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DesignBasicConcepts

DesignBasicConcepts

BasicConcepts
Stressisforceperunitarea,F/A.TypicalunitsofstressareMPa,andN/mm2.
Althoughtherearemanynamesgiventostress,thereareonlytwoprimarytypes,
differingintheorientationoftheloadedarea.Withnormalstress,,theareaisnormal
totheforcecarried.Withshearstress,,theareaisparalleltotheforce.

Strain,,iselongationexpressedonafractionalorpercentagebasis.Itmaybelistedas
havingunitsofmm/mm,andpercent,ornounitsatall.Astraininonedirectionwillbe
accompaniedbystrainsinorthogonaldirectionsinaccordancewithPoissonsratio,(y,
x,z).

HookesLaw
Hookeslawisasimplemathematicalstatementoftherelationshipbetweenelastic
stressandstrainstressisproportionaltostrain.Fornormalstress,theconstantof
proportionalityisthemodulusofelasticity(YoungsModulus),E.

=E

Forshearstress,theconstantofproportionalityistheshearmodulus,G.

=G

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ElasticDeformation
SincestressisF/Aandstrain/Lo,Hookeslawcanbeexpandedinformtogivethe
elongationofanaxiallyloadedmemberexperiencingnormalstress.
Tensionloadingisconsideredtobepositivecompressionloadingisnegative.

Theactuallengthofamemberunderloadingisgivenby:

L=Lo

StressConcentrations
Stressconcentrationsoccurwheneverthereisadiscontinuityornonuniformityinan
object.Examplesofnonuniformshapesarelappedshafts,plateswithholesand
notches,andshaftswithkeyways.Itisconvenienttothinkofstressasstreamlines
withinanobject.Therewillbeastressconcentrationwhereverlocalgeometryforces
thestreamlinesclosertogether.

StressvaluesdeterminedbysimplisticF/A,Mc/I,orTr/Jcalculationwillbegreatly
understated.Stressconcentrationfactors(stressrisers)arecorrectionfactorsusedto
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accountforthenonuniformstressdistributions.Thesymbolkisoftenused,butthis
notuniversal.Theactualstressisdeterminedastheproductofthestressconcentration
factor,k,andtheidealstress.Valuesofstressconcentrationfactorarealmostalways
greaterthen1.0,andcanrunas3.0andabove.Theexactvalueforagivenapplication
mustbedeterminedfromextensiveexperimentationorfrompublishedtabulationsor
chartsofstandardconfigurations.

'=k

ApproximateStressConcentrationFactors
Bendingordirecttension
Concentricgroovearoundcylindricalshaft
Rationofgrooveradiustoshaftdiameter

Stressconcentrationfactor

r/d
0.1
0.5
1.0
2.0

k
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.1
Fillet

Ratiooffilletradiustodepthofmember

Stressconcentrationfactor

r/d
0(sharpcorner)
1/16
1/8
1/4
1/2

k
2
1.75
1.5
1.2
1.1

Torsion
Filletincylindricalshaft
Ratiooffilletradiustoradiusofsmallershaft

Stressconcentrationfactor

r/r
0.02
0.10
0.20

k
1.8
1.2
1.1

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CombinedStresses
Loadingisrarelyconfinedtoasingledirection.Manypracticalcaseshavedifferent
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normalandshearstressesontwoormoreperpendicularplanes.Sometimes,oneofthe
stressesmaybesmallenoughtobedisregarded,reducingtheanalysistoone
dimension.Inmostcases,however,theshearandnormalstressesmustbecombinedto
determinethemaximumstressactingonthematerial.
Foranypointinaloadedspecimen,aplanecanbefoundwheretheshearstressiszero.
Thenormalstressesassociatedwiththisplaneareknownastheprincipalstresses,
whicharethemaximumandminimumactingatthatpointinanydirection.
Propersignconventionmustbeadheredtowhenusingthecombinedstressequations.
Asisusuallythecase,tensilenormalstressesarepositivecompressivenormalstresses
arenegative.Intwodimensions,shearstressesaredesignatedasclockwise(positive)or
counterclockwise(negative).

Themaximumandminimumvaluesofnormalstressaretheprincipalstresses.

Theextremeshearstresses(i.e.,maximumandminimumshearstress).

DynamicLoading
Iftheloadisappliedtoastructuresuddenly,thestructuresresponsewillbecomposed
oftwopartsatransientresponse(whichdecaytozero)andsteadystateresponse.
(Thesetwopartsarealsoknownasthedynamicandstaticresponses.)
Arbitrarymultiplicativefactorsareappliedtothesteadystatestresstodeterminethe
maximumtransientadynamicfactorof2.0mightbeused.

