Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
POMS
10.3401/poms.1080.01163
r 2010 Production and Operations Management Society
DOI
Suresh K. Nair
Department of Operations and Information Management, School of Business, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1041, USA,
suresh.nair@business.uconn.edu
Michael L. Pinedo
Department of Information, Operations and Management Science, Leonard N. Stern School of Business, New York University,
New York, New York 10012-1106, USA, mpinedo@stern.nyu.edu
e provide an overview of the state of the art in research on operations in financial services. We start by highlighting a
number of specific operational features that differentiate financial services from other service industries, and discuss
how these features affect the modeling of financial services. We then consider in more detail the various different research
areas in financial services, namely systems design, performance analysis and productivity, forecasting, inventory and cash
management, waiting line analysis for capacity planning, personnel scheduling, operational risk management, and pricing
and revenue management. In the last section, we describe the most promising research directions for the near future.
1. Introduction
Over the past two decades, research in service operations has gained a significant amount of attention.
Special issues of Production and Operations Management
have focused on services in general (Apte et al. 2008),
and various researchers have presented unified theories
(Sampson and Froehle 2006), research agendas (Roth and
Menor 2003), literature surveys (Smith et al. 2007),
strategy ideas (Voss et al. 2008), and have discussed
the merits of studying service science as a new discipline
(Spohrer and Maglio 2008). A few books and a special
issue of Management Science have focused on the operational issues in financial services in particular (see
Harker and Zenios 1999, 2000, Melnick et al. 2000).
However, financial services have still been given scant
attention in much of the literature relative to other
service industries such as transportation, health care,
entertainment, and hospitality. The dilution of focus, by
concentrating on more general distinguishing features
does not do justice to financial services where some of
these characteristics are not central. (The more general
features that are typically being considered include
intangibility, heterogeneity, contemporaneous production and consumption, perishability of capacity, waiting
lines (rather than inventories), and customer participation in the service delivery.)
In this overview, we mean by financial services
primarily firms in retail banking, commercial lending,
634
Table 1
Production and Operations Management 19(6), pp. 633664, r 2010 Production and Operations Management Society
Table 2 A sample of Financial Service Operations Job Titles, Responsibilities, and Products
Total employees
NAICS code
Number
Titles
Products
Premiums, Claims, Refunds, Cash
flow and treasury management,
Customer statements, Loan servicing and support, Trade
confirmations, Reconciliations, Tax
reporting, Security settlements,
Mortgages
21,510
0.4
1,816,300
30.7
659,930
11.2
5223
294,910
5.0
5231
516,010
8.7
Nature of work/responsibility
5232
8,010
0.1
5239
344,950
5.8
5241
Insurance carriers
1,258,050
21.3
5242
907,880
15.3
5251
47,730
0.8
5259
41,190
5211
5221
5222
5,916,470
0.7
100.0
635
a client could wipe out all the profit from the clients
savings account. Very little research in service operations
management has focused on this issue. New customers
constitute another major group that is more likely to
make calls with billing questions or inquiries regarding
their statements. Should billing and statementing to new
customers be handled differently, perhaps with more
care, than to existing customers? Obviously, if this
observation is true, differential handling can reduce the
traffic to call centers. Existing call center research usually
assumes the call volume to be a given, for the most part,
and the focus is on managing the traffic. This is akin to
traditional manufacturing where it was assumed that
large setup times were a given, and a good way to
manage would be to use an optimal batch size. One
learns to live with such a constraint. Not until just in
time (JIT) manufacturing came along did managers
question why setup times were large and what could be
done to reduce them.
At one credit card company, operations managers
struggled for years to cope with volatile demand in
bill printing, mailing, remittance processing, and call
center operations. Daily volumes could fluctuate
easily between half a million and one and a half
million pieces of mail in remittance processing, and
managers were reconciled to high overtimes and idle
times because they felt they had no control over
when customers mailed in their checks, and reducing float was important. Call volumes at the call
centers were similarly volatile, as were volumes in
the bill printing and mailing operations. This situation continued until someone recognized that all
these problems were interconnected and to a large
extent within the control of the firm. As it happens,
the portfolio of current customers is distributed into
about 25 cycles, one for each working day of the
month. For example, customers in the 17th cycle are
billed on the 17th working day of the month. Care is
taken to ensure that customers in the same zip code
are put in the same cycle so volume-mailing discounts from the US postal service can be obtained,
and the cycles are level loaded. However, this allocation to cycles was carried out several years back
and over time some customers had closed their
accounts while new customers had been added to
existing cycles, resulting in large differences in
the numbers of customers in the various cycles,
and in a wide variability in the printing and mailing
of monthly statements. On the remittance side, an
analysis found that there was less randomness in
customer payment behavior than one would expect.
