
sump floor where it was traversed by the anchor cables. The cables were
prestressed and fixed at the upper end using Horel equipment. The efficiency of
the anchors was checked by means of dynamometers placed under the anchor
heads of two selected cables.
The foundation pit of a house for retired people in Zurich [220] was
secured against uplift in a similar way, using bar tendons (Duplex system)
supplied by Stump Bohr AG. A section of the tendon where it passes through
519
Fig. 27-7. Anchor of 1 MN capacity
made from 24 P 7 mm dia wires
{VUIS design)
1 fixed base, concreted in advance,
2 anchoring cavity filled with cement
mortar, 3 plastic tube, 4 grout pipe
for grouting the space between
the cable and the tube (3), 5 grout pipe
for grouting the anchoring cavity
and the borehole, 6 casing
(152 mm dia), 7 insulated covering
of the anchored structure,
8 strengthening rib of the anchored
structure at the anchoring point,
9joining of the insulating layer
with PVC foil wrapping
the insulating layer of the pit floor, and the joining of this layer to the
anchor's insulating wrapping, are shown in Fig. 27-8.
Non-prestressed anchorage similar to the tensioned piles of the MV system
was used at the purification plant at Werdhlzli in Zurich to secure the
bottom of a sedimentation tank against uplift [143]. In this case nonprestressed anchorage was used because the structure was founded in a thick
bed of saturated gravel, and prestressing between the foundation pit and
the substratum was extremely difficult to achieve.
The tensioned piles of the MV system (patented by Professor L. Mller)
consist of steel pipes with a strongly fitted conical base. The diameter of the
base is larger than that of the pipe, to facilitate the driving of the pile into
the soil. Ramming is carried out simultaneously with the pumping of grout
which penetrates the base into the space around the pipe, and creates an
effective anticorrosive protection both on the inside and the outside of the
pipe. With this system, piles can be installed and grouted under water. In the
520
Fig. 27-8. Connection of the insulating wrapping of Duplex anchors (Stump Bohr A.G.)
with the insulating layer of the floor of a foundatin basin
1 bar of high-grade steel (32 mm dia.), 2 plastic wrapping, 3 asphalt insulation,
4 cover of anchor head, 5 asphalt insulating layer (10 mm thick), 6 sealing sleeves,
7 graphite sealing, 8 lead sealing sheet, 9 circular plates, 10 concrete
above example (Fig. 27-9), the pipes were rammed in until a small part was left
projecting into the foundation pit; the projections were then embedded in
the floor of the foundation, which was also concreted under water. When the
concrete floor and the grout of the piles had hardened, the water was pumped
out of the foundation pit and erection of the remainder of the structure
commenced.
A similar solution involving cables with fixing heads at both ends installed
in boreholes prepared in advance, was proposed as an alternative method of
securing the foundations for the locks of the Danube River Project near
Gabcikovo (Czechoslovakia).
An interesting method of installing and prestressing a large number
of 2MN anchors at a depth of 15 m below the water level was adopted in the
construction of the Submarine Complex at Devonport. The scheme involved
the construction of two dry docks (separated by a central quay with workshops and other facilities) in an existing basin which was built between 1896
and 1907, and which was surrounded by concrete retaining walls from 18
to 30 metres deep (Fig. 27-10). The most difficult problem was to create a
521
<0.
*>)
Fig. 27-9. Underwater anchoring of the floor of a sedimentation tank at the Werdhlzli
filtration plant in Zurich
a) pit excavated under water, b) floorof tank concreted under water and secured against
uplift with non-prestressed tensile MV piles rammed in under water before concreting
commenced. 1 sheet piling, 2 bottom of tank, 3 MV anchors
Fig. 27-10. Devonport dry docksanchoring of the bottom under water 1 142 anchors
(2 MN each), 2 rock, 3 thrust slab, 4 thrust block, 5 2 MN anchors securing
the walls
522
Chapter 28
ANCHORING OF THE LOADING E Q U I P M E N T
IN FIELD TESTS
The loading equipment used in field tests in which the mechanical properties of both the ground and the foundation structure are investigated, can
be anchored into the underlying ground to great advantage. The anchoring
forces take place of a counterweight, which usually consists of concrete
blocks, iron ingots, or other, more voluminous materials. Anchoring forces
are not only more effective, but they can also act at various angles to the
ground surface. They can be established on sloping and inaccessible
foundation sites, and in deep test pits where setting up a counterweight is
practically impossible. Obviously, anchoring can only be applied in this way
when the ground is of sufficient load-bearing capacity at an accessible depth.
It is also essential that the stresses created in the ground by the anchors do not
substantially affect the stress conditions in the investigated zone.
Anchoring is particularly applicable in the following types of test: loading
test for ascertaining the load-bearing capacity of the foundation ground,
and for calculating the modulus of elasticity and deformability of the rock
or soil in situ; loading tests for ascertaining the load-bearing capacity of piles
and pillars; shear and tear tests for determining the coefficient of friction and
the shear strength of rocks in their natural situation.
