CHAPTER 3

- CONDUCTIVE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Conductivity & Ohms Law

Conductivity the ease with which a material is capable of
conducting an electric current ().
According to this property, there are 3 types of materials:
- conductors;
- semiconductors;
- insulators;
Metals are the best conductors, typically having
m

5
=10

Insulators have the conductivity low

m

=107 1020

Semiconductors have intermediate conductivity

m

7
3
=10 10

Ohms Law:

U
=constant
I

states that the ratio of U to I remains

constant independent of the magnitude or direction of I.

Some ceramic materials called varistors (thermistors) do not
obey Ohms law.
Any material with a non-linear U(I) characteristic is called nonohmic.
R=

l
A

E=

V
l
J=

I
A

density of current ( A / m2
1

R=

V
l El
E
1
E
=ct =
= =ct = J =
E
I
A AJ
J
J

Where:
l length of the sample
A cross section area of the sample, perpendicular on the
direction of I
This form of Ohms law has the following advantages:
=

E
J

1. It is expressed in terms of a material parameter ( ) that,

unlike R, doesnt depend on sample dimensions.
2. Its a local expression (i.e. its valid in every point of the
material)
3. Its a vector relation, showing that 2 vectors quantities
(
E , J ) are parallel and proportional everywhere in the material.
In anisotropic material (usually in non-cubic crystal structure)
is a 9-component tensor.
J 1= 11 E 1+ 12 E2 + 13 E3
J 2= 21 E1 + 22 E 2+ 23 E 3
J 3= 31 E1 + 32 E 2+ 33 E 3

Conductivity in metals. Classical free electrons theory

The first model: the electrons have a particle nature.
We can explain the resistance of a material by means of
collision of the drifting electrons and certain lattice atoms. The
more collisions we encounter, the greater the resistance is.
The second model: the electrons have a wave nature.
This model considers that the matter waves are scattered by
lattice atoms.
scattering process of radiation (dissipation on small particles
in all directions). It can be coherent or un-coherent.

Coherent scattering: the scattering senders are periodically

arranged and there is a slight phase relationship between the
scattered waves.
The first theory is the classical free electron theory of
conductivity in metals. The idea on which Drude theory is based
is that many electrons in metals are nearly free. Thats why he
postulated the existence of a free electron gas or plasma,
composed of the valence electrons of the individual atoms in a
crystal. If we have a monovalent element (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr),
it is assumed that each atom contains 1 electron to this plasma.
N m
m N
=
N= A
NA

F=ma m

m
vd
v

dv
=eE
dt

dv
+ v =eE
dt

- friction (damping force)

Due to this 2 forces, the electrons will be accelerated until the

velocity will be saturated.
t

vd =eE

m2
=N e e
vs

v =v d =constant

dv
eE
=0 v d =eE =
dt
vd

dv eE
+
=eE
dt v d

v =v d 1exp

t
( eE
m v )]
d

m vd
eE

The relation time can be interpreted as the average time

between 2 consecutive collisions.
vd =

eE
m

=Nee=Ne

vd
1 eE
=Ne
E
E m

Ne
m

This equation shows that conductivity is large for large number

of free electrons in a large relaxation time.
The relaxation time is proportional to the average time between
2 consecutive collisions.
l v th

- mean free path

Advantages
- for metals is in very good accordance with experimental
results
- for insulators and semiconductors we need more precise
theory (quantic)
Conductivity in metals and non-metals
- in equilibrium no electric field
- when an electric field is applied
At equilibrium the valence electrons perform random motions
with no preferred velocity in any direction.

V(k)x

If an electric field is applied

V(k)x

The Fermi sphere/circle is displaced in a direction opposite to

the electric field. This displacement takes place because some
electrons propagating in opposite direction to the field E receive
from it a maximum increase in their energy, thats represented
by the electrons in the double shaded crescent in the right part
having higher energy.
These electrons are those which contribute to the electric
conductor.
Therefore, the Drude classical theory of conduction must be
modified.
The main difference between Drudes theory and quantum
theory is that Drude assumed that all electrons drift under the
influence of an electric field with a relatively modest velocity.
Quantum mechanics shows instead that only specific electrons
participate in conduction and these electrons drift with a higher
velocity, named Fermi velocity v f .
The conductivity in quantum mechanics
1
= v f 2 e 2 N ( EF )
3

This equation shows that the conductivity depends according to

the quantum mechanical model on the Fermi velocity v f , the
population density per unit volume and relaxation time.
This equation is more meaningful than the one in classical
theory, showing that not all free electrons are responsible for
conduction (shown by the fact that depends on v f and not
merely on any v) and instead the conductivity in metals
5

depends to a large extend on the population density of the

electrons near the Fermi surface (or sphere in 3D).