There were broadly four cohorts of customers:
one that sent in payments on receipt of the statement, a second that mailed checks based on due
date, a third that acted based on salary payment
date, and a fourth that acted randomly. The first two
636
Because of the above, tolerance for error is significantly lower than in other industries. For example,
faulty processes resulting in incorrect calculations of
interest amounts in savings, mortgage loan, or credit
card accounts, or in inappropriate handling of stock
637
638
639
640
Asset management
o Investment research, management,
and execution
o Sales and client relationship
management
o Product development
o Marketing
Figure 2
Front
office
Middle
office
Back office
641
Asset management
- Investment research
- Portfolio and risk
management
- Sales and client
relationship
management
- Product development
Investment operations
- Billing
- Cash administration
- Client data warehouse
- Client reporting
Trade execution
- Financial
Information
eXchange (FIX)
connectivity
- Trade order
management and
execution
Fund accounting
- Daily, monthly, and adhoc reporting
- General ledger
- NAV calculation
- Reconciliation
- Security pricing
Global custody
- Assets safekeeping
- Cash availability
- Failed trade
reporting
- Income/tax
reclaims
- Reconciliation
- Trade settlement
Corporate actions
processing
Data management
OTC derivatives
processing
Performance
and analytics
- Portfolio
recordkeeping
and accounting
- Reconciliation
processing
- Transaction
management
Transfer agency
- Shareholder
servicing
642
4. Forecasting
Forecasting is very important in many areas of the
financial services industry. In its most familiar form in
which it presents itself to customers and the general
public, it consists of economic and market forecasts
developed by research and strategy groups in brokerage and investment management firms. However, the
types of forecasting we discuss tend to be more internal to the firms and not visible from the outside.
4.1. Forecasting in the Management of Cash
Deposits and Credit Lines
Deposit-taking institutions (e.g., commercial banks,
savings and loan associations, and credit unions) are
interested in forecasting the future growth of their
deposits. They use this information in the process of
determining the value and pricing of their deposit
products (e.g., checking, savings, and money market
accounts, and also CDs), for assetliability management, and for capacity considerations. Of special
interest to these institutions are demand deposits,
more broadly defined as non-maturity deposits.
Demand deposits have no stated maturity and the
depositor can add to the balance without restriction,
or withdraw from on demand, i.e., without warning
or penalty. In contrast, time deposits, also known as
CDs, have a set maturity and an amount established
at inception, with penalties for early withdrawals.
Forecasting techniques have been applied to demand
deposits because of their relative non-stickiness due to
the absence of contractual penalties. A product with
similar non-stickiness is credit card loans. Jarrow and
Van Deventers (1998) model for valuing demand
deposits and credit card loans using an arbitrage-free
methodology assumes that demand deposit balances
depend only on the future evolution of interest rates;
however, it does allow for more complexity, such as
macroeconomic variables (income or unemployment),
and local market or firm-specific idiosyncratic factors.
Janosi et al. (1999) use a commercial banks demand
deposit data and aggregate data for negotiable order
of withdrawal (NOW) accounts from the Federal
Reserve to empirically investigate Jarrow and Van Deventers model. They find demand deposit balances to be
strongly autoregressive, i.e., future balances are highly
correlated with past balances. They develop regression
models, linear in the logarithm of balances, in which
past balances, interest rates, and a time trend are predictive variables. OBrien (2000) adds income to the set
of predictive variables in the regression models. Sheehan (2004) adds month-of-the-year dummy variables in
the regressions to account for calendar-specific inflows
(e.g., bonuses or tax refunds), or outflows (e.g., tax
payments). He focuses on core deposits, i.e., checking
accounts and savings accounts; distinguishes between
the behavior of total and retained deposits; and devel-
casting involved in the decisions to adjust credit access and marketing effort to existing borrowers is
known as behavioral scoring. The book by Thomas
et al. (2002) contains a comprehensive review of the
objectives, methods, and practical implementation of
credit and behavioral scoring. The formal statistical
methods used for classifying credit applicants into
good and bad risk classes is known as classification scoring. Hand and Henley (1997) review
a significant part of the large body of literature in
classification scoring. Baesens et al. (2003) examine
the performance of standard classification algorithms,
including logistic regression, discriminant analysis,
k-nearest neighbor, neural networks, and decision trees;
they also review more recently proposed ones, such as
support vector machines and least-squares support
vector machines (LS-SVM). They find LS-SVM, and
neural network classifiers, and simpler methods such as
logistic regression and linear discriminant analysis to
have good predictive power. In addition to classification scoring, other methods include:
(i) response scoring, which aims to forecast a
prospects likelihood to respond to an offer for
credit, and
(ii) balance scoring, which forecasts the prospects likelihood of carrying a balance if they
respond.
To improve the chances of acquiring and maintaining
profitable customers, offers for credit should be mailed
only to prospects with high credit, response, and balance scores. Response and balance scoring models are
typically proprietary. Trench et al. (2003) discuss a
model for optimally managing the size and pricing of
card lines of credit at Bank One. The model uses
account-level historical transaction information to select
for each cardholder, through Markov decision processes,
annual percentage rates, and credit lines that optimize
the net present value of the banks credit portfolio.