28.1 TEST LOADING OF THE FOUNDATION GROUND
524
section A-A'
^footing
otto,
Fig. 28-2. Loading test on a concrete block on the ground surface (Universal AnchorageCo.)
a) concrete block and two anchors, b) loading test arrangement
525
If very large compressive forces are required, anchoring ropes are recommended. Where possible, these are fixed into inclined boreholes so that
the tensile forces are transmitted well away from the testing zone. The value
of the anchoring force has to be increased, according to the diagram of
forces, by a factor -, where is the angle of inclination of the borehole
from the horizontal. There are usually four anchors equally spaced around
the circumference of the loading head or structure. The best method is to
use two lengths of anchoring rope splayed apart at either end; the ends are
then thoroughly degreased and fixed into opposite boreholes. The intact
ropes thus pass without interruption over the supporting structure. In the
course of loading, such an arrangement facilitates the compensation of small
differences of length (see Figs. 28-7 and 28-8), which occur in the individual
branches of the anchoring system as a result of differences of ductility and
displacement of the rope along the curved surface of the supporting structure.
Test loads of 1 MN were applied to 5,000 cm 2 concrete blocks on the
lateral footing area of an arched dam, by the simple anchoring of four steel
ropes concreted in four boreholes and in a supporting steel bucket (Fig. 28-3).
The individual 25 mm-diameter ropes of load-bearing capacity 300 kN, were
anchored in gneiss by means of a thick cement slurry poured into the lower
3 m of 4 m-long inclined boreholes (42 mm diameter). Because of the permanent fixing of the ropes in the supporting head without any possibility of ad-
Fig. 28-3. Loading test on a concrete block by means of steel ropes anchored into the bedrock
(Vrchlice Dam, Czechoslovakia)
o)
mm
(b)
4.53
U.30
9 kgI cm
9 kglcmzpQsPt)
s/afe
breaking
[*)
section
/Q\
a)
pit
rope fixed
in borehole
b)m
Fig. 28-5. Comparative loading tests on clayey shales in Prague. The loading arrangement
is shown together with load diagrams, a) anchored system, b) counterweight formed by the
rock mass in the roof of undercutting
^ Fig. 28-4. Steel supporting head for the steel ropes in loading
tests of up to 2 MN (Zajic system)
ON
527
justment, the ropes were unequally loaded, causing the rupture of one of them.
This difficulty was overcome by making a special supporting head (Fig. 28-4).
In loading test on clayey shales in two nearly identical exploratory pits,
an anchored support and a counterweight formed by the rock mass over an
undercutting were compared (Fig. 28-5). In both cases the load diagrams
were very similar, and the maximum difference in the moduli of deformation
(as determined by an evaluation of both loading operations) was entirely
within the limits of variation of the test results. The surface deformation
of the rock surface between the slab and the anchor was also observed
during the loading of the slab (Fig. 28-6). The arrangement of the test with
the anchoring is shown in Fig. 28-7.
J
100
1
600
1
500
I
400
distance
I
300
n<....
i
200
100
I5
mm
Fig. 28-6. Deformation of the rock surface between the plate and the anchor
528
Fig. 28-7. Loading test of the rock
at the bottom of an exploratory pit
using a supporting steel head and a steel
rope anchored at both ends.
The applied force was 0.2 MN.
SMflHHHBiiiii
detail the changes in the stress state of the medium, under a slab when the
latter is loaded either by weight, or by anchors of different types and arrangements. Five variations of the test are shown in Fig. 28-9, and the
vertical stress patterns on the surface of the medium directly beneath the
slab, and at depths of 1 and 2 m from the surface, are outlined in Fig. 28-10.
It appears that even in an elastic medium the changes of stress occurring
when gravitational or anchoring forces are applied, are not significant.
Anchoring brings about a small decrease in the vertical stress. This is at
a maximum of 10 per cent, directly under the slab on the surface of the
medium (variant II). The stresses induced by the load on the upper surface
diminish with increasing depth; in the anchored test this fall-off is more rapid
compared with the weight test (variant I). For the sake of comparison, the
diagram also shows the pattern of stress occurring, assuming a theoretical
ideally rigid slab, and a uniform distribution of stress beneath such a slab.
In Great Britain [54], a method was developed for carrying out a load
test at the bottom of a test borehole so as to ascertain the modulus of elasticity
within the rock mass. In this method which employs cables anchored into
the bedrock (Fig. 28-11), very high pressures of up to 500 MPa can be
applied. The equipment consists of a lever beam, the fulcrum of which is
formed by the upper end of an anchoring cable. A jack is placed under the
end of the longer arm of the lever, and a loading column under the end of the
shorter arm. The column is terminated by a loading plate which presses
evenly on the rock at the borehole bottom by means of a levelling layer oj
sand. A bar for measuring the deformation passes through the loading
column and the loading plate.
529
section A-
section B -B'
Fig. 28-8. Loading test carried out by means of an anchored support in an exploratory pit
for the motorway bridge pier foundation near Hvezdonice (Czechoslovakia)
1 reinforced loading block, 2 hydraulic jacks, 3 dynamometers, 4 steel supporting
bridge of I girders, 5 boreholes for anchoring ropes, 6 casings, 7 anchor of 4 six-strand
steel ropes (22 mm dia.), 8 splayed end of the rope fixed in the borehole with cement
mortar, 9 semi-circular top of the steel bridge filled with hardwood (10)
530
load variants l-V
Pz = 100mt (1t1N) pressure
/ } = 50 mt (0.5MN) tension
I supporting head
[supporting beam
v.
I.
