HWR 431 / 531

HYDROGEOLOGY LAB SECTION

LABORATORY 1

POROSITY, SPECIFIC YIELD AND CAPILLARY RISE

Introduction:
In this lab you will be introduced to some of the fundamental concepts in the study of
hydrogeology. Porosity and specific yield are two of the basic characteristics which
define a porous medium and its ability to facilitate flow. Capillary rise occurs at the
fringe of the saturated zone. This area is an important interface between the saturated and
vadose zones.
Background:
1) Total Porosity:
Total porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of void space (VV) in a sample to
its total volume (VT).

FIGURE 1 Some examples of porosity in nature

(a) A well sorted sedimentary material (high porosity)
(b) A poorly sorted sedimentary material (low porosity)
(c) A well sorted sedimentary material with porous grains, e.g. soil with aggregates (high
porosity)
(d) A well sorted sedimentary deposit which has a reduced primary porosity due to
chemical precipitation (low porosity)
(e) Rock rendered porous by solution, e.g. karstic limestone (porosity may be high or
low)
(f) Matrix (sedimentary or crystalline) rendered porous by fracturing (porosity may be
high or low) (After Freeze and Cherry, 1979)

Many factors determine the porosity of a particular sample. The original porosity created
during the deposition is called the primary porosity. After deposition, physical, chemical
or biological processes may create fractures, dissolution pathways and other new voids
resulting in secondary porosity.
It is difficult to predict a sample's porosity, especially given variability in crystallization
processes and the evolution of secondary porosity. However, for sedimentary structures,
there are some basic factors that control primary porosity.
i) Grain Size
Though it may seem logical that if one were to take two boxes, one full of golf balls and
the other basketballs, the box with the bigger 'grains' should have a higher porosity since
it would now have a greater void volume. This is not so. Rather, the ratio of void space to
total volume (i.e. porosity) does not change with scale (given that the packing of the
grains does not change). It is shown in Figure 2 that two systems of different scale have
the same porosity. Therefore, for a given geometry, porosity is independent of grain size.

FIGURE 2 - Calculating porosity for two systems with different grain sizes. Note that the
porosity in both systems is independent of the grain diameter.
ii) Grain Size Distribution (i.e. degree of sorting)
In general, poorly sorted sediments will have a much lower porosity than uniforms ones.
This is due to the fact that small grains may be able to fit inside the pore spaces created
by larger grains.
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iii) System Geometry

Another important factor in determining the porosity is the packing. In Figure 3, it is
evident that porosity may be reduced by simply rearranging the grains so that more fit in
a given volume. The shape of the grains also plays an important role. For example, clays
generally have a very high porosity, 40 - 70% (Freeze & Cherry, 1971) due to bridging of
the clay's plate-like grains (Figure 3b). During consolidation to shale high pressures cause
the plates to align themselves in an ordered manner drastically reducing the porosity to 010%.

FIGURE 3- Packing of grains plays an important role in determining porosity.

Consolidating of sediments causes a rearrangement of grains results in a denser packing
(i.e. lower porosity)
Other Related Parameters:
The void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids (Vv) to the volume of
the solids (VS).

Saturation (S) is the fraction of the void space occupied by water, i.e. it is the ratio of the
volume of water (Vw) to the total volume of the void spaces (Vv).

Volumetric Water content () is given by

Gravimetric Water content (G.W.C.) is given by

Where mw is the mass of water in the sample and ms is the mass of the dry sample. The
two water contents ( and G.W.C.) differ mainly in the method of measurement. They are
closely related to each other by the bulk density (b) of the sample which is the ratio of
sample mass to total sample volume.

2) Specific yield
Specific yield, Sy, is the ratio of the volume of water that can be drained (Vdrained) by
gravity from a saturated sample to the total volume of sediment (Vt) which contributed
that water.

Formally, it is defined as:

the volume of water that an unconfined aquifer releases from storage per unit surface
area of aquifer per unit decline in the water table.
Freeze and Cherry, Groundwater, p. 61
Consistent with this definition, storage in an unconfined aquifer comes from changes in
the saturation of individual pore spaces within the soil. Not all of the pores in a saturated
sample will contribute to drainage since some of them are isolated from the rest and some
water inevitably clings (is attracted) to particle surfaces. The ratio of the volume of water
remaining in the sediment sample after drainage to the sediment volume is the specific
retention (Sr).