Electrical resistivity in metals and alloys

Metal Electrical Conductivity ( m)1
Silver 6.8 107
Copper 6.0 107
Gold 4.3 107
Aluminum 3.8 107
Iron 1.0 107
Alloy Electrical Conductivity ( m)1
Brass (70% Cu, 1.6 107
30% Zn) 0.98 107
Platinum 0.6 10 7
Plain steel 0.2 107
Stainless Steel
Mothiessens Rule
total = thermal+ impurity + deformation

1. T =0 +aT

- where 0 , a constants

2. Influences of the temperature

i= A ci (1ci)

A constant; function of both impurity and host metal.

CHAPTER 4
- SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity
between the conductivity of a conductor and the conductivity of
8
5
1
an insulator 10 10 ( m) .

The electric properties of these materials are extremely

sensitive to the presence of even small concentration of
impurities.
6

Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the electric

behavior is based on the electronic structure inherent to the
pure material. When the electric charge is dictated by impurity
atoms the semiconductor is said to be doped or extrinsic.
Intrinsic semiconductor
Structure
At 0 K it has a completely filled valence band, separated from
an empty conduction band by a relatively narrow band gap
(smaller than 2 eV).
Elemental semiconductors
Si (1.1 eV)
Ge (0. eV)
Compound semiconductor materials having intrinsic behavior
can be:
- III-V compounds: GaAs, InSb
- II-VI compounds: CdS, ZnTe
- ternary compounds: HgCdTe, GaAsP

Material

Elemental
III-IV
Compound
s
II-VI
Compound
s

Band
Gap
(eV)

( m)

Electron
Density

Hole
Mobility

0.05
0.18
0.002
0.45
0.07
0.01

Vs
m2 /

Si
Ge
GaP
GeAs
InSb
CdS

1.11
0.67
2.25
1.42
0.17
2.40

4 104

0.14
0.38
0.05
0.85
7.7
0.03

ZnTe

2.26

0.03

2.2
106
2 104

Vs
m2 /

Ternary elements dont have a precise value of the band gap

because the proportion of the elements may differ (x = 0.2
0.4) so the properties differ too.
Intrinsic semiconductors, for every electron excited into the
conduction band a missing electron is left behind in the valence
7

band. This missing electron is treated as a positively charged

particle called hole. The charge of a hole is +1.6 1019 C .
Intrinsic conductivity
=N|e| e + Pe h

N, P concentration of electrons/holes
e ,h mobility of electrons/holes
The mobility of holes is smaller than the mobility of electrons in
a semiconductor.
In intrinsic semiconductors if an electron jumps in conduction
band, a hole remains in valence band.
In extrinsic semiconductors if an electron jumps to the impurity
level, number of electrons will be smaller than the number of
holes.
Extrinsic semiconductors
The electrical behavior of an extrinsic semiconductor is
determined by impurities. These impurities, when they are
present (even in small concentration) introduce excess
electrons or holes.
Doping means addition of controlled amount of impurities in
order to increase the number of charge carriers in a
semiconductor.
There are 2 types:
n-type extrinsic semiconductor
In order to obtain a n-type semiconductor we need an impurity
atom with a valence of V to be added as a substitution impurity
(P, As, Sb).
Only 4 of the 5 valence electrons of impurity atom can
participate in the bounding. The 5th electron is loosely bound
and therefore it can be easily removed from the impurity atom,
becoming a free electron (conduction electron). For each of
these loosely bounded electrons there exists a single energy
level or energy state located within the forbidden band gap just
below the bottom of the conduction band.