////
99&77
wo y mo (, loo
dimensions in cm
Two types of anchoring;long root (cylinder)
abutting bast [sphere)
Fig. 28-9. Load test models with a slab resting on the surface of an elastic medium. Variant / :
force on the slab induced by weight. Variants IIV: force on the slab induced by various
types of anchoring
?- 1Mht
theoretical calculation
model values
variant
I.
variant
II.
variant
Hi.
variant IV.
variant
V.
531
Fig. 28-11. Equipment for determining
the modulus of elasticity of the rock
at the bottom of a borehole.
(Capacity of equipment: 500 MPa)
1 anchor fixed in the rock, 2 girder,
3 jack (1 MN), 4 flat jack,
5 loading column, 6 levelling bed
of sand, 7 indicator
532
Fig. 28-13. Testing a slanting pile under reaction from anchors drilled into the rock substratum
(photo Economic Foundations Ltd.)
Tensile piles are used to advantage in soft rocks or cohesive soils in which
the boreholes for the piles (even with a deflection of up to 15 from the
vertical) can be bored without casings, and with diameters sufficiently large
to obtain a large surface area for the pile fixing. The lowest average shear
resistance yet recorded by the authors at the surface of a large tensile pile
(diameter 75 cm, length 10 m) was 15kPa. This pile passed throught
alternating beds of sands and marls. The loading diagrams for the loaded
pile and both of the tensile piles are shown in Fig. 28-14.
533
2 tensile
piles
PZ ' 750mmld=10.0m
500mm,d* 10.0m
10
loaded pile
Pz 750 mm
d= 10-0 m
5 20
0)
30
534
1 Mi
1 ,
535
a heavy steel supporting structure into a bed of sand. The bases of the piles
were expanded by ramming concrete into the bottom of the borehole.
A test load of 11 MN imposed by means of an anchored loading bridge
is described in [51].
The effect of the anchoring elements used in these tests on the stress state
of the ground in the vicinity of the pile or pillar under test, was again
investigated by means of elastic models made from optically sensitive
materials. As well as a pile loaded only by weight, four different types of
anchoring were investigated, as shown in Fig. 28-16. In the second variant,
load variants H
pz~ 2 MN pressure
p =1MN tension
surface
7////
300
\////
300
///////
300
-X-
]///?]/
7T. 7777
20
m
dimensions in cm
11-
JjooL
sc >
20\
I .300
7 7 *
H-
Fig. 28-16. Loading tests on piles carried out in model systems with elastic materials
Variant /: pile loaded by weight. Variants IIV: load on pile induced by various types of
anchoring
the tensile anchoring pile was extended to the ground surface; in the third
variant the pile was shortened and concreted only in the lower half of the
borehole; in the fourth variant the tensile force was transmitted to deeper
strata by means of a cylindrical anchor root of small diameter fixed below
the base level of the loaded pile; in the fifth variant the tensile force was
transmitted by an anchor with a spherical root bulb. The lines of the maximum
shear stresses created in the medium under the conditions of the test, and
with a loading force of 2 MN, are shown in Fig. 28-17, I IV. It appears
that by using anchoring elements, the maximum shear stresses occurring
at the surface of the loaded pile are somewhat ^educed. In practice, this small
decrease in maximum stress occurring within the zone of elastic deformation
of the ground is insignificant. It also appears from the diagrams in Fig. 28-17
that the capacity of the ground to take the anchoring forces is much better
exploited when shortened piles, and particularly small diameter anchors,
are used.
\Pf2MN
\10
pt-1MN
^^7
7"
// fe/7/ /
- ac// depth m
LS
538
28.3 SHEAR TESTING OF BLOCKS
Fig. 28-18. Alternative proposals for the shear testing of concrete blocks on the ground
surface
1 cable of load capacity 1 MN, 2 cable of load capacity 2 MN, 3 jack of capacity
1 MN, 4 jack of capacity 0.7 MN, 5 free space around anchorage
539
28.4 TEAR T E S T I N G OF ROCK FOR THE D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF SHEAR S T R E N G T H
The anchoring technique is also applicable to tear tests by which the shear
strength of rock can be determined in situ. This method was used on a large
scale at the site of the Kawamata Dam in Japan to investigate variably
weathered rock [56]. The tests were conducted in 100 mm-diameter boreholes expanded at the bottom to 130 mm; the holes were 50 to 100 cm long.
The shear strength of local dolomitic limestones was ascertained by means
of tear tests as part of a general survey for the construction of a hydroelectric storage power station in Czechoslovakia. The tests were carried out
in a trial gallery in two boreholes 10 m apart. The diameter of the boreholes
was 156 mm, and that of the reamed cavities 210 mm. A twisted 65 mm-diameter rope of nominal load-bearing capacity 3.5 MN was used. The fixing
end of the rope was splayed, cleaned, and temporarily enclosed in a piece
of pipe for insertion into the borehole. The pipe was then pulled out so that
the rope's splayed end could spread out into the cavity whereupon the root
was grouted. (For longer cables a Hobst expanding cone is used to splay
the end of the cable).
540
a stressing bridge consisting of two I 50 steel girders. These were supported
on concrete blocks which were positioned on either side of the borehole
with an intervening distance greater than the depth of the anchor cable.
The rope was stressed by a pair of jacks placed in saddles on the supporting
blocks of the bridge, and connected by pressure hoses to a common pump.
