The African Archaeological Review,

3 (1985), pp. 95-116

Radiocarbon Chronology of Neolithic

and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and
the Delta
F E K R I A. H A S S A N

Abstract
Critical evaluation, tree-ring calibration, and statistical analysis of 95 radiocarbon dates
from neolithic and predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta provide the following
average age estimates in calendrical years BC.
Early Fayum Neolithic
c a 5200 to 4500 BC
Early Merimda Neolithic
ca 4800 BC
Late Merimda Neolithic
i> 4400 BC
Late Fayum Neolithic
ca 4000 BC
Late Badarian? (Hemamieh)
c a 4400/4000 BC
Early Nagada (Nagada)
c a 3750 BC
Hierakonpolis (Locs 11 & 29)
c a 3550 BC
c a 3450 BC
Late Nagada (South Town)
Other sites or periods are not adequately dated. In addition, further dates are needed to
bolster this t e n l a t i v e framework.

R4sum4
La calibration par dendrochronologie et l'analyse statistique de 95 datations par radiocarbone des sites n6olithiques et pr~dynastiques de la haute Egypte et du Delta, ainsi qu'une
6valuation critique, offrent les estimations moyennes suivantes en ann6es calendaires BC:
ca 5200 a 4500 BC
N6olithique ancien du Fayoum
Nfiolithique ancien ~ Merimda
ca 4800 BC
Nfiolithique tardif ?t Merimda
i> 440O BC
Nfiotithique tardifdu Fayoum
c a 4000 BC
Badarien tardif? (Hemamieh)
ca 4400/4000 BC
Nagadien tardif (Nagada)
ca 3750 BC
Hierakonpolis (Locs 11 et 29)
ca 3550 BC
Nagadien tardif (South Town)
ca 3450 BC
Les autres sites ou pfriodes ne sont pas aussi bien dat6s pour l'instant, de plus, des
datations supplfimentaires sont requises afin de soutenir cet essai de chronologie.

96

Fekri A. Hassan

Introduction
The emergence of Egyptian civilization was preceded by the introduction of agriculture in
the Nile Valley and a sequence of cultural events documented at many sites from the Delta to
Nubia (Fig. 1). Since investigation of those sites commonly referred to as Neolithic in the
Delta and Predynastic in Upper Egypt began well before radiometric dating, the chronology
of agricuhural pre-pharaonic sites was based on a scheme of relative dating initially devised
by Petrie (1900, 1901, 1920) and further modified by others (e.g. Kaiser 1956, 1957). This
scheme, known as sequence dating, led to the recognition of an early Predynastic ceramic
assemblage zone near Assyut called the Badarian, a middle Predynastic unit called the
Amratian or Nagada I, a late Predynastic unit called the Gerzean or Nagada II, and a
terminal Predynastic unit called the Semainian or Nagada III. In the Delta, agricultural
settlements at Merimda Beni Salama are referred to as Neolithic. In the Fayum, the main
agricultural communities belong to the Fayum Neolithic (previously referred to as Fayum
Neolithic A to differentiate it from a supposed Fayum Neolithic B, shown by more recent
investigations [Wendorf and Schild 1976] to represent final Palaeolithic occupations).

2'8"

~"

MEDITERRANEAN

,9:z~

SEA

"('

SUDAN

,~
o

50 leo tso ado z~o

Figure 1 Map showing location of radiocarbon dated Egyptian Neolithic and

Predynastic sites in the Nile Valley: 1. Merirnda Beni Salama; 2. North Fayum sites
(Upper K, Site R, Kom W, Qasr el Sagha); 3. West Fayum sites (FS-1, FS-2, FS-3); 4.
Maadi; 5. E1-Omari; 6. Hemamieh; 7. E1-Salamoni; 8. Mahgar Canal Sites (1 and 2); 9.
Nagada Sites (North Town, South Town, Nagada cemeteries, KH1, KH6, KH3; 10. E1Tarif Sites; l 1. Hierakonpolis; 12. EI-Kah.

Radiocarbon Chronology of Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta

97

Settlements in the Fayum with some affinities to the Predynastic of Upper Egypt are referred
to either as Predynastic (Caton-Thompson and Gardner 1934; Wenke et al. 1983), or Late
Neolithic (Ginter et al. 1982).
Although a reliable method of relative dating such as the sequence dating method is a
pragmatic and useful tool, there is no substitute for a chronometric framework as a basis for
comparison of cultural developments in different regions, for interpretation of the connections between early agricultural communities along the Nile in Egypt with earlier indigenous
cultures and with those from surrounding areas, and for understanding the relationship
between environmental change and the rise of Egyptian civilization. Reliance on relative
dating has led to many different interpretations of the sequence of events (e.g. Baumgartel
1965; Arkell and Ucko 1965; Arkell 1975; Krzyzaniak 1977). Controversy over the basic
chronological framework of early farming communities along the Nile Valley undermines
any attempt to construct credible models of the cultural changes that led to the rise of
Egyptian civilization (Hassan 1976, 1978).
Unfortunately, the advent of radiocarbon dating in the 1950s, which was applied by Libby
(1955) to materials collected by Petrie at Nagada and by Caton-Thompson and Gardner at
the Fayum, was met with considerable skepticism because of the inaccuracies resulting from
the solid carbon method now replaced by more sensitive and f~r more accurate methods, the
use of a half-life of 5568 years, the failure, because of lack of information, to differentiate
between radiocarbon and calendrical years, and the choice of what we now consider
inappropriate or suspect substances (see discussion by Long 1976). The situation was
complicated by a lack of appreciation of the statistical nature of radiocarbon dates.
Moreover, since the uncalibrated chronometric data did not in some cases fit with subjective
views of the chronology of Neolithic and Predynastic cultures, the credibility of the new
technique was severely compromised.
Although there are now numerous age determinations on the Neolithic and Predynastic
sites of Egypt, their number is still hardly enough to develop a detailed, firm chronological
framework. However, the dates are sufficient to present a general, tentative chronometric
scheme, and to generate a sense of the indispensable importance of radiocarbon dating in
understanding the development of Egyptian civilization. It is my aim here to evaluate the
radiocarbon age determinations on Neolithic and Predynastic materials from the Delta and
Upper Egypt, and to derive estimates of the most probable chronological age of the main sites
and divisions of the Neolithic/Predynastic period. Although inventories of radiocarbon dates
from Neolithic and Predynastic sites have been listed and discussed by Kantor (1965),
Derricourt (1971), Flight (1973), and Close (1980, 1984) no attempt has yet been made to
provide a statistical evaluation of the data and to take advantage of the tree-ring corrections
now available. I aim here to provide an up-to-date list of dates with corrections, and to
construct from a statistical examination of the corrected dates a general chronological
framework for Predynastic Egypt.
The known dates and their calibrations are presented in Table 1. Two sets of corrections
are given, one based on the tables of Damon et al. (1974), the other on those by Klein et al.
(1982). The corrected dates from both tables and from the MASCA tables (Ralph et al. 1976)
differ in most cases by no more than a few decades, and are not significantly different in
statistical terms. Unfortunately, the latest calibration tables by Klein et al. (1982) provide a
range rather than a midpoint and a standard deviation. Although this is understandable

Lab. No.