4.2. Forecasting in Securities Brokerage, Clearing,
and Execution
In the last few decades, the securities brokerage
industry has seen dramatic change. Traditional wirehouses charging fixed commissions evolved or were
replaced by diverse organizations offering full service,
discount, and online trading channels, as well as research and investment advisory services. This
evolution has introduced a variety of channel choices
for retail and institutional investors. Pricing, service
mix and quality, and human relationships are key
determinants in the channel choice decision. Firms are
interested in forecasting channel choice decisions by
clients, because they greatly impact capacity planning,
revenue, and profitability. Altschuler et al. (2002) discuss simulation models developed for Merrill Lynchs
643
644
645
646
can induce depository institutions to respond in socially optimal ways according to the new Federal
Reserve guidelines. Mehrotra et al. (2010), which is a
paper in this special issue of Production and Operations
Management, address the problem of obtaining efficient cash management operating policies for
depository institutions under the new Federal Reserve guidelines. The mixed-integer programming
model developed for this purpose seeks to find
good operating policies, if such exist, to quantify
the monetary impact on a depository institution operating according to the new guidelines. Another
objective was to analyze to what extent the new
guidelines can discourage cross shipping and stimulate currency recirculation at the depository
institution level. Mehrotra et al. (2010a) study pricing
and logistics schemes for services such as fit-sorting
and transportation that can be offered by third-party
providers as a result of the Federal Reserves new
policies.
5.3. Other Cash Management Applications in
Banking and Securities Brokerage
US banks are required to keep on reserve a minimum
percentage (currently 10%) of deposits in client transaction accounts (demand deposits and other
checkable deposits) at the Federal Reserve. Until very
recently, banks had a strong incentive to keep funds
on reserve at a minimum, because these funds were
earning no interest. Even after the 2006 Financial Services Regulatory Relief Act became law, authorizing
payment of interest on reserves held at the Federal
Reserve, banks prefer to have funds available for their
own use rather than have them locked up on reserve.
Money market deposit accounts (MMDA) with checking allow banks to reduce the amounts on reserve at
the Federal Reserve by keeping deposits in MMDA
accounts and transferring to a companion checking
account only the amounts needed for transactions.
Only up to six transfers (sweeps) per month are
allowed from an MMDA to a checking account, and a
clients number and amount of transactions in the
days remaining in a month is unknown. Therefore, the
size and timing of the first five sweeps must be carefully calculated to avoid a sixth sweep, which will
move the remaining MMDA balance into the checking
account. Banks have been using heuristic algorithms
to plan the first five sweeps. This specialized inventory problem has been examined by Nair and
Anderson (2008), who propose a stochastic dynamic
programming model to optimize retail account
sweeps. The stochastic dynamic programming model
developed by Nair and Hatzakis (2010) introduces
cushions added to the minimum sweep amounts. It
determines the optimal cushion sizes to ensure
that sufficient funds are available in the transaction
647
648
In the early 1980s retail banks began to make extensive use of ATMs. The ATMs at a branch of a bank
behave quite differently from the human tellers. In
contrast to a teller environment, the number of ATMs
at a branch is fixed and cannot be adjusted as a
function of customer demand. However, the teller
environment and the ATM environment do have
some similarities. In both environments, a customer
can observe the length of the queue and can, therefore,
estimate the amount of time (s)he has to wait. In
neither the teller environment, nor the ATM environment, can the bank adopt a priority system that would
ensure that more valuable customers have a shorter
wait. Kolesar (1984) did an early analysis of a branch
with two ATM machines and collected service time
data as well as arrival time data. However, it became
clear very quickly that a bank of ATMs is capable of
collecting some very specific data automatically (e.g.,
customer service times and machine idle times), but
cannot keep track of certain other data (e.g., queue
lengths, customer waiting times). Larson (1990), therefore, developed the so-called queue inference engine,
which basically provides a procedure for estimating
the expected waiting times of customers, given the
service times recorded at the ATMs as well as the
machine idle times.
6.3. Waiting Lines in Call Centers
Since the late 1980s, banks have started to invest
heavily in call center technologies. All major retail
banks now operate large call centers on a 24/7 basis.
Call centers have therefore been the subject of extensive research studies, see the survey papers by Pinedo
et al. (2000), Gans et al. (2003), and Aksin et al. (2007).
The queueing system in a call center is actually quite
different from the queueing systems in a teller environment or in an ATM environment; there are a
number of major differences. First, a customer now
has no direct information with regard to the queue
length and cannot estimate his waiting time; he must
rely entirely on the information the service system
provides him. On the other hand, the service organization in a call center has detailed knowledge concerning the customers who are waiting in queue. The
institution knows of each customer his or her identity
and how valuable (s)he is to the bank. The bank can
now put the customers in separate virtual queues
with different priority levels. This new capability has
made the application of priority queueing systems
suddenly very important; well-known results in
queueing theory have now suddenly become more
applicable, see Kleinrock (1976). Second, the call
centers are in another aspect quite different from the
teller and the ATM environments. The number
of servers in either a teller environment or an ATM
environment may typically be, say, at most 20,
649
650
651
652
653
orientation has been published. In the rest of this section, we discuss the economic foundations of price
formation and attempt to link them to research in
finance on pricing practices specific to insurance,
credit, and hedge funds. We also review the meager
operations management literature on pricing in financial services, examine the challenges faced by
researchers, and propose links to other research that
might help remedy some of the issues.
9.2. Theory of Incentives and Informational Issues
in Pricing of Financial Services
By the neoclassical economic assumption of rational
individual behavior in perfect market competition,
prices for financial products and services should be
formed by:
(i) firms efforts to maximize profit, i.e., revenue
minus cost, and
(ii) consumers desire to maximize their utility
when faced with exogenous prices.
