Académique Documents
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Culture Documents
Fritz Leonhardt
Professor Emeritus
Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. h.c. mull.
Consulting Engineer
Stuttgart, FRG
124
CAUSES OF CRACKING
Concrete can crack due to a number of
causes. Some of the most significant
causes are discussed in detail.
fcm =
fi
'm =
2.1
(fc)z (psi)
/3
0.34 (ff)2"'(N/mm2)
Synopsis
Simple design rules are presented
to control cracking in concrete structures. Causes of cracking and its effect on serviceability and durability are
discussed. The paper is primarily applicable to large structures such as
bridges. However, general concepts
presented are applicable to any concrete structure. Prestressing forces
are considered. A numerical example
showing application of the method
and use of simple design charts is included.
b concrete
compression
+G = OT a T Ec
GT
tension
Internal stresses
in equilibrium
1 day
3 days
7 days
28 days
92
144
157
167
II
76
115
135
148
III
139
184
194
205
IV
50
81
94
117
58
88
101
124
Internal Stress
10
15
20
127
I
MDT
Moment Diagram
VAT
Shear Diagram
Fig. 3. Forces in a concrete beam due to a temperature rise OT at
the upper face of the beam and external restraint provided by
interior supports.
Maritime
Top of
cross section
warmer than
bottom (F)
18
Bottom of
cross section
warmer than
top(F)
Continental
27
14.4
T-beams
Maritime
Continental
14.4
21.6
7.2
10.8
JcT = AT3aTEc
where a T is equal to 6 x 10 -6 / 0 F
(10-5 / C), the coefficient of thermal ex-
rig.
4.
uivision of temperature aiagram into its constant, unear ana noniinear parts.
129
iihii
plan A-A
'_'--
compressive G
due to DL+w LL+ P
cracks due to
AT, AS and ACr
Determination of Areas
Likely to Crack
Cracking occurs whenever the principal stresses due to service loads or due
to restraint forces or due to a combination of service loads and restraints exceed the tensile strength of concrete.
These stresses can be calculated using
130
deflection line
vertical cracks
-MAT
II
+MOT
+ MAT
Fig. 6. Bridge pier cross section and moments due
to temperature rise on one side of the pier.
-EG
XII
-O,015/.
cracked
Zone of web
rLE
7,5db
flange Zone
+ill
S
Evaluation of Cracks
As indicated in Fig. 10, crack widths
are greater at the surface and decrease
towards the reinforcement. Long years
of research reported in Refs. 9 and 10,
and experience indicate that crack
service loads
brittle failure
by too high prestress
1,75M DL+LL
ductile failure
1,75 MDL
M AT
effect of AT
M DL+ LL
effect of 1,5T
MDL
Curvature 4
OT
Curvature
OT
w90t
(in.)
Maximum w
permitted (in.)
Crack
appearance
Mild
0.012
0.020
Easily
visible
Moderate
0.008
0.016
Severe
0.004
0.0012
Difficult to see
with the naked
eye
133
Fig. 11. Stress-strain diagram of a reintorced concrete member under direct tension.
134
DESIGN OF
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement can be designed to
control crack widths using information
presented in the following sections.
Basic Analysis
(1)
where
(2)
where
E'',' = steel strain in State II
AE s = strain reduction by concrete in
PCI JOURNAL/July-August 1988
AE 8 =
(1/E 3 ) ( o2scr / a
AE S
can be ex-
(3)
where
As indicated in Ref. 9,
pressed as:
(5)
b= 13ocm
(5(.2 in.)
(0.6in,)
(#4)
c=1,5cm
db=l4mm
i E v
o 1
^
(
l
c=2 cm
(0.8 in.)
Ec
O
J1
( (7
J `
y
l
1 \ ` f
/
1
I1 `l
18cm
(a2)db=4.2mm
d b 6mm
db=26mm
s= 15 cm
(it8)
(6in.)
Fig. 12. Crack pattern on T-beam with large bars near extreme tension fiber and light
reinforcement in the stem.
De s = k5 (1/E 3 ) (crgcr/(Tg')
where k5 varies from 0.4 to 0.8 depending on frequency of load repetition as
indicated in Ref. 11.
If the direction of the reinforcement is
not normal to the crack, as in the case of
shear or torsion, the crack width can be
multiplied by a factor k. which can be
taken as 1.0 for angles up to 15 degrees
from the normal with the crack direction
and 2.0 for a 45 degree angle. This factor
can be interpolated for angles between
15 and 45 degrees.
Fig. 12 shows that the reinforcement
controls crack width only within a small
area around the bars. This. area is defined in the CEB-FIP Model Code as
the effective area, A Ce , shown in Fig. 13.
ii
7.5 d bi5ldp dA
S
Direct
Tension
16 in. (40cm)
16 in.
Fig. 13. Definition of the effective concrete area according to CEB-FIP 1978 Model Code.
137
II
10
9
^8
E 28
a
7
. 6
0 20
N
.0
32
5
4
3
16
a`
12
a8
v
4
Gs cr
U,4
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
2.0
percentage of reinforcement pe _As (ova)
Gs cr
(30)
201
(50)
I)2Oksii
150
(40)
ACe
125
(3Oksi)
300
200
138
Gs,cr
small p
0
largep
AGscr
l
I_-nGc
Q)
N
Ncr,Mcr
N,M
applied load
500
(70)-
MandM,-N
+N
^^
(60)400
\ASI
E (50)z
I
_ As
1
\ p
300
(40),
1
1
bd
As
e/d =M/Nd
\
axial
tension
N,
Ln
pure
bending
a,
(30)
a,
20C
s;
\
^o
(20)
a
E
.' 10 C
cS
C2p
a^^
900PS!)