Maadi
Maadi
Late Neolithic C L X V A
(Predynastic)
CXXXA

4730+60
5010_+50

Beta-2805

5255 + 230

5430+120
5550-+ 100
5 6 4 0 + 100
5260-+90
6130_+110
5710+700(R)
3630_+ 100(R)
4 5 6 0 + 140(R)
5750+100
5580-+ 230
5 9 7 0 + 120
5 9 4 0 + 100
5830-+60
5790+60
5890_+60
5590+60
5760_+60

Radiocarbon
age (bp)
5568 half-life

Beta-2804

C-463

M e r i m d a Beni S a l a m a
T 4 : - 6 0 cm BS
U-10A
T4:--60 cm BS
U-10B
T 4 : - 6 0 cm BS
U-73
T T 2 : - 7 5 cm BS
WSU-1846
?: - 1 8 0 cm BS
U-6
RI: - 1 8 0 cm BS
U-7
T 4 : - 1 8 0 cm BS
U-31
T 4 : - 1 8 0 cm BS
U-32
T T 2 : - 1 0 2 cm BS
W-4355
A18
U-8
?l
U-9A
?
U-9B
M e r i m d a I. 1
KN-3275
M e r i m d a 1.2
KN-3276
M e r i m d a 1.3
KN-3277
M e r i m d a V.1
KN-3278
M e r i m d a V.2
KN-3279

EI-Omari
El-Omari
Late Neolithic A15
(Predynastic)

Merimda
Neolithic

Delta

Site a n d
provenience

3835_+ 120

3 5 0 5 + 110

4110 + 260

4295+175
4425+205
4515-+205
4115___155(?) 1
5005+125
---4630+130
4455 + 290
4 8 5 0 + 135
4820-+ 115
4 7 1 0 + 105
4 6 7 0 + 105
4750_+ 105
4465+105
4640_+ 105

3925-3655

3770-3360

4435-3670

4520-3910
4560-4410
4715-4363
4395-3800
5305-4895
---4925-4450
4900-3925
5220~570
5205--4560
4975-4550
49204450
50704560
4555-4170
4895-4440

Corrected
age (BC)
D a m o n et al.
Klein et al.

R a d i o c a r b o n chronology of Predynastic a n d Neolithic sites in the Nile Valley, Egypt

Region and
archaeological
group

Table 1

Grain

Wood

Ch

Grain
Grain
Grain
Grain
Ch
Ch
Ba
Bc
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch

Material 2

comm.
comm.
comm.
comm.
comm.

New Date

New Date

A r n o l d & L i b b y 1951

Olsson 1959
Olsson 1959
Olsson 1959
New Date
Olsson 1959
O l s s o n 1959
Olsson 1959
Olsson 1959
New Date
Olsson 1959
Olsson 1959
Olsson 1959
Breunig pers.
Breunig pers.
Breunig pers.
Breunig pers.
Breunig pers.

Reference

.D

VID/80
VIIA/80
VIIA/80
VIIA/80
QS-X/81

Gd-903
Gd-895
Gd-977
Gd-915
Gd-978

GD-693
Bln-2325
Gd-708
B ln-2333
Gd-1140
Bln-2334
Gd-2021
Gd-1499
Gd-1497
Gd-979
Gd-980
Gd- 1495

C-457
C-550 &
C-551
1-4131
1-4127
BM-530

5410__+ 110
5070+ 110
5480+ 100
5160+120
5330+-100

4275+ 170
3900+ 150
4350+205
4005+160
4189+160

4870+85
4955+-80
-4430+ 190
4410+-190
4520+190
5350+-115
5250+105
5195+-105
5164+-135
5164+- 140
4525 +- 190

4740+-145
4690+-145
4255+-135

5860+-115
5810i15
5388+-45

5990_+60
6075+-50
6040-+650(R)
5555+-60
5540+70
5645+-55
6480+-70
6380+-60
6320+-60
6290-100
6290+- 1 l0
5650+ 70

4970+-250
5260+-200

6095250
6391+- 180

4435-3900
4110-3660
4540-3945
4345-3680
4415-3875

5210-4730
5255-4895
-4545-4380
4555-3990
4685-4405
5660-5210
5560-5095
5510-5055
5505-4980
55054980
4685-4405

5070--4540
5020-4435
4415-3910

5515-4435
5675-5960

Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch

Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch

Ch
Ch
Wood

Grain
Grain

1. (R) = date rejected; (?) = date suspected; ? = information missing

2. Abbreviations: Ch = charcoal; Ba = bone apatite; Bc = bone collagen
3 Based on the apparent age of a modern Etheria elliptica shell, 150 years were subtracted before correction (Burleigh 1982)

Fayum Late
Neolithic

Qasr el Sagha
V/79(I/AB/47)
V/79(AB/47)
1/79
1/79: 1.45m
1/79: 1.70m
1/79: 1.75m
QS XI/81
QS IX/81
QS X/81-1
QS X / 8 1 - 2
QS X / 8 1 - 5
VIE/81

Fayum Neolithic U p p e r K
Pit 13
Pit 59 &
U n n u m b e r e d pit
Site R
Kom W
2930'N/3030'E

North Fayum

Ginter
Ginter
Ginter
Ginter
Ginter

pers. comm.
pers. comm.
pers. comm.

et al. 1982
et al. 1982

Ginter et al. 1982

Ginter et al. 1982
Ginter et al. 1982
Ginter et al. 1982
Ginter et al. 1982
Ginter et al. 1982
Ginter, pers. comm.
Ginter, pers. comm.
Ginter, pers. comm.
Ginter, pers. comm.
Ginter, pers. comm.
Ginter, pers. comm.

Wendorfet al. 1970

Wendorfet al. 1970
Flight 1973
Barker et al. 1971

Libby 1955
Libby 1955

Cont.