For each excitation event a single electron is supplied or

donated to the conduction band. Since each electron is excited
from an impurity level, no corresponding hole is created within
the valence band.
N P Ne e

The electrons in a n-type extrinsic semiconductor are majority

carriers and the holes are minority carriers.
p-type extrinsic semiconductor
An opposite effect is produced by the addition to Si or Ge of
trivalent substitution impurity (group III Al, Br, Ga).
One of the covalent bands around each of these atoms is
deficient in an electron. Such a deficiency can be viewed as a
hole that is weakly bound to the impurity atom. This hole can
be illustrated from the impurity atom by the transfer of an
electron from adjacent band.
Each impurity atom of this type introduces an energy level
within the band gap alone, but very close to the top of the
valence band.
A hole is created within valence band by the thermal excitation
of an electron from the valence band into this impurity electron
state. With such a transition only one carrier is produced, a hole
in the valence band, a free electron is not created in either
impurity level or conduction band. The impurity of this type is
called acceptor because is capable of accepting electrons from
valence band, leaving behind holes.
P N =Pe h

Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

CHAPTER 5
- DIELECTRIC MATERIALS Dielectric materials are insulators, as they have a large energy
gap between the valence and conduction band. Thus, the
electrons in the valence band cant jump in the conduction
band. Therefore the resistivities for these materials are very
high. Dielectric materials exhibit or can be made to exhibit an
electric dipole structure, that is a separation between positive
and negative electrically charged entities on a molecular/atomic
level.
The 2 important applications are:
9

- capacitors for the storage of electrical charges

- electrical insulators for preventing electricity transfer
The most important properties
- Relative permittivity r (dielectric constant)
- tangent of loss angle tg
Other important properties:
- feroelectricity
- piezoelectricity
- electrostriction
- piroelectricity;
Capacitors
When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, one plate
becomes positively charged, the other one negatively charged
with a corresponding electric field directed from the positive to
negative.
The capacity C is related to the quantity of charge stored in
each plate and V is the voltage applied across the capacitor.
C=

Q
V

1C
=1 F
1V

C> SI =

For the case of the plane capacitor with vacuum between the
plates the capacity will be
C=

0 A
l

A the area of the plates

l distance between the plates
12
0 =8.856 10 F /m - permittivity of vacuum
When introducing a dielectric between the plates, the capacity
will become
C=

A
l

where is the material permittivity.

= 0 r
r
represents the increase in charge storing capacity by

insertion of the dielectric medium between the plates.

Field vectors and polarization
10

For each dipole an electric dipole moment is associated.

p=qd

q magnitude of each dipole charge

d the distance between charges
In the presence of the electric field E a force will act on the
dielectric dipole in order to orient it in the direction of the field.
+
-

The surface charge density D or the quantity of charge per unit

area of capacity plates
Q
A

D0= 0
E
D=

D=
E

D=
E+
P

Polarization
The increase of charge density above the value of vacuum
because of the presence of dielectric

P=

C
m2

DQ
A

P= 0 ( r 1 )
E

Types of polarization
Polarization the alignment of permanent or induced atomic or
molecular dipole moments with an externally applied electric
field.
There are 3 types of induced polarization:
- electronic displacement
- ionic displacement
- bipolar orientation
11

Dielectrics are materials characterized by states of electric

polarization.
The state of electric polarization can be:
a) temporary (induced) depends on local E
b) permanent does not depend on E
A.
1. Electronic displacement polarization
The limited and elastic motion the electron shells on the
dielectric atoms

It is a general property of materials. Generally materials which

show only electronic displacement polarization are called nonpolar materials.
2. Ionic displacement polarization
The limited and elastic motions of the ions of the dielectric
under the action of the electric field.

This polarization mechanism is specific for dielectrics with

prevailing ionic bonds.
3. Bipolar orientation
The orientation of the existing electric moments on the
direction of the applied field.

When E=0 , only under the influence of thermal energy, the

electric moments are random.
The dipolar orientation polarization is specific for materials
which have electric moments, polar materials.
Total polarization

P=Pelectronic + P ionic + Porientation

12

Not all three mechanisms are present in a material. For

example, Pi wont exist in a material with covalent bonds (no
ions are present).
B.
1. Spontaneous (Pyroelectric)
Represents the ordering of the electric moments of the
dielectric on temperature domains in the absence of the
electrical external field.
2. Piezoelectric
Represents the phenomenon that appears under the action of
the mechanical strains applied on the structure.
Complex relative permittivity and tangent of loss angle
Complex relative permittivity can be expressed as
r = 'r j ''r =

D
r E

D complex representation of the electric flux density

E complex electric field intensity
'r
The real part of the complex relative permittivity
characterizes the dielectric from the point of view of
'r'
polarization ability whereas the imaginary part
characterizes the dielectric from the point of view of energy
losses in the material.

