1.

Microprocessor

A microprocessor is a single chip of silicon that performs all of the

essential functions of a computer central processor unit (CPU) on a single
silicon chip. Microprocessors are found in a huge variety of applications
including engine management systems, environmental control systems,
domestic appliances, video games, fax machines, photocopiers, etc.

. Microprocessor is an electronic circuit that functions as the central

processing unit (CPU) of a computer, providing computational control.
Microprocessors are also used in other advanced electronic systems, such
as computer printers, automobiles, and jet airliners.

When combined with other integrated circuits that provide storage for data
and programs, often on a single semiconductor base to form a chip, the
microprocessor becomes the heart of a small computer, or microcomputer.

Microprocessors are classified by the semiconductor technology of their

design (TTL, transistor-transistor logic; CMOS, complementary-metaloxide semiconductor; or ECL, emitter-coupled logic), by the width of the
data format (4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) they process; and by
their instruction set (CISC, complex-instruction-set computer, or RISC,
reduced instruction-set computer; see RISC processor).

TTL technology is most commonly used, while CMOS is favored for

portable computers and other battery-powered devices because of its low power
consumption.

. ECL is used where the need for its greater speed offsets the fact that it
consumes the most power. Four-bit devices, while inexpensive, are good only for
simple control applications; in general, the wider the data format, the faster and
more expensive the device.

CISC processors, which have 70 to several hundred 3 instructions, are easier

to program than RISC processors, but are slower and more expensive.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
clock speed : Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.

Classification of Microprocessor

1.
Microprocessors can be classified in many different ways.
Microprocessors have come a long way since their invention in the late 1960s. The most
basic off-the-shelf microprocessor today is vastly more powerful than the most expensive
microprocessors four decades ago. These chipsets have changed so much over their
evolution that there are many different ways to classify them.
2. The bit depth of microprocessors relates to the widest memory addresses or data units in
it. This basically translates to the level of complexity of calculations the chip is able to
make, with a larger bit depth allowing more complex tasks to be performed. The first
microprocessors were 4-bit processors and were able to execute only the most basic of
tasks. 8-bit, 12-bit and eventually 32-bit processors were available later. Most operating
systems designed for personal use were written to be executed by 32-bit processors until

64-bit operating systems were released a few years ago. Most modern microprocessors
are either 32-bit or 64-bit, although 128-bit microprocessors are also available.
3. Another way to classify microprocessors is according to the architecture families of the
chip. Many chip manufacturers classify their microprocessors into product families. Intel
classified its early chips according to the bit-depth and then by the number of transistors,
for example. It later began to classify its chips into families according to the architecture
of the chip when the Pentium chip was introduced in 1993. This architecture
classification system is common among most commercial chip manufacturers.
4. Microprocessors are sometimes classified according to their intended purpose. Not all
chips end up in personal computers. Even those that do often serve specific roles, such as
general computing or graphics tasks. Some of the most advanced 128-bit chips are used
in security applications where the increased bit depth of the chip allows for superb cipher
and security applications.
Several functional classifications can be used to classify microprocessors. The different types
of microprocessors used most frequently are as follows:
INTEL MICROPROCESSORS: 4004
(1970) Intel's Ted Hoff and Federico Faggin designed and implemented (respectively) the
first general-purpose microprocessor. The 4004 processor, used in a hand-held calculator built by
Busicom of Japan, was part of a fourchip set called the 4000 Family:

4001 - 2,048-bit ROM memory

4002 - 320-bit RAM memory
4003 - 10-bit I/O shift register
4004 - 4-bit central processor

8008 (1972)
The 8008 increased the 4004's word length from four to eight bits, and doubled the
volume of information that could be processed. It was still an invention in search of a market
however, as the technology world was just beginning to view the microprocessor as a solution to
many needs.