Upper Egypt
Predynastic of
U p p e r Egypt

West Fayum
Predynastic

Region a n d
archaeological
group

Table 1

4920+90
4600+80
4730+70
4680+60

W-4347
W-4349
W-4350

5110+75

TX-2465

Lv-1312

Mahgar Canal 2

3180+60(R)

4990+80

Lv-1313

Mahgar Canal 1

4810+50

5290+130
5780 + 100

5 1 1 0 + 160

5475+70

4 9 6 0 + 160

5160+70

Radiocarbon
age (bp)
5568 half-life

WSU-2257

Lv-1236

Mahgar Canal 1

North Town
78-165A
South T o w n
SW
N W Test Pit A
10-15 cm BS
35-40 cm BS
65-70 cm BS

WSU-1728
Lv- 1237

Hemamieh
E1-Salamoni

Beta-4874

FS-3
GrN-223

Beta-4182

FS--3

Hemamieh

Beta-4181

Lab. No.

FS-1

Site a n d
provenience

3355+120
3505+115
3 4 4 7 + 110

3 7 3 0 + 130(?)

3815+130(?)

3950+130

--

3 5 8 5 + 105

4145+180
4695 + 135

3950+ 190

4345+190

3 7 8 0 + 190

4000+130

3650-3035
3770-3360
3750-3185

3900-3385

3945-3635

4130-3665

3795-3375

4425-3790
4960-4430

4330-3655

4540-3945

4085-3380

4315-3680

Corrected
age (BC)
D a m o n et al.
Klein et al.

Ch
Ch
Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch
Ch

Gr

Ch

Ch

Ch

Material 2

al. 1983
comm.
al. 1983
comm.
al. 1983

H a s s a n 1984b
H a s s a n 1984b
H a s s a n 1984b

Hays & H a s s a n 1976

H a s s a n 1984b

P. V e r m e e r s c h pers.
comm
P. V e r m e e r s c h pers.
comm
P. V e r m e e r s c h pers.
comm

comm

de Vries a n d
B a r e n d s e n 1954
H a s s a n 1984c
P. V e r m e e r s c h pers.

W e n k e et
a n d pers.
W e n k e et
a n d pers.
W e n k e et

Reference

El- Tarif /A rmant

region
Tarifian
Nagadian

493070
5030 100
5270 105(?)
500569
481080

478070
4970+70

501075
499270
521454(?)
501580
500085
4960100

SMU-351
SMU-360
WSU-2256
SMU-303
SMU-355

SMU-353
TX-2340

Beta-1356
SMU-496
SMU-493
Beta-1370
Beta-1371
WSU-2255

KH3
Area B
5-10 cm BS
10-20 cm BS

10-20 cm BS

15-20 cm BS
35 cm BS
Area C
15-20 cm BS

MA2/83
Gd-?
631080
MA2/83
Gd-689
505560
MA6/83
Gd-?
5560195
(dateis ~ o m a l o w e r l a y e r below Nagadian)

5744 300
5576300
5619280
4720 310
5020290

C-810
C-814
C-811
C-812
C-813

Nagada Cemeteries
S.D.34--38
S.D.34--38
S.D.36--46
S.D. 58-67
S.D.56
KH1
50-55 cm BS
85-90 cm BS
Burial 1
KH6
5-15 cm BS
15-30 cm BS
KH3
Area A,
25-50 cm BS
75-100 cm BS

5185120
3875120
4435265

3780145

3810133
3823135

4063138

3834 130
3814126

3567 114
3788129

3830 125
3610 120

3742114
3857 145
4150+164

4623310
4452+350
4495330
3495 322
3845308

5525-5000
4085-3665
4560-4115

3920--3540

4075-3645
3950--3640

4315-3800

3925-3655
3910--3650

3780-3370
3900-3645

3915-3655
3865-3365

3890-3570
4090-3650
4395-3855

5230-3935
5060-3870
5175-3880
3945-2890
4410-3195

Hays & Hassan 1976

Hays & Hassan 1976

Hays & Hassan 1976

Hays & Hassan 1976

Ch
Ch

Ch
Ch

Ch

Ch
Ch
Ch

Ginter pers. comm.

Ginter et al. 1982
Ginter pers. comm.

Hassan 1984b

Ch
Ch

Ch

Hassan 1984b
T. R. Hays
pers. comm.
T. R. Hays
pers. comm.
Hassan 1984b
Hassan 1984b
Ch
Ch

Hays & Hassan 1976

Hays & Hassan 1976
Hassan 1984b

Ch
Ch
Ch

1955
1955
1955
1955
1955

Libby
Libby
Libby
Libby
Libby

Hair
Skin
Hair
Hair & Skin
Hair

Cont.

Predynastic
ofupper Egypt

Region and
archaeological
group

Table 1

457080
471090
4830120
476080
468080
480075
467080
500090
449060
3900190
12,640330(R)

W-4353
WSU-1729
WIS-1169
WIS-1182
WIS-1183
WIS-1184
BM-1127B
Lv-1035
Lv-1050D
Lv-1051D

E1-Kab

E1-Kab

471080

WIS-1181

WIS-1168

481575

474075

WIS-1151
WIS-1153

490065

514060

Gd-?
WIS-1152

503060
5030 100

Gd-?
Gd-?

Lab. No.

Radiocarbon
age (bp)
5568 half-life

Feature 4
11C: 6.5N21W, Level 7
llC
14
29: Str. 1,
Level 2
29: Str. 2,
Level 16
29: Str. 2,
Level 3
29: Str. 1,
Feature 1
Decorated T o m b
E1-Kab

11C: ON-OE,

Feature 1

11C: ON-OE,

MA 18/83
MA21/83
Bucheum
MA 17/83
Hierakonpolis
11C: M o u n d A,
Level 6
11C: M o u n d A,
Level 14

Site and
provenience

--

2468210

3625125
3215 110

3435121

3590117

3447121

3483129
3625150
3545120

3314121

3482120

3607117

3531117

3707111

3980 120

3840 120
3840 145

2895-1910

3875-33703
3480-2975

3765-3160

3860-3360

3765-3160

3775-3175
3870-3370
3790-3355

3640-3015

3775-3175

3870-3365

3785-3350

3880-3400

4120-3775

3940-3660
4090-3650

Corrected
age (BC)
D a m o n et al.
Klein et al.

Ch

Ch

Shell
Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch
Ch
Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch
Ch

Material 2

COlTlIn

Burleigh 1982
P. Vermeersch pers.
comm
P. Vermeersch pers.
comm
P. Vermeersch pers.

Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982
Hoffman 1982
Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982

Hoffman 1982

Ginter pers. comm.

Ginter pers. comm.

Ginter pers. comm.

Reference

Radiocarbon Chronology of Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta 103
given the nature of the calibration curve, reporting the dates in this fashion renders statistical
evaluation very difficult, and I have accordingly based statistical averaging on the corrections from the D a m o n et al. tables.
Corrections were applied in order to overcome the changes in the time interval represented
by a radiocarbon year as a result of variations in the atmospheric content of carbon isotopes.
It is also essential to convert the radiocarbon measurements to age estimates in calendrical
years for comparison and linkage with historical dates. The corrected dates are reported as
BC (years before Christian era), whereas the original radiocarbon measurements are
reported as bp (radiocarbon years before present). These measurements may be used for
linkage with determinations of prehistoric sites greater in age than the range covered by the
calibration tables.
One of the problems with which we are faced in dealing with the chronology of prehistoric
events is the inherent range of error associated with each radiocarbon 'age' measurement.
Even if we are assured of the high quality of the material and its contextual association and of
lack of contamination (Waterbolk 1971), and even if we account for isotopic differentiation
(Olsson and Osadebe 1974) and convert to calendrical years, we must still deal with the
statistical nature of the measurements (Arundale 1981:250).
Although this is commonly known it is still worth repeating. Single determinations provide
an age range at specified levels of reliability (confidence). For example, a measurement of
5550 + 100 bp means that the age of the material dated at a 95% level of confidence is
somewhere in the range from 5750 to 5350 bp. Thus, instead of an estimate of a point in time,
we have a range of 400 years, i.e. the true age of the sample could be anywhere within that
range, with a slight chance that it is actually older or younger. Now, since we are interested in
determining the age of occupations of about 100-200 years duration, and phases of 200-400
years duration, such single determinations are practically spurious. Greater precision may
be achieved by (1) better laboratory counting techniques, and (2) combining dates
(averaging) to increase precision, i.e. reducing the range of error. The latter is especially
important because calibration involves an increase in the magnitude of error. For this reason,
statistical averaging of 'acceptable' dates is attempted in this paper in order to improve
precision.
In this paper, measurements were first scanned to weed out unacceptable dates. The
majority of the dates are on charcoal. Six samples are on grain (presumably charred), two on
wood, four on hair, one on skin, one on shell, one on bone apatite and another on bone
collagen. The measurements on bone collagen and apatite samples (U-31 and U-32) from the
same provenience (Unit T4, level - 180 cm at Merimda Beni Salama) differing by as much as
930 years, are statistically significantly different, and are also inconsistent with the age of
materials from the same level and the overlying and underlying levels. These dates were
accordingly rejected. Another date from the same site (U-7) has a very large sigma of 700
years that renders it useless. Another date from Qasr el Sagha with a large sigma of 650 years
(Gd-708) was rejected for the same reason. Dates on hair and skin (C-810, C-814, C-811,
C-812 and C-813) from Nagada I and I I cemeteries in the Nagada region were obtained
using the solid carbon method. They all have sigmas of about 300 years and are older than the
dates obtained on samples from settlements of presumably the same archaeological phases.
Although I did not reject these dates, it would be advisable to obtain additional dates on
materials from the Nagada cemeteries in order to obtain more precise measurements by use

104

Fekri A. Hassan

of new techniques. The ages of materials from new excavations may be compared with those
of materials now at the Petrie Museum, London, in order to determine if the latter materials
have been contaminated. The grain samples are most probably of wheat and barley. The
wood is probably tamarisk or acacia, which is also the material providing most of the
charcoal, though charred grain is sometimes referred to as charcoal as well. It is thus unlikely
that isotopic differentiation is a problem here. However, since the kind, size, or mode of
occurrence (scattered charcoal flecks or single chunks) is rarely reported, the age differential
or 'thick log effect' cannot be assessed. The measurement on shell (BM-1127B) from
Hierakanpolis was corrected using the apparent age of a modern shell (Burleigh 1982).
Single dates from an archaeological occurrence or a site pose a problem since they could be
erroneous because of contamination or any other source of error. Some of these dates can be
shown to be 'aberrant' by cross-checking with the age of well dated sites or events of the same
phase. For example, the date (Lv-1051D) from E1-Kab of 12,640 + 330 bp is manifestly
erroneous being much too old for a Predynastic site. Other examples include the date WSU2257 from North Town (Nagada II) and one from Mahgar Canal 1 (Lv-1313). There is as yet
no way to ascertain the adequacy of the age determinations for EI-Omari and other sites with
a single measurement each until additional dates are obtained from those sites. The
remaining dates from a single occupation (part of a site) or a site were tested for consistency
following the method described by Ward and Wilson (1978). Acceptable (i.e. consistent)
dates were statistically averaged following the method of Long and Rippeteau (1974). In this
method dates with dissimilar sigma are averaged by weighing them according to their
respective sigma values. Combining dates using the Ward and Wilson (1978) method
provides similar results.
Averaging of statistically consistent measurements was deemed appropriate, following
Long and Rippeteau (1974: 206), when (1) samples were portions of the same single parent
sample, (2) samples are from the same stratigraphic level or unit, or (3) samples are from a
single occurrence or site of presumably short duration.
Average dates from sites of the same archaeological unit in a region were also tested for
difference between means using the t-test, taking into consideration that the variance of the
average estimate is the variance of the mean of a finite set of measurements (Ward and
Wilson 1978). If no significant difference was detected, the sites were considered coeval, and
the measurements from such coeval sites were combined to provide a weighted average date.

The Delta and the Fayum

The Merimda Neolithic

The Neolithic site of Merimda Beni Salama at the western edge of the Delta near Khatatba
was initially excavated by Junker (1928, 1929, 1930, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1940), more recently
in 1976 by Zahi Hawwas representing the Egyptian Department of Antiquities, and since
1977 by Einwanger (1978, 1979). In 1955, ten dates on materials from Merimda Beni Salama
were published by Olsson. In 1976, at the request of Mr Hawwas, I obtained two more dates
on materials collected from his excavations. Five dates have also been obtained from the
excavations by Einwanger. The dates, as yet unpublished, are listed in Table 1, courtesy of R.
Kuper and P. Breuing.