Tangent of loss angle

''

tg = r'
r

The inverse of tg is called the quality factor of the dielectric

'

1
Q =
= 'r'
tg r

Frequency dependence of the dielectric constants

13

In many practical situations the current is alternatively, that is

an applied voltage on electric field changes direction with time.
With each direction reversal the dipoles attempt to reorient with
the field.
This process requires some finite time. For each polarization
type a minimum reorientation time exists, which depends on
the ease with which the dipoles are capable of realignment.
A relaxation frequency is the reciprocal of this minimum
reorientation time.
When a polarization mechanism ceases to function there is an
abrupt drop in the dielectric constant. Otherwise for each
polarization mechanism r is virtually frequency independent.
The absorption of electric energy by the dielectric material
under an alternating field is called dielectric loss. This loss can
be significant for electric field frequencies close to the
relaxation frequency.
At the frequency of utilization a low dielectric loss is desired.
Dielectric material types
A number of ceramics and polymers are used as insulators or in
capacitors. Many of the ceramics including mica, porcelain,
have the electric constants within range of 6 10. These
materials also exhibit a high degree of dimensional stability and
mechanical strength.
Typical applications
- power line and electric insulation
- switches
- light receivers
The titanate ceramics such as barium titanate ( BaTi O3 ) can be
made to have extremely high dielectric constants which render
them especially useful for some capacitors applications.
The magnitude of the dielectric constant for most polymers is
smaller than for ceramics, generally between 2 and 5. These
materials are commonly used for insulation of wires, cables and
motors, and in addition for some capacitors.

14

Other electrical charge of dielectric materials

Dielectrics can be classified according to their properties in the
following categories:
1. r < 12 - insulating materials
2. r > 12 - capacitor materials, electricity storage
3. Ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics, piroelectrics and electrostriction
used for their special functions
a) Ferroelectricity
Some dielectrics present a behavior of polarization vs. applied
electric field very similar to the behavior of B vs. H for
ferromagnetic materials. This type of PE graph is called
ferroelectric hysteresis loop.
Ferroelectricity takes place in this material below a temperature
called Curie temperature.
Examples of materials displaying ferroelectricity:
- barium titanate - BaTi O3
- Rochelle salt
- potassium di-hydrogen-phosphate
- potassium niobate
- lead zirconate-titanate (PZT)
Ferroelectrics have extremely high dielectric constants, even at
relatively low applied field frequencies (at room temperature for
BaT i O3 is almost 5000).
Consequently capacitors made from these materials can be
significantly smaller compared to capacitors made from other
materials.
b) Piezoelectricity and electrostriction
When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, the
polarization may modify the dimensions of the material. This
dimension change is called electrostriction.
On the other hand when a dimensional change (mechanical
strains) is imposed on some dielectrics polarization occurs and
a voltage field is created.
Dielectric materials displaying this type of behavior are called
piezoelectric, which means pressure electricity.
Piezoelectric materials are used in transducers which are
devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical strains or

15

vice versa. Familiar applications include microphones, pick-ups,

ultrasounds generators, sonar detectors.
(the pick-up cartridge, as the stylus traverses the grooves on a
record, a pressure variation is imposed on a piezoelectric
material located inside the cartridge which is then transformed
into an electric signal and amplified before going to the
speaker)
Examples of piezoelectric materials
- lead zirconate
- ammonium di-hydrogen-phosphate
- quartz
Generally this property is characteristic for materials having
crystal structures with a low degree of symmetry.
c) Piroelectricity
Piroelectric materials are a special class of piezoelectric
materials. By heating the material, external expansion creates a
deformation which produces a change in the extend of
polarization and thus, a voltage results across the sample.
PROPERTY
Ferroelectri
city

CAUSE
Physical property of a
material plus electrical field
applied and removed

Electrostrict
ion
Piezoelectri
city
Piroelectrici
ty

Electric field

EFFECT
Polarization
that
remains after the
electric
field
is
removed
Dimensional change

Dimensional change

Electric field
polarization
Temperature
change, Polarization
dimensional change
electric field

plus
plus

CHAPTER 6
- MAGNETIC MATERIALS Magnetism is the phenomenon by which the materials assert an
attractive or repulsive influence on other materials.
Examples of materials:
16

- iron
- steel
All substances are influenced to a certain degree by the
presence of the magnetic field. The externally applied magnetic
field is designated by H. If the magnetic field is generated by
means of a solenoid or a cylindrical coil consisting of N closely
spaced turns having the length l and carrying a current of
magnitude I
m
A/
H=
l

The magnetic induction denoted by B represents the magnitude

of the internal field strength within a substance that is
subjected to an H field.
H: applied field
B: internal field induced by applied field
B=H

is called permeability, which is a property of a specific

moment through which the H field passes and in which B is
measured.