8080 (1974)

The 8080 were 20 times as fast as the 4004 and contained twice as many transistors. This
8-bit chip represented a technological milestone as engineers recognized its value and used it in a
wide variety of products. It was perhaps most notable as the processor in the first kit computer,
the Altair, which ignited the personal computing phenomenon.

8088 (1979)
Created as a cheaper version of Intel's 8086, the 8088 was a 16-bit processor with an 8-bit
external bus. This chip became the most ubiquitous in the computer industry when IBM chose it
for its first PC. The success of the IBM PC and its clones gave Intel a dominant position in the
semiconductor industry.

80286 (1982)
With 16 MB of addressable memory and 1 GB of virtual memory, this 16-bit chip is
referred to as the first "modern" microprocessor. Many novices were introduced to desktop
computing with a "286 machine" and it became the dominant chip of its time. It contained
130,000 transistors and packed serious compute power (12 MHz) into a tiny footprint.

80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)

The price/performance curve continued its steep climb with the 386 and later the 486
--32-bit processors that brought real computing to the masses. The 386, which became the bestselling microprocessor in history, featured 275,000 transistors; the 486 had more than a million.

Pentium (1993)
Adding systems-level characteristics to enormous raw compute power, the Pentium
supports demanding I/O, graphics and communications intensive applications with more than 3
million transistors.

Pentium Pro (1995)

The newest Pentium has dynamic instruction execution and other performance-enhancing
features such as a large L2 cache in the chip package, in addition to its more than 5.5 million
transistors.

Pentium II (1997)
The 7.5 million-transistor Pentium II processor incorporates Intel MMXTM technology,
which is designed specifically to process video, audio and graphics data efficiently.

Pentium II Xeon (1998)

The Pentium II Xeon processors are designed to meet the performance requirements of
mid-range and higher servers and workstations. Consistent with Intel's strategy to deliver unique
processor products targeted for 15 specific markets segments, the Pentium II Xeon processors
feature technical innovations specifically designed for workstations and servers that utilize
demanding business applications such as Internet services, corporate data warehousing, digital
content creation, and electronic and mechanical design automation. Systems based on the
processor can be configured to scale to four or eight processors and beyond.

Celeron (1999)
Continuing Intel's strategy of developing processors for specific market segments, the
Intel Celeron processor is designed for the value PC market segment. It provides consumers
great performance at an exceptional value, and it delivers excellent performance for uses such as
gaming and educational software.

Pentium III (1999)

The Pentium III processor features 70 new instructions. It was designed to significantly
enhance Internet experiences, allowing users to do such things as browse through realistic online
museums and stores and download high-quality video. The processor incorporates 9.5 million
transistors, and was introduced using 0.25-micron technology.
Pentium III Xeon (1999) 16 The Pentium III Xeon processor extends Intel's offerings to the
workstation and server market segments, providing additional performance for e-Commerce
applications and advanced business computing. The processors incorporate the Pentium III
processor's 70 SIMD instructions, which enhance multimedia and streaming video applications.
The Pentium III Xeon processor's advance cache technology speeds information from the system
bus to the processor, significantly boosting performance. It is designed for systems with
multiprocessor configurations. (Brain, Marshall)

CPU Register

CPU registers perform a variety of functions, a primary one of which is to offer

temporary storage for the CPU to access information stored on the hard drive.
Every CPU register has a distinct function and the registers are essential
components of CPU commonly recognized for memory allocation purposes.

Registers fall under three categories: accumulator, general purpose registers and
special purpose registers. Examples of special purpose registers include a memory
address register, memory buffer register, instruction register and program counter.

A register is a high speed storage area inside a central processing unit. It carries
out three different functions: fetch, decode and execute. The fetch function is used
for getting the instruction from the memory into the processor. The decode
function is used for interpreting the instruction. The execute function is used by
the CPU. The results or output produced by the CPU are then sent to memory for
storage.