Radiocarbon Chronology of Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta 105
Three of the dates obtained by Olsson (U-7, U-31 and U-32) were rejected (see above).
The remaining dates consist of a single date from 180 cm below surface (BS) (U-6) of 5005 +
125 BC, another from 102 cm BS (W-4355) of 4630 + 130 BC, one date from 75 cm BS
(WSU-1846) of 4115 + 155 BC, and 3 dates from 60 cm BS, which yield an average of
4420 + 190 BC. Two other dates from unknown depth date to 4850 + 135 BC (U-9A) and
4820 + 115 BC (U-9B).
The dates from the recent excavations of Einwanger range from 4795 +_ 105 to 4465 + 190
BC. The early date in this series (KN-3277) is not significantly different from the earliest date
obtained by Olsson (U-6). Given the range of most other dates, it appears that the early
occupation at Merimda, pending further radiocarbon measurement, may be placed at about
4800 BC. The sequence of dates indicates continuous occupation until 4400 BC, and
probably later.

El-Omari
Predynastic sites at Et-Omari, north of Helwan, were reported by Bovier-Lapierre (1926)
and excavated by Debono (1946, 1948, 1956). One of the sites, a settlement at Ras el-Hofis
referred to as 'Omari A' or 'Helwan (Neolithic) A'. It is from this site that the date (C-463)
reported here was obtained. It corrects to 4110 + 260 BC using the table of Damon et aI. and
4435-3670 BC from the tables ofKtein et al. This is a single date and thus cannot be of too
much value. As a point estimate, which is dubious, it would support the view of E1-Omari as a
settlement synchronous with the late occupations at Merimda as suggested by Kaiser,
contrary to several other views (Hayes 1965:144). More dates from E1-Omari are obviously
required.

Maadi
The site of Maadi, near Cairo, consists of an extensive settlement founded in Late
Predynastic (Nagada II-III) times (Hayes 1965). It was excavated in the 1930s by Menghin
and Amer (Menghin 1931, 1932, 1934; Menghin and Amer 1932, 1936; Amer 1947). The site
is currently under investigation by a team from Cairo University and an Italian mission.
Unpublished radiocarbon age determinations from these latter investigations indicate that
the site dates to about 3600 BC (Alba Palmieri in litt. 1981). Two radiocarbon age
measurements were also made on wood and charred grain provided to me by Prof. S.
Huzayyin. The dates yielded corrected ages of 3505 + 110 BC (Beta-2804) and 3835 + 120
BC (Beta-2805), with a weighted average of 3655 -+ 80 BC.

The Fayum Neolithic

The Neolithic sites of the Fayum Oasis were first explored and investigated by CatonThompson and Gardner (1934) in the 1920s. Charred grain from these early excavations
provided material for two radiocarbon age determinations by Libby (1955). The dates
provide a corrected average of 5t45 + 155 BC. More recent determinations on material
collected by the Combined Prehistoric Expedition in the 1970s (Wendorfet al. 1970; Wendorf
and Schild 1976) produced two younger dates with a corrected age of ca 4700 BC. Wood

106

Fekri A. Hassan

collected by Caton-Thompson was also dated by the British Museum in 1971. It yielded a
corrected age of 4255 --- 135 BC (Barker et al. 1971:166; Flight 1973). These new dates
provide an average of 4570 _+ 100 BC.
Recent work in the Qasr el Sagha area by Ginter et al. (1982) has so far provided the best
radiocarbon series for the Fayum Neolithic settlements. Dates from sites IX, X, and X I are
consistent and yield an estimate of 5230 + 50 BC, which is the oldest reliable dating for
Neolithic settlements in the Nile Valley. Four dates from another site (Site 1/79) include one
date with a very large sigma (Gd-708). The three other dates (Bin-2334, Gd-1140, Bin2333) are congruent and provide a corrected average of 4455__ 110 BC. Another Neolithic site
(V/79) provided two dates (Gd-693, Bin-2325) with a corrected average of 4915 + 60 BC.
Site VIE/81) provided a date of 4525 + 190 BC. A late Neolithic component at Site V I D / 8 0
yielded a date of 4275 + 170 BC. Another late Neolithic site (Site VIIA/80) provided three
dates which yield a corrected average of 4040 + 95 BC.
Recent work in southwest Fayum (Wenke et al. 1983) provided three dates on late
Neolithic (also called Predynastic) sites. The dates range from 4345 to 3780 BC with an
average of 4030 + 90 BC.
From the above, average dates on the Fayum Neolithic from sites with two or more dates
are as follows:
Early Neolithic
Sites I X , X , X I
5230 + 50 BC
Site Upper K
5145 + 155 BC
Site V/79
4455 + 110 BC
Late Neolithic
Site V I I A / 8 0
4040 + 95 BC
Southwest Fayum 4030 + 90 BC
The dated sequence at the Fayum is therefore long and spans a period lasting from about
5200 BC to about 4000 BC.

Upper Egypt
The Early Predynastic (Badarian)
The only available dates from a well-documented Badarian site are from Hemamieh, near
Assyut, which has yielded a stratigraphic sequence from the Badarian to the Gerzean
(Brunton and Caton-Thompson 1928). Chronometric dating of this site is based on
thermoluminescence dates (Caton-Thompson and Whittle 1975; Whittle 1975) and two
radiocarbon dates (de Vries and Barendsen 1954; Hassan 1984c).
Two thermoluminescence dates (TL) from beneath a layer of breccia are 5580 + 420 BC
on a Rough Badarian sherd at 6' 6" B S ( O x T L 131 b 14) and 5495 + 405 on a Rough Badarian
sherd at 6' BS (OxTL131 b13). A T L date (OxTL131 bl 1) on a Rough Badarian sherd on
breccia and below a hearth at 6' BS is 4690 + 365 BC. Another date ( O x T L 131 b 12) from the
same level on a Polished Red sherd, also Badarian, is 4510 + 475 BC. Three dates from the
Amratian or Nagada I level are: 4360 + 355 BC on a Rippled sherd at 3' 6" to 4' BS
(OxTL131 b19), 4330 + 365 BC on a Polished Red sherd at 5 ' - 5 ' 6" BS (OxTL131 b9) and
4450 __ 365 BC on a Rippled sherd at 5 ' - 5 ' 6" BS ( O x T L 131 b 10). The Gerzean or Nagada I I

Radiocarbon Chronologyof Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta 107
is dated to 3775 + 330 BC on a Decorated sherd at 2' 6" BS (OxTL192 b18). Although the
dates are consistent with their stratigraphic position, standard deviations are very large. The
precision of the dates is improved by using weighted averaging, which leads to the following
figures:
Badarian (beneath breccia)
Badarian (above breccia)
Amratian (Nagada I)
Gerzean (Nagada II)