In this elegant model, information is perfectly known
and shared by all economic agents. In a setting that
more closely approximates reality, information is incomplete and asymmetrically shared, making price
formation a more complex process. The theory of incentives addresses the informational issues that arise in
the principalagent economic relationship. In such a
relationship, a principal delegates a set of tasks to an
agent who possesses special competencies to perform
the tasks and the two may have conflicting interests.
Informational issues present in a principalagent relationship include:
(i) moral hazard, whereby the agent has private information that can be used to take actions to
serve its interests; such actions may work
against the interests of the principal, who has
to assume some of these actions adverse consequences, and
(ii) adverse selection, where an agent uses private
information about its own characteristics to gain
advantage in selecting a contract offered by the
principal.
Non-verifiability is a third issue that may arise when
the principal and the agent share information that
cannot be verified by a third party, for example, a
court of law. The related free-rider problem refers to
asymmetric sharing of benefits and costs in resource
usage among economic agents. The principalagent
model addresses the design of contracts with appropriate incentives to best align the interests of principal
and agent in the presence of the informational issues
of moral hazard, adverse selection, and non-verifiability.
Laffont and Martimort (2002) focus on the situation of
654
655
656
657
Production and Operations Management 19(6), pp. 633664, r 2010 Production and Operations Management Society
Process realm
Retail banking
Acquisition/origination
Campaign management
Strategic processes
Delinquent customer
management
Collections
Product design
Service/process
design
Account type
Branch location and
offerings and design rationalization
Deposit product operations Teller, ATM, and online operations Recovery operations
Outsourcing / insourcing
Treasury operations
Risk management
Capacity issues
Technology issues
Loan syndication
Defaulted borrower
management
Credit facility
offerings
Lending operations
Recovery operations
Revolver, term,
bridge, letter of
credit, etc.
Risk management
Outsourcing / insourcing
Credit, liquidity,
operational
Capacity issues
Technology issues
Insurance
Acquisition planning
Policy maintenance
Product design
Product offerings
Solicitation management
Recovery operations
Insurance policy
types
Outsourcing / insourcing
Application processing
Annuity products
Capacity issues
Underwriting
Property disposal
(auto auctions, etc.)
Technology issues
Risk management
Operational
Credit cards
Statement operations
Collections
Card offerings
management
Facilities location
Remittance processing
Recovery operations
Risk management
Capacity issues
Technology issues
Credit, operational
Continued
658
Production and Operations Management 19(6), pp. 633664, r 2010 Production and Operations Management Society
Appendix A (Continued)
Operational processes
Process realm
Mortgage
banking
Acquisition/origination
Strategic processes
Delinquent customer
management
Product design
Mortgage origination
Collections
Product offerings
Facilities location
Securitization
Remittance processing
Foreclosure management
Term, APR
Secondary market
operations
Recovery operations
Risk management
Outsourcing/insourcing
Capacity issues
Credit, operational
Brokerage/
investment
advisory
Service/process
design
Client prospecting
Technology issues
Collections operations
Client litigation
Anti-money laundering
Commission management
Recovery operations
Account offerings
management
Margin lending
Technology issues
Trust services
Investment manager
due diligence
Pricing structures
Collections operations
New product/fund
design
Organization design
Pricing structures
Custodian operations
Recovery operations
Share class/series
management
Fund administration
Outsourcing/insourcing
Operational risk
management
Fund accounting
Capacity issues
Anti-money laundering
Valuation operations
Infrastructure,
implementation
Technology issues
Anti-money laundering
Processes in bold have been addressed in operations management literature.
Processes in italics have received less attention in the operations management literature.
References
Akerlof, G. A. 1970. The market for lemons: Quality uncertainty
and the market mechanism. Q. J. Econ. 84(3): 488500.
Akerlof, G. A., R. D. Milbourne. 1978. New calculations of income
and interest elasticities in Tobins model of the transactions demand for money. Rev. Econ. Stat. 60(4): 541546.
Aksin, O. Z., M. Armony, V. Mehrotra. 2007. The modern call-center:
A multi-disciplinary perspective on operations management
research. Prod. Oper. Manag. 16(6): 665688.
Aldor-Noiman, S., P. D. Feigin, A. Mandelbaum. 2009. Workload
forecasting for a call center methodology and a case study. Ann.
Appl. Stat. 3(4): 14031447.
., M. Hatzakis, R. Tutuncu. 2010. A best practices
Alptuna, U
framework for operational infrastructure and controls in asset
management. Pinedo, M. ed. Operational Control in Asset Man-
Anson, M. J. P. 2001. Hedge fund incentive fees and the free option.
J. Altern. Invest. 4(2): 4348.
Antelman, G. R., I. R. Savage. 1965. Surveillance problems: Wiener
process. Nav. Res. Logist. Q. 12(1): 3555.
Antipov, A., N. Meade. 2002. Forecasting call frequency at a financial services call centre. J. Oper. Res. Soc. 53(9): 953960.
Apte, A., U. M. Apte, R. P. Beatty, I. C. Sarkar, J. H. Semple. 2004.
The impact of check sequencing on NSF (not-sufficient funds)
fees. Interfaces 34(2): 97105.