Specific yield and specific retention sum to the total porosity:

The specific yield reflects the effective porosity (ne) of an unconfined aquifer because
only those pores which are interconnected and available for fluid flow will conduct (or
yield) water.
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3) Capillary Rise
The rise of water in a capillary tube above a free water surface is due to surface tension.
Water in the tube forms a meniscus across which exists a pressure difference, and
therefore a net force, which drives the fluid up the tube.
The equilibrium height of capillary rise (hc) is given by,

Where is the surface tension (72.7 g/s2 @ 20oC), is the angle of wetting between the
liquid and solid (assumed to be zero for water-air-glass systems), r is the tube radius, w
is the density of water and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2).
A similar phenomenon occurs in porous media where the continuous pore spaces between
the grains act like capillary tubes. In an unconfined aquifer there is a region above the
water table, i.e. above the free water surface, which is saturated. This region is called the
capillary fringe and represents a portion of the aquifer where water is held under tension.
Soils are sometimes modeled as bundles of tubes since their complex pore geometry is
difficult to describe (Figure 4). By using such a model the thickness of the capillary
fringe is determined by the soils capillary radius. The capillary radius is a parameter that
conceptually represents the radius of the largest imaginary tube. Since the capillary radius
cannot be measured directly in the field, an indirect method is used to estimate its value.
In practice, the capillary radius is taken as one-half of the d10 (tenth percentile) particle
size of the grains.

FIGURE 4 A soil with complex pore geometry may be represented by a model

composed of a bundle of tubes.

Laboratory Assignment:
Experiment 1 - Porosity:
Measure the porosity of uniform glass beads under different packing arrangements and
the porosity of a mixture of beads.
(A)
- Weigh an empty 50 ml beaker and record the mass in the data table provided.
- Pour some amount of dry large glass beads into the cylinder and reweigh. (Make sure
you note the way in which the beads are arranged).
- Put some water into a graduated cylinder. Record the initial volume. Pour water into the
beaker until the water level is coincident with the top of the beads. (Note any air has
trapped)
- Record the volume of water left in the cylinder.
- Calculate appropriate values indicated in the data table.
(B)
Repeat (A) using a 50 ml graduated cylinder instead of the beaker.
(C)
Repeat (A) again using the 50ml beaker and this time with small glass beads.
(D)
Repeat (A) with a mixture of beads.
For each test (A, B, C and D) do the following:
(1) Calculate the dry bulk density (b) of the sample
(2) Calculate the density of the solids (s) as the mass of beads divided by their volume
(3) Calculate the total porosity of the sample using the following equation:

(4) Determine the void ratio (e) for each sample.

TABLE 1: Data and Results of Lab 1 - Experiment 1 (Porosity)

EXPERIMENT

Grain size, mm

Mass of empty beaker, g

Volume of beads added to
beaker, ml
Mass of beaker with beads, g

Mass of beads, g

Bulk density of beads, g/ml

Initial volume of water in
graduated cylinder, ml
Volume of water left in
cylinder, ml
Void volume of sample, ml

Solids volume of sample, ml

Grain (solids) density, g/ml

Total porosity of sample

Void ratio of sample

Experiment 2 Specific Yield:

Measure the specific yield of a column.
1. Examine the column. Describe the packing arrangement and note any features present
such as trapped air bubbles.
2. Measure (in cm) the internal diameter of the column. These measurements will be used
for volume calculations. Record the initial elevation of water in the manometer and
consider what it is measuring.
3. Position a 100mL graduated cylinder under the columns outlet hose.
4. To conduct the experiment, the following instructions must be executed rapidly and
accurately. A suggestion is to make a practice run to fully understand the instructions.
Then make two or three runs for data collection, but consult the TA prior to performing
the second run.
a. Make sure both the manometer and the outlet hoses are clamped.
b. Drain about 50mL of water out of the outlet hose. As soon as this volume is
reached, immediately clamp off the outlet hose and open the manometer clamp
completely.
c. Once the manometer has come to an equilibrium level (less than 2mm change
over 5 minutes), record the water elevation.
5. Calculate the specific yield of the column.

Experiment 3 Capillary Rise:

Study the phenomenon of capillary rise in both a real and model soil.
1) Model Soil- The collection of glass tubes represents a capillary tube model of a soil.
- Place the bottom of the structure in a beaker of water.
- Record the equilibrium height above the water surface for each tube.
2) Real Soil -You will be provided with two glass tubes filled with different types of
sand.
- Submerge the bottom of each tube in a beaker of water and record the position of the
upper surface of capillary rise with time (1/2, 1, 2, 8, 32 minutes and so on).
(NOTE: Run both columns at the same time so that you have enough time to complete
the exercise.)
Compare and contrast your results for the two real soils. For the model, prepare a bar
graph showing the height of water in each tube (use one bar for each tube). Indicate the
following on the diagram: i) the location of the water table, ii) the top of the saturated
zone, iii) the area where the soil is unsaturated, iv) the location of the vadose zone.
Discuss how your model reflects a real soil.

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Homework Question) A container (total volume = 75 cm3; 20 gram in weight) full with a
natural soil is weighted. It is 170.79 gram. Then, it is fully saturated with water and
weighted again. Now, it is 173.67 gram. At the end, it is totally dried in an oven and
weighted again. Now, it weights 146.34 gram.
Calculate the followings;
a) Porosity
b) Gravimetric water content
c) Volumetric water content
d) Saturation ratio
e) Bulk density
f) Dry bulk density
g) Particle density
h) to check your answer, porosity=1-(Dry bulk density/Particle density)
Assume water has density of 1 g/cm3.
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