5535
4660
4378
3775

+ 290
_+ 290
+ 205
+ 330

BC
BC
BC
BC

The radiocarbon date obtained by de Vries and Barendsen (1954) is 5110 + 160 bp (GrN223) and is calibrated to 3950 + 260 BC. The date I obtained is 5290 + 130 bp (WSU-1728)
and corrects to 4145 + 180 BC. The two radiocarbon age measurements are statistically
similar, and the weighted average of these two dates is 4080 _+ 160 BC.
Statistically the average radiocarbon date is similar to the average T L estimate from above
the Badarian at the 0.05 level, but it is also similar to the average T L date on the Amratian.
However, it is significantly different at that level from the T L age of the Badarian beneath the
breccia, though similar at the 0.01 level. At the 0.05 level, the average T L dates from beneath
and above the breccia are similar. The average T L date for the Amratian is different from
that of the Badarian beneath the breccia at the 0.05 level, but similar at the 0.01 level.
It is thus clear that available T L dates are not sufficiently precise to permit a firm temporal
placement of the Badarian. The range of the Badarian above the breccia is 5240-4080 at two
standard deviations. The range of the radiocarbon age determinations is 4400-3800 BC.
There is obviously a need for more radiocarbon dates from the various stratigraphic levels at
Hemamieh, but for the moment the age of the Badarian (or a late manifestation of it) at
Hemamieh may be placed at somewhere between 4400 and 4000 BC.

The Middle Predynastic (Nagada I)

The initial radiometric determinations of the age of the Amratian were made by Libby (1955)
using hair and skin from tombs in the Nagada cemeteries excavated by Petrie (1896). Five
dates were obtained: three on materials from Nagada I and two from Nagada tombs. The
three Nagada I dates (C-810, C-811~ and C-814) provide an average of 4530 + 250 BC.
Recent investigations of the Predynastic sites in the Nagada region by T. R. Hays between
1975 to 1977 (Hays 1976, Hays and Hassan 1976), and by me since 1978 (Hassan 1981) have
led to numerous radiocarbon age determinations (Hassan 1984b). The dates provide age
determinations for four sites and for various parts of one of them. O f these four sites, K H 3
(Hagir Menchia), K H 6 (Ezbet Et-Ababda), and KH1 (Khattara) contain ceramics characterized by an abundance of Red Polished and Black-topped Polished pottery that show an
affnity to Nagada I. There are also occasional sherds of Rippled (combed) Black ware,
White cross-lined, and Orange (Late, Decorated or Wavy-handled) pottery. It was the
presence of a few sherds of the Rippled ware that led Hays (1976) to suggest that the sites are
Badarian. However, the discovery of whole vessels during subsequent seasons and
reconstruction of vessel morphology from large sherds made it possible to place the sites
within Petrie's seriation scheme at Sequence Dates 41-44. This position is corroborated by

108

Fekri A. Hassan

the presence of White Cross-lined pottery and copper objects. Graphic seriation and
multidimensional scaling (Hassan and Matson in press) show that the ceramic assemblages
from Nagada Sites KH3, KH6, and KH1 (as well as Sites KH7 and K H 4 for which
radiocarbon dates are not yet available) belong to the same group. This group corresponds to
Nagada I as defined by Kemp (1982) on the basis of seriation of ceramics from E1 Amrah.
However, these sequence dates belong to the Nagada I/II transition according to Baumgartel (1965), and to Stufe IIa in Kaiser's scheme (1956, 1957). Since by both graphical
seriation and multidimensional scaling the sites belong to a group that is clearly distinct
from, and older than, the assemblages in South Town and North Town, they should be
regarded as belonging to an early Nagada archaeological unit. The boundary suggested by
Kemp (1982) at S.D. 47/48 between his Group I and II at E1 Amrah may be applicable at
Nagada as a boundary between the early Nagada and late Nagada units.
From Site KH3, eight dates were obtained. They include two from area A in the eastern
part of the site, one from area C, 50 metres north of area A, and five from area B, 25 metres
west of area C. The dates from areas C and B are congruent, with the exception of a seemingly
aberrant date (SMU-493). The samples from areas B and C are from 5-35 cm below surface.
The dates from area B, excluding SMU-493, yield an average corrected date of 3830 -- 75
BC. (Application of the method of Ward and Wilson reveals that SMU-493 is acceptable at
the 0.05 confidence level. Combining this date with the other dates from area B gives an
average of 3870 + 60 BC.) The corrected estimate of the single date from area C (15-20 cm
BS) is 3780 + 145 BC. The two dates from Area A provide corrected dates of 3790 + 130 BC
(75--100 cm BS) and 3570 + 115 BC (25--50 BS).
Two dates from Site KH1 are also congruent and yield an average date of 3795 + 75 BC,
but a single date associated with a burial (WSU-2256) at the base of the site provides a
corrected figure of 4150 + 165 BC. Two other dates from Site KH6 are congruent and
provide a corrected average of 3715 __. 90 BC.
The average age estimates from KH3-Area A, KH3-Area B, KH6 and KH1 are not
statistically different, based on an application of the F-test (Long and Rippeteau 1974:210)
and the t-test as recommended by Ward and Wilson (1978). The mean of these dates is 3760
__ 40 BC. We can thus be sure that these early Nagada settlements (or at least those parts
from which the dates came) were occupied at some time within the interval from about 3850
to 3650 BC.
The date of these early settlements in the Nagada region is apparently younger than the
dates obtained by Libby from the graves of the adjacent cemeteries. The Libby dates average
to 4530 + 250 BC compared with the 3760 + 40 BC obtained above. This may be a result of
the solid carbon method used by Libby, contamination of the samples during storage or
before, or thay may indicate an earlier age for the tombs dated. There is undoubtedly a need
to obtain more dates from the cemeteries.
Investigations in the district between Tarif and Armant by Ginter and coworkers (1982
and pers. comm.) led to the discovery of an occurrence characterized by ceramics apparently
antedating the characteristic types of Nagada I and II. The occurrence referred to as
'Tarifian' yielded one radiocarbon date from Site MA 2/83 of 6310 + 80 bp, which gives a
corrected date of 5185 4- 120 BC. This discovery is extremely important since there is a lack of
sites antedating Nagada I in the Nagada-Armant region dating after 10,000 bp, Additional
dates are required to establish firmly its chronology. Ginter and co-workers have also located