Apte, U., R. A. Cavaliere, S. S. Kulkarni. 2010. Analysis and improvement of information intensive services: Evidence from
insurance claims handling. Prod. Oper. Manag. 19(6): 665678.
Apte, U., C. Maglaras, M. Pinedo. 2008. Operations in the service
industries: Introduction to the special issue. Prod. Oper. Manag.
17(3): 235237.
Arfelt, K. 2010. Lean six sigma in asset management: A way to cut
costs? Pinedo, M. ed. Operational Control in Asset Management
Processes and Costs. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 6087.
Armony, M., C. Maglaras. 2004. Contact centers with a call-back option and real-time delay information. Oper. Res. 52(4): 527545.
Arvedlund, E. 2009. Too Good to be True: The Rise and Fall of Bernie
Madoff. Portfolio Hardcover. Penguin Publishing, New York.
Asset Managers Committee to the Presidents Working Group on Financial Markets. 2009. Best practices for the hedge fund industry.
Available at http://www.amaicmte.org/Public/AMC%20Report%
20-%20Final.pdf (accessed date August 3, 2009).
Athanassopoulos, A. D., D. Giokas. 2000. The use of data envelopment
analysis in banking institutions: Evidence from the Commercial
Bank of Greece. Interfaces 30(2): 8195.
Athey, S., P. A. Haile. 2002. Identification of standard auction
models. Econometrica 70(6): 21072140.
Avramidis, A. N., A. Deslauriers, P. LEcuyer. 2004. Modeling daily
arrivals to a telephone call center. Manage. Sci. 50(7): 896908.
Bagchi, K., G. Udo. 2003. An analysis of the growth of computer and
internet security breaches. Comm. of AIS 12: 684700.
Bailey, J. V. 1990. Some thoughts on performance-based fees. Financ.
Anal. J. 46(4): 3140.
Balasubramanian, S., P. Konana, N. M. Menon. 2003. Customer satisfaction in virtual environments: A study of online investing.
Manage. Sci. 49(7): 871889.
Barlow, R., F. Proschan. 1975. Statistical Theory of Reliability and Life
TestingProbability Models. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New
York.
Barth, W., M. Manitz, R. Stolletz. 2010. Analysis of two-level support
systems with time-dependent overflowa banking application.
Prod. Oper. Manag. 19(6): 757768.
Basel Committee. 2003. Sound practices for the management and
supervision of operational risk. Bank for International Settlements, Basel Committee Publications No. 96.
Baesens, B., T. Van Gestel, S. Viaene, M. Stepanova, J. Suykens, J.
Vanthienen. 2003. Benchmarking state-of-the-art classification
algorithms for credit scoring. J. Oper. Res. Soc. 54(6): 627635.
Bassamboo, A., J. M. Harrison, A. Zeevi. 2005. Dynamic routing and
admission control in high-volume service systems: Asymptotic
analysis via multi-scale fluid limits. J. Queueing Syst. 51(34):
249285.
Bauer, P. W., A. Burnetas, V. CVSA, G. Reynolds. 2000. Optimal
use of scale economies in the Federal Reserves currency infrastructure. Econ. Rev. (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) 36(3):
1327.
Bather, I. A. 1966. A continuous time inventory model. J. App. Prob.
3: 538549.
Baumol, W. J. 1952. The transactions demand for cash: An inventory
theoretic approach. Q. J. Econ. 66(4): 545556.
659
Bensoussan, A., A. Chutani, S. P. Sethi. 2009. Optimal cash management under uncertainty. Oper. Res. Lett. 37(6): 425429.
Berger, A. N., D. D. Humphrey. 1997. Efficiency of financial institutions: International survey and directions for future research.
Eur. J. Oper. Res. 98(2): 175212.
Bertsimas, D., A. Lo. 1998. Optimal control of execution costs.
J. Financ. Mark. 1: 150.
Bhulai, S., G. Koole, A. Pot. 2008. Simple methods for shift scheduling in multiskill call centers. Manuf. Serv. Oper. Manage. 10(3):
411420.
Biggs, J. 2010. Management of risk, technology and costs in a multiline asset management business. Pinedo, M. ed. Operational
Control in Asset ManagementProcesses and Costs. Palgrave
Macmillan, New York, 88107.
Bitran, G. R., J.-C. Ferrer, P. Rocha e Oliviera. 2008. Managing customer experiences: Perspectives on the temporal aspects of
service encounters. Manuf. Serv. Oper. Manage. 10(1): 6183.
Black, K. H. 2007. Preventing and detecting hedge fund failure risk
through partial transparency. Derivatives Use, Trading and Regulation 12(4): 330341.
Boeschoten, W. C., M. M. G. Fase. 1992. The demand for large bank
notes. J. Money, Credit Bank. 24(3): 319337.
Bohn, J., D. Hancock, P. W. Bauer. 2001. Estimates of scale and cost
efficiency for Federal Reserve currency operations. Econ. Rev.
(Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) 37(4): 226.
Bollapragada, S., S. K. Nair. 2010. Improving right party contact
rates at outbound call centers. Prod. Oper. Manag. 19(6): 769779.
Bortoli, L. G., A. Frino, E. Jarnecic. 2004. Differences in the cost of
trade execution services on floor-based and electronic futures
markets. J. Financ. Serv. Res. 26(1): 7387.