H /m
7

0=4 10 H /m

The relative permeability of a material is a measure of the

degree through which the material can be magnetized or the
ease with which a B field can be induced in the presence of an
external H field.
The magnetic moment (magnetic dipole moment) is a vector
that characterizes the magnets over all the magnetic
properties.
For a bar magnet the direction of a magnetic moment points
from the magnets north pole to its south pole.
Magnetization is another magnetic quantity and is defined
B=0 H + 0 M
17

The magnetization of the magnetized material is the local value

of its magnetic moment per unit volume. It is a vector field
rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment) because
different areas in the magnet can be magnetized with different
directions and strengths.
In the presence of an H field, the magnetic moments tend to
become aligned to the field and to reinforce it because of the
0 M
magnetic field. The term
is a measure of this
contribution.
M = m H
m

is called magnetic susceptibility

m = r1

Analogy between electric and magnetic parameters

BD
HE
...
MP
Origins of magnetic moments
Each electron in an atom has magnetic moments that originate
from 2 sources:
- one is related to the orbital motion around the nucleus
- the second one: the electron may also be thought of a
spinning around an axis
This second magnetic moment originates from this electron
spin. Spin magnetic moments may be only in up direction (spin
up) or in down direction (spin down).
The fundamental magnetic moment is the Bohr-Procopiu
magnet B
B =

eh
=9.27 1024 A /m 2
4 m

For each electron in an atom the spin magnetic moment is

.
18

The first orbital magnetic moment is me B

Magnets
Description of magnet behavior
Ferro and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought
as magnets. They are attracted to a magnet strongly enough
that the attraction can be felt. They are the only ones that can
retain the magnetization and become magnets.
Ferrimagnetic materials are similar, but weaker. The
susceptibility is very large: 10 1015 .
Paramagnetic materials (Al, Pt) are weakly attracted to a
magnet. This effect is hundreds of thousands weaker and it can
only be determined by using very sensitive instruments or by
using very strong magnets.
Diamagnetic materials are the ones that are repelled weakly by
both poles of a magnet. Compared to para and ferromagnetic
substances, diamagnetic substances Ca, Cu and plastic are
even more weakly repelled by magnets.
The permeability of diamagnets is smaller than 0 .
All substances not possessing one of the other types of
magnetization are diamagnetic. This includes most substances.
106 1015
In order to emphasize this weak repulsion force one must use
extremely strong super conducting magnets.
Diamagnetism
Is a very weak form of magnetism that is not permanent and
persists only while an external field is being applied. The
magnitude of the induced magnetic moments is extremely
small and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field.
Thus the relative permeability r is less than 1 (slightly) and
the magnetic susceptibility is less than 0.

19

It was found bay Lenz that a current is induced in a wire loop

whenever a bar magnet is moved towards or from this loop.
The current thus induced causes in turn a magnetic moment
which is opposite to the current one.
Diamagnetism may be explained by postulating that the
external magnetic field induces a change in the magnitude of
the inner atomic currents, that is the external field accelerates
(decelerates) the orbital electron so that their magnetic
moment is in the opposite direction to that of the external
magnetic field.
In other words, the responses of the orbit electron counteract
the external field.
So far, we considered only electrons that are bounded to the ?.
However metals also have free electrons, which are forced to
move in a magnetic field in a circular path. This leads to a ?
contribution to the diamagnetic moment the circulating free
electrons cause a magnetic moment.
Paramagnetism
In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, that is
atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly 1 electron in them.
The unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in
any direction. Where an external magnetic field is applied,
these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the
same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.
For a diamagnetic material, in the absence of the magnetic field
no dipoles exist. In the presence of a field, dipoles are induced
and there are aligned opposite to the field direction.
For a paramagnetic material, in the absence of a paramagnetic
field, the orientations of diatomic magnetic moments are
random, such that the material as a whole presents no net
macroscopic magnetization. When an external field is applied
the dipoles align themselves with the external field; they
enhance it giving rise to a relative permeability r >1 and to a
relatively small but positively magnetic susceptibility.