Radiocarbon Chronology of Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta 109
several sites, which they refer to as 'Nagadian'. The sites provide corrected dates ranging
from 3980 -+ 120 BC (Site MA 17) to 3840 +- 120 BC at Site MA 18 and 3840 _+ 145 BC at Site
MA 21. These dates are comparable to those from the early settlements in the Nagada region.
The composition of the Nagadian site at E1-Tarifwith a predominance of Rough potter}, is
similar to that from South Town (Nagada II). At present, it would appear that the Nagadian,
at least at E1-Tarif, represents either a variant ofNagada I or a manifestation ofNagada II
predating that at South Town which dates to ca 3450 BC. Additional information on the
sequence dates and classification of the ceramics following the Kaiser scheme are necessary
to resolve this key issue.
Recent excavations at Hierakonpolis (Hoffman 1982) have led to the recovery of large
ceramic assemblages and other artifacts. Hoffman has referred to the sites as Amratian in his
preliminary report. However, comparison with Nagada (Hassan t984a) suggests that the
ceramic assemblages from Hierakonpolis are similar to those from South Town (Nagada II).
Accordingly, the age of the Hierakonpolis sites will be discussed below.

The Late Predynastic (Nagada II)

The radiometric age of the Nagada I! unit in the Nagada region was first determined by
Libby (t955) using hair from two tombs. Recently, further radiocarbon age determinations
became available as a result of renewed excavations in the Nagada region (Hassan 1981 ) and
at Hierakonpolis (Hoffman 1982). My investigations in the Nagada region involved test
excavations and systematic surface collecting at South Town, a Nagada II site first reported
by Petrie (1896). The test investigations revealed that most of the site contains ceramics that
belong to Nagada II with sequence dates ranging from 52 to 67. The ceramic assemblages
also qualify as examples of Group II as identified by Kemp (t 982) and Stufe IIcd of Kaiser
(1956). An earlier component was located at the southwestern corner of the site. Ceramics
from this component are assigned to sequence dates from 41 to 50 and belong to the early part
of Nagada II (Kaiser's Stufe IIab). Also, multidimensional scaling and graphic seriation
reveal (Hassan and Matson in press) that the ceramics from South Town (and North Town)
are different and presumably younger than ceramic assemblages from other sites in the
Nagada region, which are assigned a position of sequence dates 41-44,
Radiocarbon dates from South Town consist of three obtained from the northwestern part
of the site, and one from its southwestern corner. The dates from the northwestern area are on
charcoal from a test pit. The deposits were not disturbed (perhaps the only place in the whole
site that has escaped disturbance). The dates overlap statistically and are not significantly
different. Corrections and statistical averaging indicate that the northwestern locality dates
to 3440 + 70 BC.
Only one date is available from the southwestern area at South Town. The range of the
date at 95% confidence is 3990-3470 BC with a midpoint of 3730 + 130 BC. Since the
ceramics from this southwestern part in South Town are the oldest Nagada II ceramics at
that site, and considering the radiocarbon ages of the dates from the northwestern part of
South Town and the earlier Predynastic sites in the Nagada region, the ceramics from this
part of South Town most probably date to 3600 BC and are not likely to date any earlier than
3700 BC.
In Hierakonpolis, a date on shell from the Gerzean Decorated Tomb provides an estimate

110

Fekri A. Hassan

of 3625 + 125 BC (Burleigh 1982). Other dates from Hierakonpolis were published by
Hoffman (1982) and corrected by him using the approximations provided by Michels (1973).
These corrected dates were about 100 years older than those from the MASCA tables (Ralph
etal. 1976) and those used in this paper, which indicates that the age of the sites (Locality 11C
and Locality 29) is 3650-3450 BC at a confidence level of 95%. These dates are younger than
the earlier Predynastic occupations in the Nagada region by as much as about 250 years, but
they are not significantly different from the dates from South Town. These sites are
considered Amratian by Hoffman (1982) in his preliminary report. If so, then the Nagada II
ceramics at Nagada appeared in the Nagada region at a time when Nagada I ceramics were
still in use at Hierakonpolis. However, the composition of the ceramic assemblages from the
sites in Hierakonpolis is similar to that from South Town assemblages. For this and other
reasons (Hassan 1984a), I favor considering Hierakonpolis localities 11 and 29 as Nagada II.
However, it should be noted that the taxonomic status of those sites, as well as the whole
concept of'Nagada I' and ~Nagada II' as Predynastic 'cultures' of Upper Egypt need further
consideration.
Pending future research, the age of the Nagada II ceramic assemblage zone may be placed
at 3650 to 3300 BC on the basis of the dates from its type locality. The youngest acceptable
dates on the earlier Predynastic occupation in that region is about 3700 BC, as at area A in
Site KH3 and at Site KH6 (Hassan 1984b).

The Terminal Predynastic (Nagada III)

The only radiocarbon dates from the terminal Predynastic were obtained from a cemetery
near E1-Kab by P. M. Vermeersch and published by Close (1984). One of the dates (Lv1035) is equivalent to a calendrical date of 3215 + 110 BC, but the other two dates seem to be
erroneous. One (Lv-1050D) is rather young (2468 _+ 210 BC), whereas the other (Lv1051 D) is much too old (12,640 bp). Ceramics t~om the cemetery indicate a sequence date of
78-80 (Vermeersch in litt. 1984).
On the basis of historical dates (Kemp 1980) and chronometric age determinations
(Hassan 1980), tile beginning of the First Dynasty is placed at ca 3150/3100 BC. The
beginning of Nagada III and the termination of the Nagada II zone most likely occurred
around 3300 BC. A date from an early Dynastic occurrence from E1-Tarif (Gd-1127) by
Ginter et al. (1979, 1982) provides a corrected range of 3640-3155 BC. The young end of this
range corresponds with the 3150/3100 BC estimate for the beginning of the First Dynasty.