Boyd, E. A. 2008. Challenges faced by researchers in pricing. Lecture
series of the Center for Analytical Research in Technology
(CART), Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University, February 5. Available at http://mat.tepper.cmu.edu/blog/
?p=230 (accessed date April 25, 2010).
Boyer, K. K., R. Hallowell, A. V. Roth. 2002. E-services operating
strategya case study and a method for analyzing operational
benefits. J. Oper. Manage. 20(2): 175188.
Brazier, F. M. T., C. M. Jonker, F. J. Jungen, J. Treur. 1999. Distributed
scheduling to support a call centre: A co-operative multi-agent
approach. Appl. Artif. Intell. J. 13, Special Issue on Multi-Agent
Systems. H. S. Nwana and D. T. Ndumu (eds.), 6590.
Brown, L., N. Gans, A. Mandelbaum, A. Sakov, H. Shen, S. Zeltyn, L.
Zhao. 2005. Statistical analysis of a telephone call center:
A queueing-science perspective. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 100(469):
3650.
Brown, S. J., W. N. Goetzmann, B. Liang, C. Schwartz. 2009a. Estimating operational risk for hedge funds: The o score. Financ.
Anal. J. 65(1): 4353.
Brown, S. J., W. N. Goetzmann, B. Liang, C. Schwartz. 2009b. Trust
and delegation. NBER Working Paper No. w15529. Available at
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1510479
(accessed date September 4, 2010).
Buell, R., D. Campbell, F. Frei. 2010. Are self-service customers satisfied or stuck? Prod. Oper. Manag. 19(6): 679697.
Camerer, C. F. 2003. Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic
Interaction. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Campbell, D., F. Frei. 2010a. Cost structure patterns in the asset
management industry. Pinedo, M. ed. Operational Control in
Asset ManagementProcesses and Costs. Palgrave Macmillan,
New York, 154168.
Campbell, D., F. Frei. 2010b. Cost structure, customer profitability,
and retention implications of self-service distribution channels:
Evidence from customer behavior in an online banking channel.
Manage. Sci. 56(1): 424.
660
661
Heskett, J. L., T. O. Jones, G. W. Loveman, W. E. Sasser, L. A. Schlesinger. 1994. Putting the service-profit chain to work. Harv. Bus.
Rev. 72(2): 164174.
Hitt, L. M., F. X. Frei. 2002. Do better customers utilize electronic
distribution channels? The case of PC banking. Manage. Sci.
48(6): 732748.
Holton, G. A. 2006. Investor suffrage movement. Financ. Anal. J.
62(6): 1520.
Hong, K.-S., Y.-P. Chi, L. R. Chao, J.-H. Tang. 2003. An integrated
system theory of information security management. Inf. Manage. Comput. Secur. 11(5): 243248.
Hume, D. A. 1740. A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford University
Press (2000 Edition).
Humphrey, D. B., L. B. Pulley, J. M. Vesala. 2000. The checks in the
mail: Why the United States lags in the adoption of cost-saving
electronic payments. J. Financ. Serv. Res. 17(1): 1719.
Janosi, T., R. Jarrow, F. Zullo. 1999. An empirical analysis of the
Jarrow-van Deventer model for valuing non-maturity demand
deposits. J. Deriv. 7(1): 831.
Jarrow, R. A. 2008. Operational risk. J. Bank. Finance 32(5): 870879.
Jarrow, R. A., J. Oxman, Y. Yildirim. 2010. The cost of operational
risk loss insurance. Review of Derivatives Research. 13(3): 273295.
Jarrow, R. A., D. R. van Deventer. 1998. The arbitrage-free valuation
and hedging of demand deposits and credit card loans. J. Bank.
Finance 22(3): 249272.
Jewell, W. S. 1974. Operations research in the insurance industry: 1.
A survey of applications. Oper. Res. 22(5): 918928.
Jones, P. 1988. Quality, capacity and productivity in service industries. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 7(2): 104112.
Jongbloed, G., G. M. Koole. 2001. Managing uncertainty in call centers using Poisson mixtures. Appl. Stoch. Models Bus. Ind. 17(4):
307318.
Kantor, J., S. Maital. 1999. Measuring efficiency by product group:
Integrating DEA with activity-based accounting in a large Mideast bank. Interfaces 29(3): 2736.
Katz, K. L., B. M. Larson, R. C. Larson. 1991. Prescription for the
waiting-in-line blues: Entertain, enlighten, and engage. Sloan
Manage. Rev. 32: 4453.
Kekre, S., N. Secomandi, E. Sonmez, K. West. 2009. Balancing risk
and efficiency at a major commercial bank. Manuf. Serv. Oper.
Manage. 11(1): 160173.
Kleinrock, L. 1976. Queueing SystemsVolume 2: Computer Applications. Wiley Interscience, New York.
Koetter, M. 2006. Measurement matters - Alternative input price
proxies for bank efficiency analyses. J. Financ. Serv. Res. 30(2):
199227.
Kolesar, P. 1984. Stalking the endangered CAT: A Queueing analysis of
congestion at automatic teller machines. Interfaces 14(6): 1626.
Koopmans, T. C. 1949. Identification problems in economic model
construction. Econometrica 17(2): 125144.