AlternatingStress
Manypartsaresubjecttoacombinationofstaticandreversedloading.Failurecannot
bedeterminedsolelybycomparingstresseswithyieldstrengthorendurancelimit.The
combinedeffectsoftheaveragestressandamplitudeofthereversalmustbe
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considered.Thisisdonegraphicallyonadiagramthatplotsthemeanstressversusthe
alternatingstresses.

Themeanstressis

Thealternatingstressishalfoftherangestress.

Acriterionforacceptabledesign(orforfailure)isestablishedbygraphicallyrelating
theyieldstrengthandtheendurancelimit.Onemethodofrelatingthisinformationisa
Soderbergline.Fromthefigure,ifthepoint(m,a)fallsbelowtheallowableline,the
designisacceptable.

BendingStressinBeams
Normalstressoccursinabendingbeam.Althoughitisanormalstress,theterm
bendingstressorflexuralstressisusedtoindicatethesourceoftheofthestress.The
lowersurfaceofthebeamexperiencetensilestress(whichcauseslengthening).The
uppersurfaceofthebeamexperiencescompressivestress(whichcausesshortening).
Thereisnostressalongahorizontalplanepassingthroughthecentroidofthecross
section,aplaneknownastheneutralplaneorthenaturalaxis.

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Bendingstressvarieswithlocation(depth)withinthebeam.Itiszeroattheneutral
axis,andincreaseslinearlywithdistancefromtheneutralaxis,aspredictedbythe
equation:

Thebendingmoment,M,isusedtheequation.Icisthecentroidmomentofinertiaof
thebeamscrosssection.Thenegativesign,requiredbytheconventionthat
compressionisnegative,iscommonlyomitted.
Sincethemaximumstresswillgovernthedesign,ycanbesetequaltoctoobtain
extremefiberstress.cisthedistancefromtheneutralaxistotheextremefiber(i.e.the
toporbottommostdistantfromtheneutralaxis).

Theaboveequationshowsthatthemaximbendingstresswilloccurwherethemoment
ismaximum.Theregionimmediatelyadjacenttothepointofmaximumbending
momentiscalledthedangeroussectionofthebeam.Thedangeroussectioncanbe
foundfromabendingmomentorsheardiagram.

Themomentofinertia,I,(itisthebeamabilitytoresistbending).
IcMomentofinertia(ofplaneareas)thesumoftheproductsofallcrosssectional
elementsbythesquaresoftheirdistancefromtheneutralaxis.
ShaftDesign(TorsionTwisting)
Shearstressoccurswhenshaftisplacedintorsion.Theshearstressattheoutersurface
ofabarorradiusr,whichistorsionallyloadedbyatorqueT,is

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Jistheshaftspolarmomentofinertia.Forasolidroundshaft,

Forahollowroundshaft,

IfashaftoflengthLcarriesatorqueT,theangleoftwist(inradians)willbe

G is the shear modulus (8.0 x 104 MPa). The shear modulus also can be calculated
fromthemodulusofelasticity.

Thepolarmomentofinertia,J(measureofanareasresistancetotorsion(twisting).

J=Ix+Iy

ShearandBendingMomentDiagram
Thevalueofshearandmoment,VandM,willdependonlocationalongthebeam.Itis
muchmoreconvenienttodescribetheshearandmomentfunctiongraphically.Graphs
of shear and moment as function of position along the beam are known as shear and
momentdiagram.Drawingthesediagramsdoesnotrequireknowingtheshapeorarea
ofthebeam.

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Poissonsratio
Experimentsdemonstratethatwhenamaterialisplacedintension,thereexistsnotonly
anaxialstrain,butalsoalateralstrain.Passiondemonstratedthatthesetwostrains
wereproportionaltoeachotherwithintherangeofHookeslaw.Thisconstantis
expressedas
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andisknownasPoissonsratio.Thesesamerelationsapplyforcompression,except
thatalateralexpansiontakesplaceinstead.
Thethreeelasticconstantsarerelatedtoeachotherasfollows:

Stressinrotatingdisks
a)Soliddisk:

b)Diskwithhole:

where
rmax=maximumradialstress,N/m2
(400N/mm2forsteel,200N/mm2forcastiron)
tmax=maximumtangentialstress,N/m2
(400N/mm2forsteel,200N/mm2forcastiron)
=density,kg/m3(7770kg/m3forsteel,7000kg/m3forcastiron)
=Poissonsratio(0.30forsteel,0.27forcastiron)
ri=insidediameterofplate,m
ro=outsidediameterofplate,m
v=peripheralvelocity,ro=2ro(N/60),m/s(rotationspeed,rpm).

Forpressureplatemadefromcastiron,thecentrifugalspeedlimitedbythecentrifugal
forcestrengthshouldnotexceed6570m/s

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