Two tests were carried out with anchoring depths of 30 cm, and 120 cm
respectively.
70
lifting of head [mm]
15
20
Fig. 28-20. Loading diagram for two cable anchors undergoing extraction from anchoring
cavities 210 mm in diameter and 30 cm long in limestone
A anchoring depth 120 mm, B anchoring depth 30 cm
Displacement of the rope and deformation of the surface around the borehole were measured in relation to the stressing force applied in the course
of the tests (Fig. 28-20). The surface of the cone which was torn out by the
rope anchored at 30 cm depth is outlined in Fig. 28-21. The irregularity
of the failure is shown by the system of cracks and fractures in the rock. The
shorter anchor was torn out by a force of 0.75 MN, but the rope anchored
at a depth of 120 cm could not be torn out by a force of 2.1 MN the maximum
force available in the test. It may be concluded from the results of the former
test that the shear strength of the dolomite at the planned construction site
was 1.84 MPa. Following from this, a rope anchored at a depth of 1.2 m
would be torn out by a force of approximately 12 MN.
541
1
Fig. 28-21. Lines of failure at a rock surface caused by the uprooting of an anchor fixed
30 cm below the surface
1 cross-section of the cable, 2 wall of the borehole, 3 outline of the anchoring cavity,
4 outline of the cone torn out by the anchor, 5 cracks
Chapter 29
A N C H O R I N G A N D THE E C O N O M I C S
A N D SAFETY OF S T R U C T U R E S
543
anchoring forces can be established at a distance from the foot of the structure,
greater than the distance that can be allowed for the emplacement of mass
to obtain the same effect by the force of gravity.
The construction cost of the Kullagrund lighthouse (Fig. 29-1) amounted
to 2.0 million Swedish kronor. The lighthouse tower is anchored with 6 VSL
permanent soil anchors which are oriented vertically, and distributed uniformly around the cylindrical concrete wall. A cost comparison showed,
that if a gravity structure were to have provided a safety factor of 1.3 in
resisting the horizontal forces of 10 m-high waves, it would have required
a much thicker foundation slab than that needed for the anchored structure.
Also, the diameter of the slab would have had to be increased from 15.0 m
to 19.5 m, and altogether, there would have been an increase in cost of
14 per cent.
544
gravitational force), for / values of 0.65 and 0.75, respectively (Fig. 29-2).
In multiple dams, the economy in the use of concrete achieved by anchoring the structure into the bedrock is relatively less, because in this case
stability is partly assured by the vertical component of the hydrostatic
pressure on the retaining screen. If the profile of the dam is to be made more
slender, this component is reduced and must be replaced by anchoring
2.00 t.00
6.00 8.00
economy in concrete M N
10.00
forces. Thus the anchoring must replace not only the gravitational effect of
the structural concrete, but also that of the water. The latter force can be
augmented at very little extra cost, by increasing the area of the upstream
dam face. (The construction of an oblique screen, its shuttering in particular,
is more expensive than that of a more erect screen). As an example, let us
consider an anchored multiple dam of height 50 m, span 25 m, upstream
face gradient 0.6 to 1.0, anchoring face 88 MN in a direction normal to the
foundation plane (or 64 MN if the direction of the anchors makes an angle
of 15 with the normal to the foundation plane), coefficient of friction, 0.75.
In this case the saving of concrete in the construction of the dam amounts
to 1,950 m 3 . If the coefficient of friction is taken as 0.65, then the anchoring
forces would need to be 96 MN (normal), or 68 MN (at an angle of 15
from the normal) to obtain the same economy. Thus it appears that even
in the most favourable circumstances an economy of only 7.2 kN of masonry
(0.3 m 3 of concrete) is gained per 10 kN of anchoring force. Even if the
reinforced concrete of a multiple dam is more expensive than the plain
concrete of a gravity dam, it is clear that the savings to be gained by anchoring
545
Magnitude
of anchoring
forces
[lOkN/m]
Saving
of concrete
[m 3 /m]
Economy
[per cent.
reduction of cost]
Gravity dam
= 0.72
i = 0.77
0
15
107
78
100
100
5.9
6.5
Gravity dam
-= 0.55
i = 0.60
0
15
520
380
312
312
13.6
16.0
352
256
77
77
6.1
9.4
Type of dam
546
I
L Z_
^%^^^^|
\H
547
stabilize the structure is decreased by a value equal to the weight of the extra
displaced water.
Assuming that h = 10.0 m, t = 1.5 m, mv = 1.2, yv = 10 kN, and yb =
= 23 kN/m 3 ), the required increase in the thickness of the bottom
will be h' = 7.78 m, that is, the added weight of the structure will need to
be G' = 176 kN/m 2 , while the anchoring force required to stabilize the structure will be P = 83.8 kN/m 2 . The economy of forces
realized by anchoring the structure is thus 91.8 kN/m 2 , ar approximately
50 per cent, of the gravitational force exerted by the thickened bottom.
Proportionally expressed, the financial economy is about the same as the
economy of forces, if it is supposed that the cost of establishing force by
anchoring is equal to the cost of setting up gravitational force. The latter is
usually the case where anchoring is applied in saturated loose soils. In many
situations, however, the cost of establishing anchoring forces is the lower,
and the financial economy is thus further increased.