Krishnan, M. S., V. Ramaswamy, M. C. Meyer, P. Damien. 1999.
Customer satisfaction for financial services: The role of products services and information technology. Manage. Sci. 45(9):
11941209.
Kritzman, M. P. 1987. Incentive fees: Some problems and some
solutions. Financ. Anal. J. 43(1): 2126.
Kundro, C., S. Feffer. 2003. Understanding and mitigating operational risk in hedge fund investments. Capco Institute, White
paper series. Available at http://www.capco.com/content/
knowledge-ideas?q=content/research (accessed date August
31, 2009).
Kundro, C., S. Feffer. 2004. Valuation issues and operational risk in
hedge funds. Capco Institute, Working paper. Available at http://
www.capco.com/files/pdf/74/02_RISKS/04_Valuation%20issues
662
%20and%20operational%20risk%20in%20hedge%20funds.pdf
(accessed date August 31, 2009).
Labe, R. 1994. Database marketing increases prospecting effectiveness at Merrill Lynch. Interfaces 24(5): 112.
Labe, R., I. Papadakis. 2010. Propensity score matching applied to
financial service analytics. Bank of America Working paper.
Ladany, S. P. 1997. Optimal banknote replenishing policy by an
issuing bank. Int. Trans. Oper. Res. 4(1): 112.
Laffont, J.-J., D. M. Martimort. 2002. The Theory of Incentives: The
PrincipalAgent Model. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Larson, R. C. 1987. Perspectives on queues: Social justice and the
psychology of queueing. Oper. Res. 35(6): 895905.
Larson, R. C. 1990. The queue inference engine: Deducing queue
statistics from transactional data. Manage. Sci. 36(5): 586601.
Larson, R. C., E. J. Pinker. 2000. Staffing challenges in financial services.
Melnick, E., P. Nayyar, M. Pinedo, S. Seshadri, eds. Creating
Value in Financial ServicesStrategies. Operations and Technologies. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell. MA, 327356.
Lee, D. K. C., S. Lwi, K. F. Phoon. 2004. An equitable structure for
hedge fund incentive fees. J. Investing 13(3): 3143.
Lee, E.-J., D. B. Eastwood, J. Lee. 2004. A sample selection model of
consumer adoption of computer banking. J. Financ. Serv. Res.
26(3): 263275.
Levecq, H., B. W. Weber. 2002. Electronic trading systems: Strategic
implications of market design choices. J. Organ. Comput.
Electron. Commerce 12(1): 85103.
Li, C. W., A. Tiwari. 2009. Incentive contracts in delegated portfolio
management. Rev. Financ. Stud. 22(11): 46814714.
Lynch, A. W., D. K. Musto. 1997. Understanding fee structures in
the asset management business. NYU Working Paper No. FIN98-050, Department of Finance, Stern School of Business, New
York University.
Managed Funds Association. 2009. Sound practices for hedge fund
managers. Available at http://www.managedfunds.org/files/
pdfs/MFA_Sound_Practices_2009.pdf (accessed date August
3, 2009).
Mandelbaum, A., A. Sakov, S. Zeltyn. 2001. Empirical analysis of a
call center. Technical report. Available at http://iew3.technion.
ac.il/serveng/References/ccdata.pdf (accessed date March 20,
2010).
Manski, C. F. 1995. Identification Problems in the Social Sciences. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Massey, W. A., G. A. Parker, W. Whitt. 1996. Estimating the parameters of a nonhomogeneous Poisson process with linear rate.
Telecommun. Syst. 5(2): 361388.
Massoud, N. 2005. How should central banks determine and control
their bank note inventory? J. Bank. Finance 29(12): 30993119.
Meester, G. A., A. Mehrotra, H. P. Natarajan, M. J. Seifert. 2010.
Optimal configuration of a service delivery network: An application to a financial services provider. Prod. Oper. Manag. 19(6):
725741.
Mehrotra, M., M. Dawande, V. Mookerjee, C. Sriskandarajah. 2010a
Pricing and logistics decisions for a private-sector provider in
the cash supply chain. University of Texas at Dallas Working
paper.
Mehrotra, M., M. Dawande., C. Sriskandarajah. 2010. A depository
institutions optimal currency supply network under the Feds
new guidelines: Operating policies, logistics and impact. Prod.
Oper. Manag. 19(6): 709724.
Mehrotra, V., J. Fama. 2003. Call center simulation modeling: Methods, challenges and opportunities. Proceedings of the 2003 Winter
Simulation Conference, 1: 135143.
.O
zluk, R. Saltzman. 2010. Intelligent procedures for
Mehrotra, V., O
intra-day updating of call center agent schedules. Prod. Oper.
Manag. 19(3): 353367.
663
Smith, A. 1776. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
Nations. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK (2008 edition).
Smith, G. W. 1989. Transactions demand for money with a stochastic
time-varying interest rate. Rev. Econ. Stud. 56(4): 623633.
Smith, J. S., K. R. Karwan, R. E. Markland. 2007. A note on the
growth of research in service operations management. Prod.
Oper. Manag. 16(6): 780790.
So, K. C., C. Tang, R. Zavala. 2003. Models for improving
team productivity at the Federal Reserve Bank. Interfaces
33(2): 2536.