CPU REGISTER
Registers are the most important components of CPU. Each register performs a specific
function. A brief description of most important CPU's registers and their functions are given below:

1. Memory Address Register (MAR):

This register holds the address of memory where CPU wants to read or write data.
When CPU wants to store some data in the memory or reads the data from the memory, it
places the address of the required memory location in the MAR.
This register is used to access data and instructions from memory during the
execution phase of an instruction. Suppose CPU wants to store some data in the memory
or to read the data from the memory. It places the address of the-required memory
location in the MAR.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR):
This register holds the contents of data or instruction read from, or written in
memory. The contents of instruction placed in this register are transferred to the
Instruction Register, while the contents of data are transferred to the accumulator or I/O
register.
In other words you can say that this register is used to store data/instruction
coming from the memory or going to the memory.
3. I/O Address Register (I/O AR):
I/O Address register is used to specify the address of a particular I/O device.

4. I/O Buffer Register (I/O I3R):

I/O Buffer Register is used for exchanging data between the I/O module and the
processor.
5. Program Counter (PC)
Program Counter register is also known as Instruction Pointer Register. This
register is used to store the address of the next instruction to be fetched for execution.
When the instruction is fetched, the value of IP is incremented. Thus this register always
points or holds the address of next instruction to be fetched.
It is a 16 bit special function register in the 8085 microprocessor. It keeps track of
the the next memory address of the instruction that is to be executed once the execution
of the current instruction is completed. In other words, it holds the address of the memory
location of the next instruction when the current instruction is executed by the
microprocessor.
6. Instruction Register (IR):
Once an instruction is fetched from main memory, it is stored in the Instruction
Register. The control unit takes instruction from this register, decodes and executes it by
sending signals to the appropriate component of computer to carry out the task.
7. Accumulator Register:
The accumulator register is located inside the ALU, It is used during arithmetic &
logical operations of ALU. The control unit stores data values fetched from main memory
in the accumulator for arithmetic or logical operation. This register holds the initial data
to be operated upon, the intermediate results, and the final result of operation. The final
result is transferred to main memory through MBR.
8. Stack Control Register:
A stack represents a set of memory blocks; the data is stored in and retrieved from
these blocks in an order, i.e. First In and Last Out (FILO). The Stack Control Register is
used to manage the stacks in memory. The size of this register is 2 or 4 bytes.
9. Flag Register:
The Flag register is used to indicate occurrence of a certain condition during an
operation of the CPU. It is a special purpose register with size one byte or two bytes.
Each bit of the flag register constitutes a flag (or alarm), such that the bit value indicates
if a specified condition was encountered while executing an instruction.

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor

Micro Controller

Microprocessor is heart of Computer system.

Micro Controller is a heart of embedded system.

It is just a processor. Memory and I/O components

have to be connected externally

Micro controller has external processor along with

internal memory and i/O components

Since memory and I/O has to be connected externally,

the circuit becomes large.

Since memory and I/O are present internally, the

circuit is small.

Cannot be used in compact systems and hence

inefficient

Can be used in compact systems and hence it is an

efficient technique

Cost of the entire system increases

Cost of the entire system is low

Due to external components, the entire power

consumption is high. Hence it is not suitable to used
with devices running on stored power like batteries.

Since external components are low, total power

consumption is less and can be used with devices
running on stored power like batteries.

Most of the microprocessors do not have power saving

features.

Most of the micro controllers have power saving

modes like idle mode and power saving mode. This
helps to reduce power consumption even further.

Since memory and I/O components are all external,

each instruction will need external operation, hence it
is relatively slower.

Since components are internal, most of the operations

are internal instruction, hence speed is fast.

Microprocessor have less number of registers, hence

more operations are memory based.

Micro controller have more number of registers,

hence the programs are easier to write.

Microprocessors are based on von Neumann

model/architecture where program and data are
stored in same memory module

Micro controllers are based on Harvard architecture

where program memory and Data memory are
separate

Mainly used in personal computers

Used mainly in washing machine, MP3 players