A particularly significant reduction in the volume of construction work
is obtained when dry docks and similar structures are reconstructed using
anchorage instead of the classical methods. In the reconstruction of a dry
dock at Cartagena, for example, it was necessary to lower the bottom by 2 m
(see Fig. 2-2). This was achieved by taking away a 2 m-thick layer of concrete
from the bottom, and stabilizing the weakened bottom by applying an
anchoring force of 55.5 kN/m 2 . By the classical approach, it would have
been necessary to take away the entire thickness of the bottom, excavate the
soil for the new bottom to a depth of 4.9 m below the existing foundation
base, and build a new bottom 6.9 m thick (see Chapter 2). When the volumes
of material in the two construction designs are compared, it appears that the
application of a single 1 MN anchor substitutes for the removal of 45 m 3
of old concrete, the excavation of 82 m 3 of ground and the preparation of
120 m 3 of new concrete. It is obvious from this comparison that the reconstruction carried out by the classical method would be at least five times
more costly than reconstruction with the use of anchorage. The same ratio
applies in the saving of time taken to carry out the reconstruction.
In some structural systems anchoring represents a significant part of the
cost. This is apparent from a summary of the construction cost of anchored
sheet piling installed to contain earth pressure, recorded during recent years
in the German Federal Republic:
a)
b)
c)
d)
approx.
approx.
approx.
approx.
45 per
25 per
20 per
10 per
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
548
40
45
50
55
60
1,570
3,760
5,600
7,200
8,610
metric tons
46.5
113.0
166.5
214.0
256.0
Cost of removal
without
anchoring
[US doll.]
Cost of removal
with anchoring
[US doll.]
Economy
[US doll.]
1,560
3,780
5,580
7,180
8,580
1,010
1,390
2,450
4,350
6,260
550
2,390
3,150
2,830
2,320
29.2 ECONOMIES IN U N D E R G R O U N D S T R U C T U R E S
Direct cost benefits can easily be demonstrated when galleries and tunnels
in otherwise identical conditions are strengthened with bolts instead of the
classical wooden or steel supports. The same results can be achieved with less
549
550
The design of the type C reinforcement did not, however, take into account
the unfavourable hydraulic conditions for the thin concrete lining, sprayed
on the uneven rock face.
The differences in cost among different methods of securing the excavations for large underground caverns (for example those for hydro-electric
power stations) can be very considerable. In the course of the work for the
TABLE 29-111
Comparison of costs of different support systems in galleries of the San Cristobal mine [123]
(in US dollars)
Item
Jamb timbering
(I jamb)
Bolt anchorage
(I line)
Material
Manufacture
Transport
Installation
Total
Maintenance
Total
31.60
2.61
1.28
7.76
43.25(100%)
39.40
82.65(100%)
21.80
1.55
0.10
4.60
28.05 (63 %)
31.30(70%)
28.05 (33 %)
31.30(37%)
TABLE 29-IV
Comparison of costs of different types of reinforcement for a water-supply tunnel
in New York (In Swedish kronor, 1957 [172];>
Item
Urht
Unit cost
Type of reinforcement
B
Mechanical bolts
r.c. bolts
working time
rock breaking
concrete
formwork
gunite
steel centering
steel sections
timber
wire netting
Total cost
pcs
pcs
h
m3
m3
m3
m3
kg
kg
m3
kg
12.00
15.20
10.00
58.00
87.00
7.00
15.00
1.40
0.80
250.00
1.00
quant.
cost
quant.
4.5
54
137
15.5
4.1
12
1,370
899
356
84
108
14
2.6
12
1,080
812
226
84
170
350
0.1
240
280
25
48
38
30
24
3
2,297
3
1,894
3,254
cost
quant.
cost
4.5
97
13
68
970
754
75
551
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CSN 73 0037, Praha 1969
INDEX
A
abutting base, 170
abutting blocks, 20
accelerators of cement, 199
acceptance test, 224
activation of cement, 260
active earth pressure, 408, 409, 410, 411, 446
active protection, 259
admissible force, 223
admissible load, 7
aditives for grouts, 198, 199
aggressiveness of ground, 257
Aldeadavia Dam, 395
Alimak Co., 183, 185
Alpnachstaad, 27
Alt-na-Lairige Dam, 61, 168, 459, 460, 465,
479, 546
analytical procedure, 321
anchor base, 67, 68, 70, 102
anchor bulbs, 82, 179, 180, 274
anchor head, 6
anchor plate, 66
anchor root, 6, 88