20

Both (dia and para) are considered to be non-magnetic because

they exhibit magnetization only in the presence of the external
field.
Ferromagnetism
Certain metallic materials posses a permanent magnetic
moment, in the absence of an electric external field and have
very large and permanent magnetization. These are the
characteristics of ferromagnetism and they are displayed by the
transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni) and by the rare earth metals (Gd
Gadolinium).
Magnetic susceptibility can be as high as 106 and we can write
B=0 M

because H M
No net magnetic moment is associated with the
However, each

2+
Mn

ions.

ion possesses a non-zero magnetic

moment predominantly of spin origin. These

2+

Mn

ions are

arranged in the crystal structure in such way that the moments

of adjacent ions are antiparallel and thus cancel one another. As
a consequence the solid as a whole possesses no net magnetic
moments.
Ferrimagnetism
Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent magnetization called
ferrimagnetism. The macroscopic magnetic characteristics of
ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic are similar.
The distinction lies in the source of the net magnetic moments.
Cubic ferrites - M Fe2 O4
The
all

2
ions are magnetically neutral. The spin moments of
O
3+
ions are antiparallel as in ferromagnetic so they cancel
Fe

one another and have no net contribution to the magnetization

21

of the solid. All the

2
Fe

ions have their moments aligned in

the same direction and this total moment is responsible for the
net magnetization.
Cubic ferrites having also other composition may be produced.
Cation

Net spin magnetic moment (Bohr-Procopiu mg)

3+
Fe
2+

Fe
2+
Mn
2+
Co
2+

2+
Cu

5
4
5
3
2
1

The saturation magnetizations for ferromagnetic materials are

not so high as for ferromagnets. On the other hand, ferrites
having ceramic materials are good electrical insulators. For
some magnetic application such as frequency transformers, a
low electrical conductivity is most desirable.
The influence of temperature on magnetic behavior
Raising a temperature of a solid results in an increase in the
magnitude vibration of atoms. The increased thermal motion of
atoms tends to randomize the direction of any moment that
may be aligned, resulting in a decrease of the magnetic spin for
both ferro and ferri magnetic materials.
The saturation magnetization is maximum at 0 K where the
thermal vibrations are minimum. With increasing temperature,
the saturation magnetization diminishes gradually and then
abruptly drops to 0 at Curie temperature.
Domains and hysteresis
Any ferro and ferri magnetic material that has a temperature
below Curie temperature is composed of small volume regions
22

in which all magnetic dipole moments are aligned in the same

direction.
Such a region is called domain and each one is magnetized to
its saturation magnetization. Adjacent domains are separated
by domain boundaries or walls (block walls).
For ferrimagnets and ferromagnets the flux density B and the
field density H are not proportional. If the material is initially
unmagnetisez, then varies as a function of H.
The curve begins at the origin and as H is increased, the B field
begins to increase slowly, then more rapidly, finally leveling off
and becoming independent of H. This maximum value of B is
the saturation induction Bs. The slope of B vs. H curve at H=0 is
specified as a material property and is called the initial
permeability i .
As the external field is applied, the domains are oriented in
directions favorable to the applied field (or nearly aligned to it)
grow at the expense of those that are unfavorably oriented. This
process continues with increasing field intensity until the
specimen becomes a single domain, thus saturation being
achieved.
From saturation as the H field is reduced by reversal field
direction, the curve does not retrace its original path. A
hysteresis effect is produced. At 0 H field there exists a residual
B field called remanence for the remanent induction Br. The
material remains magnetized in the absence of the external H
field. The explanation for this phenomenon is the resistance to
moment of domain walls that occurs in response to the increase
of the magnetic field in the opposite direction. When the applied
field H reaches 0, there is still some net volume, fractions of
domains oriented in the former direction which explains the
existence of the remanence Br. In order to reduce the B field of
the specimen to 0, an H field of magnitude Hc must be applied.
Hc is called coercitivity (or coercitive field). Upon continuation
of the applied field in this reverse direction saturation is
achieved in the opposite sense. A ? reversal of the field up to
the point of initial saturation completes the symmetrical
hysteresis loop.
23

This B vs. H curve represents a hysteresis loop ? to saturation.

24