Soteriou, A., S. A. Zenios. 1999a. Operations, quality and profitability in the provision of banking services. Manage. Sci. 45(9):
12211238.
Soteriou, A., S. A. Zenios. 1999b. Using data envelopment analysis
for costing bank products. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 114(2): 234248.
Soyer, R., M. M. Tarimcilar. 2008. Modeling and analysis of call
center arrival data: A Bayesian approach. Manage. Sci. 54(2):
266278.
Spohrer, J., P. P. Maglio. 2008. The emergence of service science:
Toward systematic service innovations to accelerate co-creation
of value. Prod. Oper. Manag. 17(3): 238246.
Sprenkle, C. M. 1969. The uselessness of transactions demand models.
J. Finance 24(5): 835847.
Sprenkle, C. M. 1977. The uselessness of transaction demand models:
Comment. J. Finance 32(1): 227230.
State Street. 2009. Outsourcing investment operations: Managing
expense and supporting strategic growth. State Street Vision
Series, May. Available at http://www.statestreet.com/
knowledge/vision/2009/2009_oio.pdf (accessed date August
22, 2009).
Steckley, S. G., S. G. Henderson, V. Mehrotra. 2004. Service system
planning in the presence of a random arrival rate. Working
paper, Department of Operations Research and Industrial
Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Steckley, S. G., S. G. Henderson, V. Mehrotra. 2009. Forecast errors in
service systems. Probab. Eng. Inf. Sci. 23(2): 305332.
Stiglitz, J. 1977. Monopoly, non-linear pricing and imperfect
information: The insurance market. Rev. Econ. Stud. 44(3):
407430.
Stiglitz, J. E., A. Weiss. 1981. Credit rationing in markets with imperfect information. Am. Econ. Rev. 71(3): 393410.
Stoll, H. R. 2006. Electronic trading in stock markets. J. Econ.
Perspect. 20(1): 153174.
Stoll, H. R. 2008. Future of securities markets: Competition or consolidation? Financ. Anal. J. 64(6): 1526.
Stolletz, R. 2003. Performance Analysis and Optimization of Inbound
Call Centers. Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems
528. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Straub, D. W., R. J. Welke. 1998. Coping with systems risk security
planning models for management decision making. MIS Q.
22(4): 441470.
Stulz, R. M. 2007. Hedge funds: Past, present, and future. J. Econ.
Perspect. 21(2): 175194.
Talluri, K., G. Van Ryzin. 2004. Revenue management under a general discrete choice model of consumer behavior. Manage. Sci.
50(1): 1533.
Talluri, K. T., G. J. Van Ryzin. 2005. The Theory and Practice of Revenue
Management. Springer, New York.
Taylor, J. W. 2008. A comparison of univariate time series methods
for forecasting intraday arrivals at a call center. Manage. Sci.
54(2): 253265.
Thomas, L. C. 2009. Consumer Credit Models: Pricing, Profit and Portfolios. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
664
Weber, B. W. 2006. Adoption of electronic trading at the International Securities Exchange. Decis. Support Syst. 41(4): 728746.
Wei, R. 2006. Quantification of operational losses using firm-specific
information and external database. J. Oper. Risk 1(4): 133.
Weinberg, J., L. D. Brown, J. R. Stroud. 2007. Bayesian forecasting of
an inhomogeneous Poisson process with applications to call
center data. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 102(480): 11851198.
Weitzman, M. 1968. A model of the demand for money by firms:
Comment. Q. J. Econ. 82(1): 161164.
Whalen, E. L. 1966. A rationalization of the precautionary demand
for cash. Q. J. Econ. 80(2): 314324.
Whistler, W. D. 1967. A stochastic inventory model for rented
equipment. Manage. Sci. 13(9): 640647.
Whitman, M. E. 2004. In defense of the realm: Understanding
threats to information security. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 24(1): 4357.
Whitt, W. 1999a. Dynamic staffing in a telephone call center aiming
to immediately answer all calls. Oper. Res. Lett. 24(5): 205212.
Whitt, W. 1999b. Predicting queueing delays. Manage. Sci. 45(6):
870888.
Whitt, W. 2006. Fluid models for many-server queues with abandonments. Oper. Res. 54(1): 3754.
Wuebker, G., M. Koderisch, D. Smith-Gallas, J. Baumgarten. 2008.
Price Management in Financial Services: Smart Strategies for
Growth. Gower Publishing, Farnham, UK.
Xu, W. 2000. Long range planning for call centers at Fedex. J. Bus.
Forecast. Methods Syst. 18(4): 711.
Xue, M., L. M. Hitt, P. T. Harker. 2007. Customer efficiency, channel
usage, and firm performance in retail banking. Manuf. Serv.
Oper. Manage. 9(4): 535558.
Zenios, C. V., S. A. Zenios, K. Agathocleous, A. C. Soteriou. 1999.
Benchmarks of the efficiency of bank branches. Interfaces 29(3):
3751.
Zhu, J. 2003. Imprecise data envelopment analysis (IDEA): A review
and improvement with an application. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 144(3):
513529.
Zohar, E., A. Mandelbaum, N. Shimkin. 2002. Adaptive behavior of
impatient customers in tele-queues: Theory and empirical support. Manage. Sci. 48(4): 566583.