anchor tendon, 6
anchoring cavity, 171, 172, 173
anchoring design, 2, 89, 320
anchoring depth in rocks, 60, 62
anchoring depth in soils, 65, 75, 81, 82
anchoring in cavernous rocks, 176
anchoring of blocks, 498, 499
anchoring of bridges, 492, 499
anchoring of cofferdams, 488
anchoring of crane blocks, 507
anchoring of dams, 459
anchoring of footings, 511
anchoring of foundation basins 514
anchoring of foundations, 497
anchoring of pylons, 503
anchoring of rock pillars, 342
anchoring of slopes, 359
anchoring of small openings, 342
anchoring of strucktures, 6
anchoring of the load equipment, 524
anchoring of the roof, 330
anchoring of underground excavations, 308
anchoring of weirs, 486
anchoring technology, 2, 89
Ancrallbolt, 118, 237
anticorrosion measures, 259
anticorrosive protection, 153, 259, 260
Argal Dam, 470, 472
Arnold, R., 423
artificial arch of rock, 34
Aschach Water Scheme, 490, 491
ATCLtd.,207
Atlas Copco, 120, 183, 188, 190, 200, 201,
204, 335
Aventino Dam, 461
Avon Dam, 481
B
Bachy Co., 300, 301
bar anchors, 6, 90, 92, 102
Bariri power station, 175
Barraud,Y.,169
Barron,K.,292, 372, 548
basic tests, 228
Bateman Group, 240, 300
Bauer Co., 32, 142, 148, 149, 150, 156
BaudinChteauneuf system, 220
Baylissbolt, 119
Bazant, Z.,420
BBB anchor head system, 218, 250
BBRV, 21, 23, 27, 28,104,105, 127, 146, 209,
211, 221, 249, 262, 279, 291, 386, 393,
395, 404, 444, 469, 473, 499
Blum, H., 421
bearing capacity of anchors, 7
Beaux Arts station, 419
Bendel, H., 70, 144,423
Benoto, 439
Berlin method, 416
Bieniawski, Z. T.,331
563
bitumen compounds, 281
blasting a cavity, 176, 296, 297, 298
bolts, 90, 92, 138, 158, 163, 237, 311, 31
317,321,324,342,350,357
bond values, 125
bond strength, 125
bonding of cement, 123
Bhler Co., 88,183, 192, 335, 339, 340
bracing of anchors, 53
Bratislava pumping station, 272, 273, 27
435
Bray, J. W., 369
Breth, H.,439, 443
Brno footbridge, 492, 493
Bruce, A. A., 125,200,243
Brckner Grundbau Co., 235, 416, 419
Brunnen retaining wall, 453, 454
Budejovick station, 432
Bukovansky, M., 371
bulb, 57, 86, 167, 169, 170
Bystricka Dam, 137, 473, 474, 475
C
cable, 6, 98
cable anchors, 90, 97
cable Hercules, 100, 137, 474, 487, 490
cable multi wire, 100
cable stranded, 100
Calweld Co., 194
Canadian Mining Research Centre, 372
cantilever walls, 450, 452
Capellis antenna, 503, 505
Cartagena dry dock, 10, 547
cased excavations, 414
Catagunya Dam, 65, 480, 546
cathodic protection, 283, 284, 286, 287, 482
CCL multiforce system, 216
CCS system, 242
CeltiteCo.,160
cement grouts, 198, 200
cement slurry, 287
changes in anchor prestressing, 296
changes in temperature, 298
changes in the stress state, 298
Chaudanne Dam, 405, 406
Chemical Products Ltd., 271
Cheurfas Dam, 265, 266, 280, 281, 291, 46
469
Churchill Falls power plant, 338
CL - Cablo system, 217
564
design of anchored structures, 307, 462
destructive effect of earthquake, 38
detailed acceptance test, 227
Devonport Submarine Complex, 520
Decin rock face, 283, 388, 390
Decin TS, 392
DIN, 230
discontinuity planes, 63, 318, 320, 364, 367,
369,370,371,414
Dortmund Sports Stadium, 512
drillability of rock, 189, 190
drilling methods, 186
drilling of anchor boreholes, 183
drop in prestressing, 291
dry bolts, 139
dry docks, 10,521, 545
duplex drilling system, 14-0, 188
Dupont Circle Station, 342, 343
D u P o n t C o . , 1 5 9 , 160
Dyform rope, 98, 137, 248, 270
Dywidag, 32, 92, 93, 94, 95, 118, 141, 142,
145, 153, 160, 164, 212, 242, 245, 246,
261, 287, 352, 355, 393, 401, 494
Dzhioyev, L. N., 86, 169
E
earth pressure, 16, 408
earthquakethreatened area, 38
Ebersprcher Co., 250
Economic Foundations Co., 531, 532
economies in surface structures, 542
economies in underground structures, 548
economy of anchoring, 2, 542
effective angle of friction, 46, 48, 49, 409
effective cohesion, 48, 49, 411
effective root length, 6
effect of water content, 199
El Atazar Dam, 397
ElbrockCo.,240,241, 300
electrical anticorrosive protection, 282
element walls, 418, 436, 458
El Sancho Dam, 21
El Toro power plant, 351, 352
embankment walls, 451
embedding depth of anchors, 60
empirical procedure, 323
Enerpac Co., 242
Enge Post Office Building, 527
Ernestina Dam, 478, 479
Esteret Cte d'Azur highway, 404