00
M
^^50 (^2s
-^
20 (2
0,5
1,5
1,0
percentage of reinforcement
p = bd
2,0
/
Fig. 17. Diagram to obtain increase of steel stress at cracking under tension, bending or
bending with compression for varying eccentricity elh of resultant forf;,n = 1.2 (f,1 )2/3.
PCI JOURNAL/July-August 1988
139
LJ
L
a,
pO
C
O
N
U
L
V Z
3 W
o
x
J)
AA
a,
C^
(D
0
Ii)
}f
Cn
c
U
k5 = (h x ")lh
where x" is the depth of the neutral axis
for State II and under the cracking moment considering axial loads from restraint and prestressing, and including
reinforcement to satisfy strength requirements.
For sizing longitudinal crack control
web reinforcement, the correction factor
crack pattern
Gc
neutr. axis
state IIto
F
5
3tcr
G'ct
E ct
fe
crack width
_ 0,4 to
w90 ~ 1000
becomes:
kB = (ha x)Ih,,
where h,, is the depth to the reinforcement as shown in Fig. 18.
For crack control of members subjected to shearing or torsional stress, the
equations given in Ref. 11 should be
used.
2 tcr' E ct,u
0.4 (10 -3 )
to
w90 = 1.62tcr(Ect,u+
0.6 (10 -3 ) to
A Esh)
0.004
0 .008
Direct tension
12
10
10
0.012
*The steel stress Q'; and the nominal vertical shear and nominal torsional stresses v 0 and t o , respectively,
refer to the load specified for the serviceability limit state of crack control.
Note: 1.0 in. = 2.54 cm; 1.0 psi = 6.89 x 10 N/mm2.
Minimum Reinforcement
I',,i iii
3000
5000
Related
area
Direct tension
0.76
1.08
A, = b h
Bending
0.15
0.22
A,= b h
142
0.5 J [95 /J
where Pmin refers to the full cross-sectional area, A, = bh and f, is the yield
strength of the reinforcement. If cracking is caused by restraint forces due to
temperature, creep, shrinkage or differential settlement, then the A, can be
limited to two to three times the effective area as indicated in Fig. 13. Table 5
presents minimum reinforcement requirements.
(c) Satisfy serviceability requirements
by controlling crack widths Minimum
reinforcement should be used in all
areas where in the cracked state concrete tensile stresses due to loads or restraint forces exceed ft5 . In these areas,
the minimum reinforcement can be obtained from Fig. 14 using the k B factor
according to Fig. 18.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. Walter Dilger and
Eduardo A. B. Salse for reviewing the
paper and for their helpful suggestions.
REFERENCES
1. Riisch, H., "Die Ableitung der charakteristischen Werte der Beton-zugfestigkeit," Beton, Heft, February 1975.
2. Widmann, R., "Massenbetonprobleme
beim Ban der Gewolbemauer Ko1nbrein," Lectures of Betontag, 1977,
Deutscher Beton-Verein.
3. Kehlheck, F., "Einfluss der Sonnenstrahlung bei Bruckenbauwerken,"
Werner Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1975.
4. Priestley, M. J. N., "Design of Concrete
Bridges for Temperature Gradients,"
ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 75, May
1978, pp. 209-217.
5. Thurston, S. J., Priestley, M. J. N., and
Cooke, N., "Influence of Cracking for
Thermal Response of Reinforced Concrete Bridges," Concrete International,
V. 6, No. 8, August 1984, pp. 36-48.
6. Dilger, W., and Ghali, A., "Temperature
Stresses in Composite Box Girder
Bridges," Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, V. 109, ST6, June 1983,
p. 1460.
7. Imbsen, et al., "Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures," U.S.
143
APPENDIX A - NOTATION
Ae
Ace
AP,
A,
b
C
d
dp
Ec
ES
e
ft,
.f;
lm
0'8
0scr
f.
h
= total depth of member
k,...k 5 = coefficients in crack width
equations
M = bending moment
Mc, = cracking moment
MDL = moment due to dead load
MLL = moment due to live load
N
= normal force (positive if tension)
n
= modular ratio = E8/Ee
s
= bar spacing
S Cr
= crack spacing
B erm = mean crack spacing
T
= temperature
AT = temperature change
w
= crack width
Wm = mean crack width
w90 = 90 percentile of crack width
x
= depth of neutral axis in cracked
sections
aT
= coefficient of thermal expansion
e et
= tensile strain in concrete
e m= mean strain over an average
length of cracked concrete
e
= steel strain in cracked stage
(neglecting tension stiffening)
A e g = reduction of steel strain by
tension stiffening
p
= reinforcement ratio
Pc = A 8/A Ce = inforcement ratio in
effective .2nsion zone of concrete
P to = minimum reinforcement ratio
Given: A 12 in. (30.5 cm) square reinforced concrete section in direct tension.
2.5"
14
12
3.5" <7.5db=7.5x7/8=6.6in.(ok)
6 in.
<8 in.
(ok)
2.5"
J6'
Qy.
00
00
*Obtained by
interpolation
N
v
Pe = 1.6 7 %
PCI JOURNAL/July-August 1988
.Qe
145