Discussion and conclusions

The emergence of the First Dynasty ca 3150/3100 BC was a major development in the
political and sociocultural transformation of agricultural communities inhabiting the Nile
Valley. Discussions of the processes that contributed to this important event in the history of
Egyptian civilization have often raised questions about contacts with Mesopotamia and the
Sudan, interactions between the peoples of the Delta and Upper Egypt, the stages of
agricultural and cultural developments, and synchronism with climatic events and changes
in the hydrography of the Nile. However, these questions cannot be answered within a
chronological framework that continues to be phrased in terms of the relative sequence

Radiocarbon Chronologyof Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta 111
dating system initially developed by Petrie. The advent of radiocarbon age measurements
held the promise for the establishment ofa chronometric scheme that could be tied in with the
historical dates. However, fourteen years after the publication by Arnold and Libby (1951 ) of
the first date from a Predynastic context only ten dates had become available (Kantor 1965).
By 1971, Derricourt could iist 20 dates. Since that time many more dates have been obtained,
but the dates are often listed without corrections or statistical treatment. This work is an
attempt to remedy this situation. Although the list has now expanded to 95 dates (some first
published here by courtesy of my colleagues), the dates are barely sufficient to draw a rough
chronological sketch. Many sites and even whole periods are dated by only one or two
measurements (e.g. the E1-Omari Neolithic and the Badarian). This is regrettable considering that most of the sites contain good datable substances, and that the cost of radiocarbon
age determinations is not exorbitant. My recommendations for future researchers are to
obtain as many samples for radiocarbon age determinations as possible and to submit for
dating several samples from each archaeological occurrence. A minimum of three samples
will allow testing for internal consistency and greater precision. A large site should be thus
dated by no less than several sets of at least three dates each since it appears that many of the
sites, South Town for example, expanded laterally during the period of its occupation. Sites
that are particularly in need of more age determinations include Hemamieh, E1-Omari, E1Kab, E1-Tarif, North Town, and Maadi. At South Town, the older component of the site
needs additional dates to ascertain the age of the early Nagada II occupations. We also need
better documentation of the material, size, mode of occurrence, and treatment or pretreatment of samples.
Given the present inadequacies, I regard the chronological scheme given here and
presented in Figure 2 as highly tentative. It is also neither sufficiently detailed nor firm to
assist in answering many of the questions mentioned above. So far we can state that the
earliest dated Neolithic communities along the Nile Valley are in the Fayum (about 5200
BC) followed by those at Merimda (about 4800 BC). Later occupations at the Fayum date to
about 4000 BC. Merimda was apparently occupied until 4400 and perhaps later.
In Upper Egypt, the available radiocarbon dates (only two) indicate that the Badarian
(above the breccia) at Hemamieh falls within the 4400-4000 BC interval. In the Nagada
region, a group of sites contain ceramics that may be regarded as Nagada I, Nagada I/II, or
Stufe IIa depending on the sequence scheme one wishes to adopt (Petrie 1920; Baumgartel
1965; Kaiser 1956; Kemp 1982). These sites are here called early Nagada and are dated to
3850-3650 BC. The ceramics from the northern part of South Town are considered Nagada
II or Stufe IIcd and are dated to 3580-3300 BC. Localities 11 and 29 at Hierakonpolis date to
3650-3450 BC and are not significantly different from those of South Town. I assign the
ceramics from those localities to the same broad ceramic assemblage zone as that of South
Town, though Hoffman has considered them Amratian in his preliminary report. The late
Neolithic settlement at Maadi appears to date to 3800-3500 BC and thus may be as early as
Nagada I in Upper Egypt or contemporaneous with Nagada II. It is important that the age of
Maadi be firmly established because of its implications for the interregional connections
involved in the transition from Nagada I to Nagada II, as well as contacts with the Levant.
The Terminal Predynastic of Upper Egypt is dated by a single date from E1-Kab (Close
1984; Vermeerschpers. comm.) to 3215 + 110 BC. Since the beginning of the First Dynasty is
well established both by historical and chronometric age determinations to 3150/3100 BC

112

Fekri A. Hassan

and Nagada II to about 3650/3600 to 3300 BC, it is likely that the beginning ofNagada III
occurred ca 3300 BC.
Finally, it is appropriate to pay tribute to Flinders Petrie, who not only developed an
ingenious system for the relative dating of Predynastic graves and cultural stages, but who
also attempted to infer the absolute age of the Predynastic period, which he estimated as
about 8000 BC or earlier (Petrie 1920:6). His attempt was based on the number of graves, the
rate of accumulation of Nile mud, analogy to the length of what he called the 'cycle of
civilization' (duration of cultural periods), and comparison with the age of Palaeolithic
cultures in Europe. Petrie also estimated the time span for each division of sequence dates as
50 years. It now appears from radiocarbon chronology that the sequence date divisions from
35-45 (as at site KH3) to 57-78 (at South Town) correspond to an average of about 300 years
and a maximum of 550 years. Thus, each division would correspond to an average of about
10-20 years.
It seems now, too, that the rise of Egyptian civilization was preceded by a period of about
2000 years of agricultural developments and cultural evolution, but that it was during the last
500 years (perhaps more in the Delta) that the political and religious systems of ancient
Egypt began to take shape. In the subsequent 350 years during the Early Dynastic (Archaic)
period the main elements of the Pharaonic political system and religion became well
established. The Old Kingdom lasted about 600 years, the Middle about 250, and the New
Kingdom about 300. The First Intermediate lasted about 150 years and the Second about
250. A range of 150-600 years characterizes the periods of the Egyptian civilization, which is
similar to the range for Predynastic periods. The average interval comes to about 300 years or

3000--

3500

.,,~

~AAOI
4000

H/E~AKONPOLIS

NAGADA

.-

EL-Ot~AR~

4300__

5000

--

HEMAMIEH

MERIMDA

Figure 2 Chronological chart of Neolithic and Predynastic units in the Delta and
Upper Egypt. Dates are in tree-ring calibrated years BC. The chart shows the probable
statistical range given available age determinations.

Radiocarbon Chronology of Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta 113
about 12-15 generations. It is perhaps by considering the meaning of time and chronology in
terms of number of generations rather than absolute time or periods that explanation of the
dynamics of culture change will be reached.

Acknowledgements
I am most grateful to Peter Breuing, V. B. Ginter, T. R. Hays,J. K. Koztowski, R. Kuper, P.
Vermeersch and Robert Wenke for allowing me to cite unpublished dates from their ongoing
research. I also thank them and B. Adams, R. Burleigh, J. Crowfoot-Payne, M. Hoffman,
a n d J . Shepard for discussions on various aspects of the subject. I thank Z. Hawwass and S.
Huzzayyin for access to samples for dating from Merimda and Maadi, and for A. Afifi a n d J .
Shepard for radiocarbon determinations. N. David, R. K u p e r and P. Shinnie read the
manuscript and made useful comments. My work on the Predynastic of the Nagada region
was funded by Grant No. FC788-08177 from the National Science Foundation and Grant
No. FC8-0661700 from the Foreign Currency Program, the Smithsonian Institution.

References
Amer, M. 1947. Annual Reports of the Maadi
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