565
Geodynamic Co., 233
Geoindustria, 88
geotechnical properties of rock and soil, 2,43
Geotest, 187
Geotest anchor system, 262
Gerhart, P. C , 321
German Standard, 230
Geyenge, M., 372
GloetzlCo.,302
Goldenberg bolt, 114, 116, 332
Goodman, R. E., 322, 368
Gotthard tunnel, 334, 336, 340, 341
Gouritz bridge, 492
gravelly soils, 44, 46
gripping effect, 172
ground, 6, 43
ground water, 51
grout, 124, 198, 200
grouted anchors in soils, 146, 156
grouting of anchors, 198, 204
grouting under pressure, 204, 207, 260
grout steel bond, 131
H
Haefeli, R., 169
Hagconsult Co., 147, 148, 430, 433
Hanna, T. H., 70, 169
Hny Co., 204, 205
hard rocks, 43, 45
Harlan County Dam, 481
Hausherr Co., 186
Hercules rope, 100, 137, 474, 487, 490
Heuze, F., 319, 322
HlasivecMichlek system, 104
Hobst, L., 63, 78, 82, 128, 129, 132, 144, 169,
182
Hobst system, 173
Hoek, E., 368
Hofolpe cutting, 32
Horel system, 214, 247, 385, 518
horizontal anchors, 81
horizontal displacement of structures, 18
HorstmanCo.,302, 303
Hricov Dam, 276, 486
Huder, J., 423
Huggenberger Co., 303, 304
Hugo coal mine, 347
Hugon, A., 113,237,310
Hvezdonice bridge, 529
hydraulic jacks, 242
I
immovable anchoring heads, 219
impact tools, 239
Imperial College, 158
inclined anchors, 71, 79, 80
Ingersoll-Rand Co., 121, 183, 185, 240
Ingstav, 107
insulating layers, 265, 274
insulating materials, 265
InterfelsCo.,329
internal stability, 423
International Society for Rock Mechanics
(ISRM),231
Intradym Co., 333
investigation of the ground, 47
IRP system, 154, 155
IRP-Tirsol system, 262
J
Janbu, N.,423
Jelinek, R.,425
JIS steel, 92
John, K. W., 368
joints, 63, 318, 320, 364, 367, 369, 370, 371
joint density, 45
Joux Dam, 470
Jumbo machines, 183, 335
K
Kacerov Station, 430
KA head system, 217, 218
Kaim, J.,384
Kamyk Dam, 489, 490
Kannelmki church, 511, 513
Kananyan, A. S., 70, 78, 80, 170
Katschberg tunnel, 339
Kawamata Dam, 32, 392, 396, 539
Kentucky mine, 551
Kiruna wedge bolt, 165
Klemm Co., 88, 195
Koch, 125
Kohoutek, J., 70
Kranz, E., 423, 424
Krey, H.,416
Krumbach bridge, 495, 496
Krupp Co., 92
Kukuan Dam, 406
Kullagrund lighthouse, 543
Kuroda Dam, 21
Kvapil, R., 313, 314
566
L
laboratory testing, 50, 51, 69
Laing Dam, 475, 476
Lalla Takerhoust Dam, 20, 23
Langnau foundation pit, 407
Lang, T. A., 29, 30, 113,319
La Soledad Dam, 391, 394
Lauffer, H., 326, 331
Lenoir et Mernier Co., 118, 119, 160
Libby Dam, 397, 398
Lin. T. Y. International, 492
Lipno Dam, 347, 348, 349, 551
Littlejohn, G. S., 125, 200, 208, 243
load cells, 299
load-displacement diagram, 226, 231
loading test, 528, 529
load tests, 51, 132
load test models, 530
locking effect, 213
locking heads, 213
lockplate, 30
Londe, P., 368
Losinger Co., 15, 22, 34, 105, 125, 214, 236,
246, 247
LosingerMeili Co., 250
losses of prestressing, 289
Lueg Pass, 401
Luffer, K., 313, 314
Lukmanier highway, 444
Lutry cutting, 386
Lutz power station, 347, 350
Luzzon Dam, 507
Lyon cutting, 14
M
Macalloy steel, 92, 94, 479
Macalloy system, 171, 209, 244
Machu Picchu power station, 323, 324
Maihak Co., 304, 305
Malostransk Station, 431
Massenberg tunnel, 330
masts for power lines, 501, 502
materials of anchors, 90
Matt, P., 292
Max Paul, 251
Mazoe Dam, 470, 471
Mc Call Co., 479
Mc Gregor, 188
Meadow-Bank Dam, 484
measuring anchors, 299
567
Nosice Water Project, 168, 486
non-destructive tests, 233
non-cohesive soils, 128
non-prestressed anchors, 7, 374, 375, 403
non-prestressed bolts, 320, 343, 344, 381, 384
Nuremberg Underground, 439, 440
O
Oakdale highway, 380
Obersdorf ski-jump, 505, 506
observation of anchors, 289
Oklusz mine, 346
Orlik Castle, 388, 390
Orlik Dam, 175, 488
Osan, 184
Ostermayer, H., 55, 56, 128, 129, 293, 425,
443
Ostrava-Kar vin mines, 547
Ostroj, 301
Otta, L., 70, 363,428,437
Otrokovice faktory 271, 517, 518
overall soil failure, 169
overall stability, 427
P
Pacher, F., 326
Panek, L. A., 314,
Paolo Alfonso IV power station, 352, 355
Parachute Creek Valley, 371
Paris CNRS Building, 518
Parker, P. I., 188
passive protection of anchors, 259
passive earth resistance, 409, 412
patented wire, 96, 97, 103
pattern bolting, 321
Pattinbolt, 117, 237
PCI Committee, 290
Peck, R. B., 368
Perfomethod, 201, 202, 357, 549
permanent anchors, 7, 125, 144, 224, 259
permeability of anchor boreholes, 196
permeability test, 196
Petterson, K. E., 26, 360, 447
Pierce, N. H., 371
pile-wall method, 17, 431
piled sheeting, 417
planes of discontinuity, 63, 318, 320, 364, 367,
369, 370, 414
plastic bars, 162
plastic sheets, 261
568
relaxation in anchors, 295
relaxation losses of wires, 95
relaxation of steel, 289
Repulse Dam, 481
Research Institute of Civil Engineering, 3
505
resin bars, 162
resin bolt of USBM, 164
resistance of the earth, 408
retaining walls, 14, 16, 26, 444, 445, 448, 4
453
Rhine weir, 487
Ricard Sud motorway, 455, 456
Rio de Janeiro retaining wall, 452
Rio del Oro bridge, 395
rock blocks, 381, 382
rock beam theory, 311
rock pillars, 343
rock pressure, 308, 309, 337
rock slopes, 364, 383
roof support, 315
RoofboltsCo.,212, 213, 300
root length of anchors, 134
Roth, Z., 366, 367
Ruck-a-Chucky bridge, 492, 494
rule of thumb, 321, 323
Ruzbachy tunnel, 387
S
sacrificed anode, 283, 285, 286
saddle anchor heads, 221
safety factor, 7, 40, 224
safety factor for overturning, 13
safety factor for shear failure, 18, 26, 38
safety factor for uplift, 10
safety margin, 7, 223, 228
safety of anchored structures, 542, 551
samples of rocks and soils, 50, 51, 52
samples of water, 50
San Christobal mine, 549
Sandvik-Coromant Co., 190
sandy soils, 47, 48
Santa Eulalia Dam, 396
Sarac, D.,70
Saussaz power plant, 334
Saxena, S. K., 437
Scott, J. J., 121
Seale cable, 98
SecomaCo., 183,335,336
securing against horizontal displacement,
569
Stronghold Co., 243
Stronghold system, 250
St. Michel Dam, 459, 460, 483, 546
St. Randall Dam, 168
Stump Bohr Co., 25, 150, 151, 178, 189, 305,
364, 436, 503, 518, 520
STUPCo.,251
Sucany Dam, 169
suitability of rocks and soils for anchoring, 43
suitability tests, 228, 230
Sukhodoev, V. N., 170
Sumitomo steel, 92, 94
sunken reservoirs, 514
Swellex bolt, 120
swelling rocks, 344
Swiss method, 436
Swiss Standard, 414
T
Tage and Tietar Dams, 444
Talobre,J.,368
Taloro power plant, 34
TamrockCo.,183, 187, 336
Tansa Dam, 470
Tarbela Dam, 277, 476, 478
Tarn cofferdam, 488
Tasmania Hydro Electric Commision, 465
Taurus tunnel, 327, 328, 329, 330
tear testing of rock, 539
Tecnosolo Co., 457
temporary anchor, 6, 109, 125, 141, 224
temporary anticorrosive protection, 287
tendon material, 90
tendon protection, 107
Tensacciai system, 251, 262, 263
tensile bolt base, 114
tensile tests, 66, 113, 114, 170, 223, 228
Terrametrics Co., 303
Terzaghi, K., 309, 315, 316, 408
test anchor, 7, 68, 69, 127
test loading, 523, 531,533
testing force (load), 7, 224, 225
testing of anchors, 223, 228
tests on anchors, 224
tests on bolts, 231
Tetin ruin, 193
Thames quay wall, 275
Thossfell Dam, 482
threaded bolt base, 116
Thule cableway, 505, 506
tie-back method, 17
Titan Co., 119, 160,344
TitaniteCo.,338
torque spanner, 238
Torque Tension Co., 118, 160
torque-tension graph for bolts, 238
torque wrench, 239
transport to the site, 106, 108, 394
triaxial test, 529
Tubfix system, 156, 444, 517
tunnel-boring machines, 339
tunnels, 335
Tweerivieren Dam, 27
U
underground caverns, 35, 345, 347
underground walls, 418
Underwood, L. B., 168
Universal Anchorage Co., 181, 182, 270, 524
uplift, 8, 9, 514, 515, 518, 519, 546
U.S. Bureau of Mines, 190
V
Vh valley, 56
Vajont Dam, 391
variable loading, 298
vertical displacement, 8, 514, 546
Veytaux power plant, 349, 351
Vianden III power plant, 352, 353, 354
vibrations, 38, 39
Victor Wallsend Co., 183, 185
Vir Dam, 101,477
Virginian coal mine, 551
volume weight of rocks and soils, 44, 46, 48,
49
Vrchlice Dam, 525
VSL anchors, 20, 23, 34, 106, 137, 141, 145,
199, 214, 248, 277, 292, 351, 355, 395, 397,
398, 403, 454, 455, 476, 477, 500, 507, 543
VUIS, 66, 175, 216, 504, 519
VUIS system, 215, 216, 251, 252, 253, 305
W
Waldeck II Cavern, 292, 354, 356
Walensee gallery, 402, 403
walled excavations, 407
Washington Underground, 337, 342
Warrington cable, 98
washers, 211,212, 213
water-pressure tests, 50, 197
570
Weber system, 150,178
wedge base, 114
wedge bolt, 110,114,115
Werdhlzli sedimentation tank, 521
White Pine mine, 342, 345
Wilkins,J. K.,461
Williams Co., 160, 165, 166, 238, 338
wire nets, 332
wires, 6, 95
Wirth Co., 187, 204
Witbank Dam, 470
Wittke, W., 368
wooden rod, 162